Transparent and conducting electrodes for organic electronics from reduced graphene oxide

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光电传感器(中英文对照版)

Photoelectric sensorKey word: photoelectric effect photoelectric element photoelectric sensor classification sensor application characteristics .Abstract: in the rapid development of science and technology in the modern society, mankind has into the rapidly changing information era, people in daily life, the production process, rely mainly on the detection of information technology by acquiring, screening and transmission, to achieve the brake control, automatic adjustment, at present our country has put detection techniques listed in one of the priority to the development of science and technology. Because of microelectronics technology, photoelectric semiconductor technology, optical fiber technology and grating technical development makes the application of the photoelectric sensor is growing. The sensor has simple structure, non-contact, high reliability, high precision, measurable parameters and quick response and more simple structure, form etc, and flexible in automatic detection technology, it has been widely applied in photoelectric effect as the theoretical basis, the device by photoelectric material composition. Text:First, theoretical foundation - photoelectric effectPhotoelectric effect generally have the photoelectric effect, optical effect, light born volts effect.The light shines in photoelectric material, according to the electronic absorption material surface energy, if absorbed energy large enough electronic electronic will overcome bound from material surface and enter the outside space, which changes photoelectron materials, this kind of phenomenon become the conductivity of the photoelectric effectAccording to Einstein's photoelectron effect, photon is moving particles, each photon energy for hv (v for light frequency, h for Planck's constant, h = 6.63 * 10-34 J/HZ), thus different frequency of photons have different energy, light, the higher the frequency, the photon energy is bigger. Assuming all the energy photons to photons, electronic energy will increase, increased energy part of the fetter, positive ions used to overcome another part of converted into electronic energy. According to the law of conservation of energy:Type, m for electronic quality, v for electronic escaping the velocity, A microelectronics the work done.From the type that will make the optoelectronic cathode surface escape the necessary conditions are h > A. Due to the different materials have different escaping, so reactive to each kind of cathode materials, incident light has a certain frequency is restricted, when the frequency of incident light under this frequency limit, no matter how the light intensity, won't produce photoelectron launch, this frequency limit A -h m 212νν=called "red limit". The corresponding wavelength for type, c for the speed of light, A reactive for escaping.When is the sun, its electronic energy, absorb the resistivity reduce conductive phenomenon called optical effects. It belongs to the photoelectric effect within. When light is, if in semiconductor electronic energy big with semiconductor of forbidden band width, the electronic energy from the valence band jump into the conduction band, form, and at the same time, the valence band electronic left the corresponding cavities. Electronics, cavitation remained in semiconductor, and participate in electric conductive outside formed under the current role.In addition to metal outer, most insulators and semiconductor have photoelectric effect, particularly remarkable, semiconductor optical effect according to the optoelectronics manufacturing incident light inherent frequency, when light resistance in light, its conductivity increases, resistance drops. The light intensity is strong, its value, if the smaller, its resistance to stop light back to the original value. Semiconductor produced by light illuminate the phenomenon is called light emf, born volts effect on the effect of photoelectric devices have made si-based ones, photoelectric diode, control thyristor and optical couplers, etc.Second, optoelectronic components and characteristicsAccording to the outside optoelectronics manufacturing optoelectronic devices have photoelectron, inflatable phototubes and photoelectric times once tube.1. Phototubes phototubes are various and typical products are vacuum phototubes and inflatable phototubes, light its appearance and structure as shown in figure 1 shows, made of cylindrical metal half cathodic K and is located in the wires cathodic axis of anode in A package of smoke into the vacuum, when incident light within glass shell in the cathode, illuminate A single photon took all of its energy transfer to the cathode materials A free electrons, so as to make the freedom electronic energy increase h. When electrons gain energy more than escape of cathode materials, it reactive A metal surface constraints can overcome escape, form electron emission. This kind of electronic called optoelectronics, optoelectronic escaping the metal surface for after initial kinetic energyPhototubes normal work, anode potential than the cathode, shown in figure 2. In one shot more than "red light frequency is premise, escape from the optoelectronic cathode surface by positive potential attracted the anode in photoelectric tube forming space, called the current stream. Then if light intensity increases, the number of photons bombarded the cathode multiplied, unit of time to launch photoelectron number are also increasing, photo-current greatens. In figure 2 shows circuit, current and resistance is the voltage drop across the only a function of light intensity relations, so as to achieve a photoelectric conversion. When the LTT optoelectronic cathode K, electronic escape from the cathode surface, and was the photoelectric anode is an electric current, power plants absorb deoxidization device in the load resistance - I, the voltagePhototubes photoelectric characteristics fig.03 shows, from the graph in flux knowable, not too big, photoelectric basic characteristics is a straight line.2. Photoelectric times had the sensitivity of vacuum tube due to low, so with people developed has magnified the photomultiplier tubes photo-current ability. Figure 4 is photomultiplier tube structure schematic drawing.图4光电倍增结构示意图From the graph can see photomultiplier tubes also have A cathode K and an anode A, and phototubes different is in its between anode and cathode set up several secondary emission electrodes, D1, D2 and D3... They called the first multiply electrode, the second multiply electrode,... Usually, double electrode for 10 ~ 15 levels. Photomultiplier tubes work between adjacent electrode, keeping a certain minimum, including the cathode potential potentials, each multiply electrode potential filtering increases, the anode potential supreme. When the incident light irradiation, cathodic K escape from the optoelectronic cathode multiplied by first accelerated, by high speed electrode D1 bombarded caused secondary electron emission, D1, an incident can generate multiple secondary electron photonics, D1 emit of secondary electron wasD1, D2 asked electric field acceleration, converged on D2 and again produce secondary electron emission... So gradually produce secondary electron emission, make electronic increased rapidly, these electronic finally arrived at the anode, form a larger anode current. If a n level, multiply electrodes at all levels for sigma, the multiplication of rate is the multiplication of photomultiplier tubes can be considered sigma n rate, therefore, photomultiplier tube has high sensitivity. In the output current is less than 1mA circumstances, it in a very wide photoelectric properties within the scope of the linear relationship with good. Photomultiplier tubes this characteristic, make it more for light measurement.3 and photoconductive resistance photoconductive resistance within the working principle is based on the photoelectric effect. In semiconductor photosensitive material ends of mount electrode lead, it contains transparent window sealed in the tube and shell element photoconductive resistance. Photoconductive resistance properties and parameters are:1) dark resistance photoconductive resistance at room temperature, total dark conditions stable resistance called dark resistance, at the current flow resistance is called dark current.2) light resistance photoconductive resistance at room temperature and certain lighting conditions stable resistance measured, right now is called light resistance of current flow resistance is called light current.4, volt-ampere characteristics of both ends photoconductive resistance added voltage and current flows through photoconductive resistance of the relationship between called volt-ampere characteristics shown, as shown in figure 5. From the graph, the approximate linear volt-ampere characteristics that use should be limited, but when the voltage ends photoconductive resistance, lest than shown dotted lines of power consumption area5, photoelectric characteristics photoconductive resistance between the poles, light when voltage fixed the relationship between with bright current photoelectric characteristics. Called Photoconductive resistance photoelectric characteristics is nonlinear, this is one of the major drawback of photoconductive resistance.6, spectral characteristics is not the same incident wavelength, the sensitivity of photoconductive resistance is different also. Incidence wavelength and photodetector the relationship between relative sensitivity called spectral characteristics. When used according to the wavelength range by metering, choose different material photoconductive resistance.7, response time by photoconductive resistance after photo-current need light, over a period of time (time) rise to reach its steady value. Similarly, in stop lightphoto-current also need, over a period of time (down time) to restore the its dark current, this is photoconductive resistance delay characteristics. Photoconductive resistance rise response time and falling response time about 10-1 ~ 10-3s, namely the frequency response is 10Hz ~ 1000Hz, visible photoconductive resistance cannot be used in demand quick response occasion, this is one of the main photoconductive resistance shortcomings.8 and temperature characteristic photoconductive resistance by temperature affects greatly, temperature rise, dark current increase, reduced sensitivity, which is another photoconductive resistance shortcomings.9, frequency characteristic frequency characteristics refers to an external voltage and incident light, strong must be photo-current I and incident light modulation frequency, the relationship between the f, photoelectric diode is the frequency characteristic of the photoelectric triode frequency characteristics, this is because of the photoelectrictriode shot "yankees there capacitance and carrier base-combed need time's sake. By using the principle of the photoelectric efficiency of optoelectronics manufacturing frequency characteristics of the worst, this is due to capture charge carriers and release charge need a certain time's sake.Three, photoelectric sensorsPhotoelectric sensor is through the light intensity changes into electrical signal changes to achieve control, its basic structure, it first figure 6 by measuring the change of change of converting the light signal, and then using photoelectric element further will light signals into electrical signal by photoelectric sensor general. Illuminant, optical path and optoelectronics. Three components of photoelectric detection method has high precision, fast response, non-contact wait for an advantage, but measurable parameters of simple structure, sensors, form flexible, therefore, photoelectric sensor in the test and control is widely used.By photoelectric sensor generally is composed of three parts, they are divided into: transmitter and receiver and detection circuit shown, as shown in figure 7, transmitter aimed at the target launch beam, the launch of the beam from semiconductor illuminant, general light emitting diode (LED), laser diode and infrared emission diode. Beam uninterrupted launch, or change the pulse width. Receivers have photoelectric diode, photoelectric triode, composed si-based ones. In front of the receiver, equipped with optical components such as lens and aperture, etc. In its back is detection circuit, it can filter out effective signal and the application of the signal. In addition, the structural components in photoelectric switch and launch plate and optical fiber, triangle reflex plate is solid structure launch device. It consists of small triangle cone of reflective materials, can make a beam accurately reflected back from plate, with practical significance. It can be in with the scope of optical axis 0 to 25, make beams change launch Angle from a root almost after launch line, passes reflection or from the rotating polygon.some basic returns.图7Photoelectric sensor is a kind of depend on is analyte and optoelectronics and light source, to achieve the relationship between the measured purpose, so the light source photoelectric sensor plays a very important role, photoelectric sensor power if a constant source, power is very important for design, the stability of the stability of power directly affect the accuracy of measurement, commonly used illuminant have the following kinds:1, leds is a change electric energy into light energy semiconductor devices. It has small volume, low power consumption, long life, fast response, the advantages of high mechanical strength, and can match and integrated circuits. Therefore, widely used in computer, instruments and automatic control equipment.2, silk light bulb that is one of the most commonly used illuminant, it has rich infrared light. If chosen optoelectronics, constitutes of infrared sensor sensitive colour filter can be added to the visible tungsten lamps, but only filter with its infrared does illuminant, such, which can effectively prevent other light interference.3, compared with ordinary light laser laser with energy concentration, directional good, frequency pure, coherence as well as good, is very ideal light sources.The light source, optical path and photoelectric device composition photoelectric sensor used in photoelectric detection, still must be equipped with appropriate measurement circuit. The photoelectric effect to the measurement circuit of photoelectric element of widerange caused changes needed to convert the voltage or current. Different photoelectric element, the measurement circuit required is not identical also. Several semiconductor introduces below optoelectronic devices commonly used measurement circuit.Semiconductor photoconductive resistance can through large current, be in so usually, need not equipped with amplifier. In the output power of demand is bigger, can use figure 8 shows circuit.Figure 9 (a) with temperature compensation given the photosensitive diode bridge type measuring circuit. When the incident light intensity slow change, the reverse resistance photosensitive diode is the slow change, the change of the temperature will cause the bridge output voltage, must compensate. Drift Picture a photosensitive diode as the test components, another into Windows, in neighboring bridge, the change of the temperature in the arms of the influence of two photosensitive diode, therefore, can eliminate the same output with temperature bridge road drift.Light activated triode incident light in work under low illumination, or hope to getbigger output power, also can match with amplifying circuit, as shown in figure 9 shows.Because even in the glare photosensitive batteries, maximum output voltage also only 0.6 V, still cannot make the next level 1 transistor have larger current output, so must add positive bias, as shown in figure 9 (a) below. In order to reduce the transistor circuit impedance variations, base si-based ones to reduce as much as possible without light, when the reverse bias inherit in parallel a resistor si-based ones at both ends. Or like figure 9 (b) as shown by the positive ge diode produces pressure drop and test the voltage produced when exposed to light, make silicon tube e stack, b the voltage between actuators than 0.7 V, and conduction work. This kind of circumstance also can use silicon light batteries, as shown in figure 10 (c) below. Semiconductor photoelectric element of photoelectric circuit can also use integrated operational amplifier. Silicon photosensitive diode can be obtained by integratingop-amp larger output amplitude, as shown in figure 11 (a) below. When light is produced, the optical output voltage in order to guarantee photosensitive diode isreverse biased, in its positive to add a load voltage. Figure 11. (b) give the photocell transform circuit, because the photoelectric si-based ones short-circuit current and illumination of a linear relationship between, so will it up in the op-amp is,inverse-phase input, using these two potential difference between the characteristicsof close to zero, can get better effect. In the picture shows conditions, the output voltageThe photoelectric element by flux the role of different made from the principle of optical measurement and control system is varied, press the photoelectric element (optical measurement and control system) output nature, namely, can be divided into second analog photoelectric sensor and pulse (switch) photoelectric sensor. Analog photoelectric sensors will be converted into continuous variation of the measure, it is measured optical with a single value relations between analog photoelectric sensor. According to be measured (objects) method detection of target can be divided into transmission (absorption) type, diffuse type, shading type (beam resistance gears) three categories. So-called transmission style means the object to be tested in optical path in constant light source, the light energy through things, part of being measured by absorption, transmitted light onto photoelectric element, such as measured liquid, gas transparency and photoelectric BiSeJi etc; speed.gratifying The so-called diffuse style means the constant light by the light onto the analyte from the object to be tested, and projected onto surfaces reflect on after optoelectronic devices, such as photoelectric colorimetric thermometer and light gauge etc; The so-called shading style means the when illuminant issued by the flux of light analyte covered by a part Jing optoelectronics, make projection on the flux change, change the object to be tested and extent of the position with the light path, such as vibration measurement, the size measurement; And in pulse photoelectric sensor in the sensors, photoelectric element acceptable optical signal is intermittent change, therefore photoelectric element in switch work of the state, the current output it is usually only two steady state of the signal, the pulse form used for photoelectric counting and photoelectric speed measurement and so on.And infrared photoelectric sensor classification and working way generally have thefollowing kinds:1, groove photoelectric sensor put a light emitter and a receiver in a slot face-to-face outfit are on opposite sides of the photoelectric groove. Lighter emits infrared light or visible light, and in unimpeded cases light receptors can receive light. But when tested objects from slot zhongtong obsolete, light occluded, photoelectric switches and action. Output a switch control signal, cut off or connect load current, thus completing a control movement. Groove switch is the overall of detection distance because general structure limits only a few centimeters.2, DuiShe type optoelectronic sensor if you put lighter and receive light is separated, can make the detection distance increase. By a lighter and an inbox light sensor into a photoelectric switch is called DuiShe separate photoelectric switches, referred to DuiShe photoelectric switch. Its detection distance can reach a few meters and even a dozen meters. When using light-emitting device and receive light device are installed in test object through the path of the sides, test object by blocking light path, accept light implement action output a switch control signals.3, reflex plate.it photoelectric switch light-emitting device type and receive light device into the same device inside, in its front pack a reflex plate.the using the reflection principle of complete photoelectric control function is called reflex plate.it reflex (or reflector reflex) photoelectric switch. Under normal circumstances, lighter the light reflected by reflex plate.it is received by accept light; Once the light path be test object to block, accept light, the light is not receive photoelectric switch is action, output a switch control signals.4, diffusion reflective photoelectric switches its detection head with a lighter and also an inbox light ware, but no reflex plate.it ahead. Normally lighter for the light collect light is not found. When test object by blocking the light, and the light reflected light, receive part implement received light signals, output a switch signals.Four, I'm the idea of photoelectric sensorWith the development of science and technology people on measuring accuracy had the higher request, this has prompted the pace with The Times photoelectric sensor have updated, improve the main means photoelectric sensor performance is the application of new materials, new technology manufacturing performance is more superior photoelectric element. For example, today the prototype of the photoelectric sensor is a small metal cylindrical equipment, with a calibration lens, transmitter into receiver focused light, the receiver out of cable to the device got a vacuum tube amplifiers in metal cylinder on the incandescent light bulb inside a small as the light source a strong incandescent lamp sensor. Due to the sensor various defects existing in the fields, gradually faded. To appear, because of it of fiber of excellent performance, then appeared with sensors supporting the use of optical passive components, another fiber without any interference of electromagnetic signal, and can make the sensor of the electronic components and other electrical disturbance in isolation. Have a piece of plastic optical fiber core or glass light core, light outside a metallic core skins and bread this layer metal cortical density lower than light core, so low, the beam refraction in the two materials according to the border (incident Anglewithin a certain range, reflected), is all. Based on optical principle, all beams can be made by optical fiber to transmission. Two incident beam Angle in an Angle (along the fiber length direction within) by multiple reflections from the other end after injection, another incident angles than accept the incident light in metal skin, loss. This accept Angle within the biggest incident Angle than two times, this is because fiber slightly larger from air into density larger fiber materials hitting may have a slight refraction. In light of the optical fiber transmission from inside the influence of fiber bending (whether more than bending radius minimal bending radius). Most optical fiber is flexible, easy to install in the narrow space. Photoelectric sensor is a kind of non-contact measurement small electronic measurement equipment, rely on detect its receives the light intensity change, to achieve measurement purposes, andit's also a vulnerable to external disturbance and lose the measurement accuracy of the device. When be being designed so besides the choice optoelectronic components, still must set GSCC signal and temperature compensating measures used to weaken or eliminate the impact of these factors.Photoelectric sensor must pass a light modulation, like radio waves of light modulation of sends and receives, the radio to a station, can ignore other radio signal sensors without modulation long-focal-length only through the use of mechanical shielded, scenes that receiver transmitter only can receive the emission of light, can make its energy becomes very high. In contrast, through modulation transceivers can ignore ambient light, only to own light or with the same modulation frequencies of light without modulation response. The sensor used to test the infrared rays or around the radiation, if just baked red bottle, in this application situation if use other sensor, may be incorrect actions.Photoelectric sensor due to non-contact, high reliability, etc, and to change in measurement, damage the object to be testedSo since its invention in fields since play a significant role, at present it has been widely used in measuring mechanical quantity, thermal quantity, weight, intelligent vehicle system into etc. Now it in power system automatically grid device plays a very important role, because generator input power grid operation often USES accurate with law, must meet: three-phase line sequence is consistent, frequency, phase agree unanimously, voltage amplitude equal, one of the conditions in system design has been satisfied, after three conditions must also meet to grid, of course, artificially grid is more difficult, photoelectric grid is easier.The development of times, science and technology in the update, photoelectric sensor types are increasing and application domain more and more widely, such as a recent kind of infrared already in intelligent vehicle electrical sensors in to the application, one of which had based on infrared sensor is the core of intelligent vehicle, reflective type infrared sensor using reflex infrared sensor design path detection module and speed monitoring module; Another method based on infrared sensor using the car tracing is to collect infrared sensor data.Photoelectric sensor has cannot be replaced by other sensors superiority, so it development foreground is very good, the application will also become more widespread.光电传感器关键字：光电效应光电元件光电特性传感器分类传感器应用摘要：在科学技术高速发展的现代社会中，人类已经入瞬息万变的信息时代，人们在日常生活，生产过程中，主要依靠检测技术对信息经获取、筛选和传输，来实现制动控制，自动调节，目前我国已将检测技术列入优先发展的科学技术之一。

自动往返电动小汽车(毕业设计)

一. 毕业实践任务书无锡职业技术学院毕业实践任务书课题名称：自动往返电动小汽车指导教师：XXXXXXX 职称：讲师指导教师：职称：专业名称：XXXXXXXX 班组：XXXXXX学生姓名：XXXXXXX 学号：05一. 课题需要完成的任务：设计并制作一个能自动往返于起跑线与终点线间的小汽车。

允许用玩具汽车改装，但不能用人工遥控（包括有线和无线遥控）。

图1跑道顶视图跑道宽度0.5m，表面贴有白纸，两侧有挡板，挡板与地面垂直，其高度不低于20cm。

在跑道的B、C、D、E、F、G各点处画有2cm宽的黑线，各段的长度如图1所示。

设计要求1、车辆从起跑线出发（出发前，车体不得超出起跑线），到达终点线后停留10秒，然后自动返回起跑线（允许倒车返回）。

往返一次的时间应力求最短（从合上汽车电源开关开始计时）。

2. 达终点线和返回起跑线时，停车位置离起跑线和终点线偏差应最小（以车辆中心点与终点线或起跑线中心线之间距离作为偏差的测量值）。

D～E间为限速区，车辆往返均要求以低速通过，通过时间不得少于8秒，但不允许在限速区内停车。

二. 课题计划：2006.3.3~2006.3.6 熟悉课题，可行性方案分析及方案论述。

2006.3.7~2006.3.19 查阅资料，设计各部分硬件。

2006.3.19~2006.4.10 画原理图，印刷线路板。

2006.4.10~2006.4.20 编写程序验证部分硬件。

2006.4.21~2006.4.25 写出毕业论文。

计划答辩时间：4.21-4.28XXXXX 系（部、分院）2006年02年18日二.外文翻译VIDEOCASSETTEBefore the videocassette recorder there was the movie projector and screen. Perhaps you remember your fifth-grade teacher pulling down a screen—or Dad hanging a sheet on the wall, ready to show visiting friends the enthralling account of your summer vacation at the shore. Just as the film got started, the projector bulb often blew out.Those days did have one advantage, though: the screen was light, paper-thin and could be rolled into a portable tube. Compare that with bulky television and computer screens, and the projector screen invokes more than just nostalgia. Could yesterday's convenience be married to today's technology?The answer is yes, thanks to organic light-emitting materials that promise to make electronic viewing more convenient and ubiquitous. Used in displays, the organic materials are brighter, consume less energy and are easier to manufacture (thus potentially cheaper) than current options based on liquid crystals. Because organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) emit light, they consume significantly less power, especially in small sizes, than common liquid-crystal displays (LCDs), which require backlighting. OLEDs also offer several exciting advantages over common LEDs: the materials do not need to be crystalline (that is, composed of a precisely repeating pattern of planes of atoms), so they are easier to make; they are applied in thin layers for a slimmer profile; and different materials (for different colors) can be patterned on a given substrate to make high-resolution images. The substrates may be inexpensive glass or flexible plastic or even metal foil.In the coming years, large-screen televisions and computer monitors could roll up for storage. A soldier might unfurl a sheet of plastic showing a real-time situation map. Smaller displays could be wrapped around a person's forearm or incorporated into clothing. Used in lighting fixtures, the panels could curl around an architectural column or lie almost wallpaperlike against a wall or ceiling.LEDs currently have longer lifetimes than organic emitters, and itwill be tough to beat the widespread LED for use in indicator lamps. But OLEDs are already demonstrating their potential for displays. Their screens put out more than 100 candelas per square meter (about the luminance of a notebook screen) and last tens of thousands of hours (several years of regular use) before they dim to half their original radiance.Close to 100 companies are developing applications for the technology, focusing on small, low-power displays [see box on page 80]. Initial products include a nonflexible 2.2-inch (diagonal) display for digital cameras and cellular phones made jointly by Kodak and Sanyo, introduced in 2002, and a 15-inch prototype computer monitor produced by the same collaborative venture. The global market for organic display devices was about $219 million in 2003 and is projected to jump to $3.1 billion by 2009, according to Kimberly Allen of iSuppli/Stanford Resources, a market-research firm specializing in displays.一、What LED to OLEDCRYSTALLINE semiconductors—the forerunners of OLEDs—trace their roots back to the development of the transistor in 1947, and visible-light LEDs were invented in 1962 by Nick Holonyak, Jr. They were first used commercially as tiny sources of red light in calculators and watches and soon after also appeared as durable indicator lights of red, green or yellow. (When suitably constructed, LEDs form lasers, which have spawned the optical-fiber revolution, as well as optical data storage on compact discs and digital video discs.) Since the advent of the blue LED in the 1990s [see “Blue Chip,” by Glenn Zorpette; Scientific American, August 2000], full-color, large-screen television displays made from hundreds of thousands of LED chips have appeared in spectacular fashion on skyscrapers and in arenas [see “In Pursuit of the Ultimate Lamp,” by M. George Crawford, Nick Holonyak, Jr., and Frederick A. Kish, Jr.; Scientific American, February 2001]. Yet the smaller sizes used in devices such as PDAs (personal digital assistants) and laptops are not as practical.LEDs and OLEDs are made from layers of semiconductors—materials whose electrical performance is midway between an excellent conductorsuch as copper and an insulator such as rubber. Semiconducting materials, such as silicon, have a small energy gap between electrons that are bound and those that are free to move around and conduct electricity. Given sufficient energy in the form of an applied voltage, electrons can “jump” the gap a nd begin moving, constituting an electrical charge. A semiconductor can be made conductive by doping it; if the atoms added to a layer have a smaller number of electrons than the atoms they replace, electrons have effectively been removed, leaving positively charged “holes” and making the material “p-type.” Alternatively, a layer that is doped so that it has an excess of negatively charged electrons becomes “n-type” [see box on opposite page]. When an electron is added to a p-type material, it may encounter a hole and drop into the lower band, giving up an amount of energy (equal to the energy gap) as a photon of light. The wavelength depends on the energy gap of the emitting material.For the production of visible light, organic materials should have an energy gap between their lower and higher conduction bands in a relatively small range, about two to three electron volts. (One electron volt is defined as the kinetic energy gained by an electron when it is accelerated by a potential difference of one volt. A photon with one electron volt of energy corresponds to the infrared wavelength of 1,240 nanometers, and a photon of two electron volts has a wavelength half as much—620 nanometers—a reddish color.)二、A Surprising GlowORGANIC semiconductors are formed as aggregates of molecules that are, in the technologies being pursued, amorphous—a solid material, but one that is noncrystalline and without a definite order. There are two general types of organic light emitters, distinguished by “small” and “large” molecule sizes. The first practical p-n-type organic LED, based on small molecules, was invented in 1987 by Ching W. Tang and Steven A. Van Slyke of Eastman Kodak, after Tang noticed a surprising green glow coming from an organic solar cell he was working on. The duo recognized that by using two organic materials, one a good conductor of holes and the other a good conductor of electrons, they could ensure that photon emission would take place near the contact area, or junction, of the two materials, as in acrystalline LED. They also needed a material that held its electrons tightly, meaning that it would be easy to inject holes. For the light to escape, one of the contacts must be transparent, and the scientists benefited from the fortunate fact that the most widely used transparent conducting material, indium tin oxide, bound its electrons suitably for p-type contact material.The structure they came up with has not changed much over the years and is often called “Kodak-type,” because Kodak had the basic patent [see box on opposite page]. Beginning with a glass substrate, different materials are deposited layer by layer. This process is accomplished by evaporating the constituent materials and letting them condense on the substrate. The total thickness of the organic layers is only 100 to 150 nanometers, much thinner than that of a conventional LED (which is at least microns in thickness) and less than 1 percent of the thickness of a human hair. Because the molecules of the materials used are relatively lightweight—even lighter than a small protein—the Kodak-type OLEDs are referred to as “small molecule” OLEDs.After their initial insight, Tang and Van Slyke tinkered with the design to increase efficiency. They added a small amount of the fluorescent dye coumarin to the emitter material tris (8-hydroxy-quinoline) aluminum. The energy released by the recombination of holes and electrons was transferred to the dye, which emitted light with greatly increased efficiency. Deposition of additional thin layers of indium tin oxide and other compounds next to the electrodes altered the interaction of the thicker layers and also improved the efficiency of the injection of holes and electrons, thereby further upping the overall power efficiency of the fluorescent OLED.Organic LEDs of this small-molecule type are used to make red, green and blue light, with green light having the highest efficiency. Such green-emitting OLEDs can exhibit luminous efficiencies of 10 to 15 candelas per ampere—about as efficient as commercial LEDs today—and seven to 10 lumens per watt, values that are comparable to those for common incandescent lamps.录像机在卡匣式录像机出来之前，我们用的是电影放映机与屏幕。

琼脂糖凝胶电泳中英文版

琼脂糖凝胶电泳的操作步骤琼脂糖凝胶电泳是用琼脂或琼脂糖作支持介质的一种电泳方法。

对于分子量较大的样品，如大分子核酸、病毒等，一般可采用孔径较大的琼脂糖凝胶进行电泳分离。

琼脂糖凝胶约可区分相差100bp 的DNA 片段，其分辨率虽比聚丙烯酰胺凝胶低，但它制备容易，分离范围广，尤其适于分离大片段DNA。

普通琼脂糖凝胶分离DNA 的范围为0.2-20kb，利用脉冲电泳，可分离高达10^7bp 的DNA 片段。

操作流程准备干净的配胶板和电泳槽注意DNA 酶污染的仪器可能会降解DNA，造成条带信号弱、模糊甚至缺失的现象。

选择电泳方法一般的核酸检测只需要琼脂糖凝胶电泳就可以；如果需要分辨率高的电泳，特别是只有几个bp 的差别应该选择聚丙烯酰胺凝胶电泳；用普通电泳不合适的巨大DNA 链应该使用脉冲凝胶电泳。

注意巨大的DNA 链用普通电泳可能跑不出胶孔导致缺带。

正确选择凝胶浓度对于琼脂糖凝胶电泳，浓度通常在0.5～2％之间，低浓度的用来进行大片段核酸的电泳，高浓度的用来进行小片段分析。

低浓度胶易碎，小心操作和使用质量好的琼脂糖是解决办法。

注意高浓度的胶可能使分子大小相近的DNA 带不易分辨，造成条带缺失现象。

适合的电泳缓冲液常用的缓冲液有TAE 和TBE，而TBE 比TAE 有着更好的缓冲能力。

电泳时使用新制的缓冲液可以明显提高电泳效果。

注意电泳缓冲液多次使用后，离子强度降低，PH 值上升，缓冲性能下降，可能使DNA 电泳产生条带模糊和不规则的DNA 带迁移的现象。

电泳的合适电压和温度电泳时电压不应该超过20V/cm，电泳温度应该低于30℃，对于巨大的DNA 电泳，温度应该低于15℃。

注意如果电泳时电压和温度过高，可能导致出现条带模糊和不规则的DNA 带迁移的现象。

特别是电压太大可能导致小片段跑出胶而出现缺带现象DNA 样品的纯度和状态注意样品中含盐量太高和含杂质蛋白均可以产生条带模糊和条带缺失的现象。

乙醇沉淀可以去除多余的盐，用酚可以去除蛋白。

水果电池实验英语作文

水果电池实验英语作文标题，The Fruit Battery Experiment。

Abstract:The fruit battery experiment is a classic science project that demonstrates the generation of electricity from fruits. This experiment utilizes the natural acids present in fruits to create a simple battery, highlighting the principles of electrochemistry and providing an engaging hands-on learning experience for students. In this essay, we delve into the procedure, materials, andscientific principles behind the fruit battery experiment, emphasizing its educational significance and real-world applications.Introduction:The fruit battery experiment has long been a staple in science classrooms worldwide, captivating students with itssimplicity and effectiveness in demonstrating fundamental scientific concepts. By harnessing the power of natural fruits, this experiment illustrates the conversion of chemical energy into electrical energy, laying the groundwork for understanding more complex electrical systems. In this essay, we explore the step-by-step procedure of the fruit battery experiment, its underlying scientific principles, and its educational value.Materials:To conduct the fruit battery experiment, the following materials are required:Various fruits (such as lemons, oranges, potatoes, or apples)。

导电聚噻吩作为超级电容器电极材料的研究进展_袁美蓉

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１噻吩均聚物类电极材料
噻吩类聚合物作为发光材料的研究早已被人们报道。１９９６年Ｐａｓｑｕｉｅｒ等在［１０］电化学电容进展国际会议上报道了一种Ⅱ型超级电容器，它的２个电极分别由聚３－氟苯噻吩和聚噻吩构成。另外，Ｍａｓｔｒａｇｏｓｔｉｎｏ等也［１１］在会议上报道了另一种既可以ｐ型掺杂又可以ｎ型掺杂的聚３，４－双噻吩基噻吩，并与传统的活性炭材料进行性能对比。随后，人们开始关注聚噻吩类超级电容器电极材料的研究。

ASTM_D_2303_1997_绝缘材料的液态污染物、斜面漏电痕迹及腐蚀的试验方法

Designation:D 2303–97An American National StandardStandard Test Methods forLiquid-Contaminant,Inclined-Plane Tracking and Erosion of Insulating Materials 1This standard is issued under the ﬁxed designation D 2303;the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of original adoption or,in the case of revision,the year of last revision.A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval.A superscript epsilon (e )indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.This standard has been approved for use by agencies of the Department of Defense.1.Scope1.1These test methods cover the evaluation of the relative tracking and erosion resistance of insulating solids using the liquid-contaminant,inclined-plane test.2The following test methods also can be used to evaluate the tracking resistance of materials:D 2132(contaminants:dust and fog)and D 3638(contaminant:conductive liquid drops).1.2Two tracking and one erosion test procedure are de-scribed:1.2.1A “variable voltage method”to evaluate resistance to tracking.1.2.2A “time-to-track method”to evaluate resistance to tracking.1.2.3A method for quantitative determination of erosion (Annex A1).1.3While a particular contaminant solution is speciﬁed,other concentrations of the same contaminant,or different contaminants may be used to simulate different environmental or service conditions.1.4The values stated in inch-pound units are to be regarded as the standard.1.5This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns,if any,associated with its use.It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro-priate safety and health practices and determine the applica-bility of regulatory limitations prior to use.Speciﬁc precau-tionary statements are given in Section 8.2.Referenced Documents 2.1ASTM Standards:D 374Test Methods for Thickness of Solid Electrical Insu-lation 3D 1711Terminology Relating to Electrical Insulation 3D 2132Test Method for Dust-and Fog-Tracking and Ero-sion Resistance of Electrical Insulating Materials 3D 3638Test Method for Comparative Tracking Index of Electrical Insulating Materials 43.Terminology 3.1Deﬁnitions:3.1.1erosion,electrical ,n —the progressive wearing away of electrical insulation by the action of electrical discharges.3.1.2erosion resistance,electrical ,n —the quantitative expression of the amount of electrical erosion under speciﬁc conditions.3.1.3track ,n —a partially conducting path of localized deterioration on the surface of an insulating material.3.1.4tracking ,n —the process that produces tracks as a result of the action of electric discharges on or close to the insulation surface.3.1.5tracking,contamination,n —tracking caused by scin-tillations that result from the increased surface conduction due to contamination.3.1.6tracking resistance ,n —the quantitative expression of the voltage and the time required to develop a track under speciﬁed conditions.3.2Deﬁnitions of Terms Speciﬁc to This Standard:3.2.1initial tracking voltage ,n —the applied voltage at which continuous tracking can be initiated in a speciﬁed time.3.2.2time-to-track ,n —the time in which tracking proceeds a speciﬁed distance between the test electrodes at a speciﬁed voltage.3.3Other deﬁnitions pertinent to these test methods are given in Terminology D 1711.4.Signiﬁcance and Use4.1These test methods differentiate among solid electrical insulating materials on the basis of their resistance to the action of voltage stresses along the surface of the solid when wet with an ionizable,electrically conductive,liquid contaminant.4.2These test methods quantitatively evaluate,in a relative manner,the effects upon an insulating material resulting from1These test methods are under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee D-9on Electrical and Electronic Insulating Materials and are the direct responsibility of Subcommittee D09.12on Electrical and Electronic Tests.Current edition approved Sept.10,1997.Published November 1997.Originally issued as D 2303–st previous edition D 2303–96.2K.N.Mathes,Chapter 4,“Surface Failure Measurements,”Engineering Dielectrics,Vol IIB,Electrical Properties of Solid Insulating Materials,Measure-ment Techniques ,R.Bartnikas,Editor,ASTM STP 926,ASTM,Philadelphia,1987.3Annual Book of ASTM Standards ,V ol 10.01.4Annual Book of ASTM Standards ,V ol 10.02.1Copyright ©ASTM International,100Barr Harbor Drive,PO Box C700,West Conshohocken,PA 19428-2959,United States.巴巴客免费下载标准 Free download from the action of electrical discharges upon a material surface.The effects are similar to those that may occur in service under the inﬂuence of dirt combined with moisture condensed from the atmosphere.4.2.1In the ﬁeld,the conditions resulting in electrical discharges occur sporadically.Degradation,often in the form of a conducting “track”,develops very slowly until it ulti-mately bridges the space between conductors thus causing complete electrical breakdown.4.2.2In these test methods,the conducting liquid contami-nant is continuously supplied at an optimum rate to the surface of a test specimen in such a fashion that essentially continuous electrical discharge can be maintained.4.2.3By producing continuous surface discharge with con-trolled energy it is possible,within a few hours,to cause specimen failure which is similar to failure occurring under long-time exposure to the erratic conditions of service in the ﬁeld.4.2.4The test conditions,which are standardized and accel-erated,do not reproduce all of the conditions encountered in e caution when making either direct or comparative service behavior inferences derived from the results of tracking tests.4.3The time-to-track a 1-in.(25-mm)distance at a speciﬁed voltage between electrodes separated 2in.(50mm)has also been found useful in categorizing insulating materials for indoor and protected outdoor applications,such as metal-clad switchgear.4.4The initial tracking voltage has been found useful for evaluating insulating materials to be used at high voltages or outdoors and unprotected,as well as for establishing (see 10.1)the test voltage for the time-to-track test.4.5In service many types of contamination may cause tracking and erosion of different materials to different degrees.This method recognizes the importance of such variability and suggests the use of special test solutions to meet speciﬁc service needs.For example,an ionic contaminant containing,in addition,a carbonaceous component such as sugar may be used to cause tracking on very resistant materials like polym-ethylmethacrylate.Such contamination may be representative of some severe industrial environments.In this case,the time-to-track technique is used,since time is required to decompose the contaminant solution and build up conducting residues on the sample surface.4.6Very track-resistant materials,such as polymethyl-methacrylate,may erode rather than track under more usual contaminant conditions in service.The use of this method for measuring erosion is consequently important.For erosion studies,only tests as a function of time at constant voltage are useful.5.Apparatus5.1A simple schematic diagram of the apparatus is given in Fig.1and consists of the following.Details are given in AnnexA2.FIG.1Schematic Diagram ofApparatus5.1.1A 60-Hz power supply with an output voltage stabi-lized to 61%which can be varied from 1to at least 7.5kV with a rated current of no less than 0.1A for every test station to be used (that is,0.5A for ﬁve stations).5.1.2A means for applying a speciﬁed contaminant solution at a controlled rate to the specimen surface.A pneumatically actuated repeating pipet has been found useful for this purpose and is described in Annex A2.Peristaltic pumps have also been used (A2).5.1.3Stainless steel top and bottom electrodes as shown in Fig.2.N OTE 1—Stainless-steel type 302is recommended.5.1.4A pad of ﬁlter paper cut as shown in Fig.3to ﬁt under the top electrode and used to smooth out the ﬂow of the contaminant solution.5.1.5A set of ballast resistors (50,10,and 1-k V rated at 200W each)to be connected as speciﬁed in series with each test specimen on the high-voltage side of the power supply.Somewhat lower resistances are being considered by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC/TC15).5.1.6A 330-V ,1⁄2-W,carbon resistor 5mounted with a simple tension spring and connected in series with the speci-men and ground to act as an overload,high-voltage fuse.5.1.7Structural parts and a grounded safety enclosure.6.Sampling6.1Refer to applicable materials speciﬁcations for sampling instructions.7.Test Specimens7.1Make insulation specimens with a ﬂat surface approxi-mately 2by 5in.(50by 130mm)as shown in Fig.4.Measure the thickness in accordance with Test Methods D 374if there is no standard for a particular material.Specimens must be thick enough that tracking does not penetrate completely through the specimen during the test.Secure thin specimens to prevent sagging.Specimens thicker than 3⁄4in.(2cm)are difficult to clamp in the apparatus.7.2Prepare separate specimens exposing each surface of sheet or other materials with two or more surfaces which may have different characteristics.Carefully identify the surface so5International Resistance Co.RC 20-mil type carbon-composition resistors,available from the TRW Electronics Corp.,Commerce Terminal Bldg.,Philadelphia,PA,have been foundsatisfactory.FIG.2Top and BottomElectrodesfar as possible,that is,mold face,press face,etc.Prepare two sets of specimens of materials with noticeable directional characteristics,with the predominant directional characteristic in line with the electrodes for one set and at right angles to the other set.Identify the specimen direction as far as possible;that is,machine direction,cross-machine direction,warp or ﬁll direction (for woven textile reinforced products).Fig.57.3Preparation of Specimens —Clean the specimen face with a suitable solvent 6and rinse with distilled water.For specimens to be used in the time-to-track method,do not mechanically destroy,that is,sand,abrade,etc.the natural surface ﬁnish of the specimen unless otherwise speciﬁed.However,with the variable-voltage method,the surface of the test specimens should be lightly but completely sanded under ﬂowing tap water with 400A-grit wet silicon carbide paper and rinsed with distilled water.Such sanding removes gloss and contaminants to provide a surface that is wet more easily and rapidly by the contaminant.Loss of gloss and slight erosion of the surface usually occurs in service,particularly outdoors.Generously cover the specimen area under the bottom elec-trode with conductive silver paint 7and add the 1-in.(25-mm)tracking reference marks as shown in Fig.5.For all tests,other than the time-to-track test,soak the test specimens prepared as above for 24to 48h in the speciﬁed contaminant solution before test.7.4Prepare ﬁve specimens for each determination.8.Procedure8.1Lethal voltages are a potential hazard during the performance of this test.It is essential that the test apparatus,and all associated equipment electrically connected to it,be properly designed and installed for safe operation.Solidly ground all electrically conductive parts which it is possible for a person to contact during the test.Provide means for use at the completion of any test to ground any parts which were at high voltage during the test or have the potential for acquiring an induced charge during the test or retaining a charge even after disconnection of the voltage source.Thoroughly instruct6The solvent should not soften or otherwise damage the test specimen.Isopropyl alcohol has been found suitable for many materials.7DuPont silver paint No.4817has been found suitable for thispurpose.FIG.3Filter Paper,Showing Clip and Method ofFasteningFIG.4TestSpecimenFIG.5Test Specimen Showing Location of Conducting SilverPaint and Tracking ReferenceMarksall operators as to the correct procedures for performing tests safely.When making high voltage tests,particularly in com-pressed gas or in oil,it is possible for the energy released at breakdown to be suffıcient to result in ﬁre,explosion,or rupture of the test chamber.Design test equipment,test chambers,and test specimens so as to minimize the possibility of such occurrences and to eliminate the possibility of personal injury.If the potential for ﬁre exists,have ﬁre suppression equipment available .8.1.1Also see Fig.1.8.2Mount and fuse the specimen with the ﬂat test surface on the underside at an angle of 45°from the horizontal as shown in Fig.1.Insert the contaminant delivery hose midway between eight thicknesses of the ﬁlter paper as shown in Fig.3(c )and fold back the ﬁlter paper “ear”to prevent contaminant from squirting out the sides.8.3At the start of each test date,replace all residual liquid in the contaminant supply beaker with fresh contaminant.Cover all beakers to minimize dust and dirt as well as evaporation.Unless otherwise speciﬁed,use 0.1%(by weight)ammonium chloride (reagent grade)and 0.02%nonionic wetting agent 8in distilled water.This contaminant solutionmust have a resistivity between 370and 400V -cm when measured at 2361°C.8.4Adjust the contaminant ﬂow and calibrate as described in Annex A1to give the ﬂow rate for the voltage to be speciﬁed in Table 1.8.5After calibration,the start-up procedure differs,depend-ing on whether the test specimen is a carry-over from a previous test,or an entirely new specimen.8.5.1For a specimen that has never been subjected to voltages and contaminant (that is,new specimen),start the contaminant injection into the ﬁlter paper,allowing the fresh contaminant to wet the ﬁlter paper thoroughly and replace the old liquid in the tubes and syringes and to ﬂow as a steady stream (Note 2)(not intermittent bursts)across the test specimen face between electrodes.The contaminant must ﬂow from the quill hole in the bottom of the top electrode and should not squirt out of the sides or top of the ﬁlter paper during the pressure stroke of the pipet.Adjust the specimens so that the contaminant runs down as nearly as possible the center line of the specimen.Avoid drafts on equipment that might cause undue cooling of the specimens or of the water vapor from evaporation of the contaminant.Close the safety gate and apply the appropriate test voltage tabulated in Table 1.N OTE 2—This steady ﬂow condition should be observed for 5min at the normal test contaminant feed rate and not at a manually operated accelerated calibration rate.8.5.2For a specimen that is a continuation from a previous test (that is,off test overnight),wash down the test specimen face and ﬁlter paper with distilled water in order to remove any contaminant residue from the previous test.Do not change the ﬁlter paper.Start the contaminant ﬂow,allowing the fresh contaminant to wet the ﬁlter paper thoroughly,and replace the old liquid in the tubes and syringes until a steady contaminant ﬂow (Note 2)is established across the specimen face.Momen-tarily arrest the contaminant injection into the ﬁlter paper,and inject 2mL of distilled water into the ﬁlter paper with a manual syringe.Quickly rewash the specimen face only with distilled water,close the safety gate,start up the contaminant ﬂow,and apply the required voltage.Time is of the essence here,for any prolonged delay will result in a too vigorous and faulty start-up.8.6Effective scintillation,small yellow to white (perhaps with some parts blue)arcs,should appear predominantly just above the teeth of the lower electrode within at most a very few minutes after application of the voltage.These discharges should occur in essentially continuous fashion,although they may “dance”from one tooth to another before ﬁnally settling down to cause a small,bright “hot spot”which will start“chewing”on the specimen surface and which will ultimately lead to tracking failure.The condition of effective scintillation can also be observed with a cathode-ray oscilloscope.The signal may be picked off the ungrounded side of the fuse resistor.Proper scintillation is observed as a continual but nonuniform break-up of the 60-Hz current wave over the whole duration of each half cycle.Effective scintillation is critical and if not obtained,then the electrical circuit,the contaminant ﬂow characteristics,and the contaminant conductivity must be carefully checked and adjusted if necessary.8Triton X-100made by Rohm and Haas Co.,Philadelphia,PA,has been found satisfactory.It should be added to a small portion of the water and thoroughly mixed before being added to the larger bulk.TABLE 1Rates of Contaminant ApplicationN OTE 1—The rates of contaminant application shown are suitable only for contaminants with a resistivity of approximately 370to 400V ·cm at 23°C on nonporous samples.With porous samples it may be nesessary to increase the contaminant ﬂow somewhat to maintain effective,continual scintillation.Lower contaminant resistivities also will require a higher rate and higher resistivities,a lower rate of contaminant application;this must be determined experimentally.At too high a contaminant rate scintillation will be greatly reduced because the current will ﬂow in the contaminant ﬁlm without disrupting it.At too low a rate the solution boils away or at the higher voltages is electrostatically removed so that scintillation occurs only at intervals in scattered bursts.A The tendency for tracking and erosion is increased with a decrease in contaminant resistivity or with the incorporation of a carbonaceous material such as sugar,even though in the latter case the resistivity is not decreased.The chemical nature of the ionizable contaminant is usually of minor importance in respect to tracking but may be of major importance in respect to erosion.Rate of Application of 0.1%NH 4Cl-0.02%Wetting Agent,mL/minVoltage Range,kV Series Resistor,V 0.075 1.0B to 1.7510000.15 2.0to 2.75100000.30 3.0to 3.75500000.60 4.0to 4.75500000.905.0to6.050000AMathes,K.N.,and McGowan,E.J.,“Surface Electrical Failure in the Presence of Contaminants.The Inclined-Plane,Liquid-Contaminant Test,”Transactions ,Part I ,Communications and Electronics ,Am.Inst.Electrical Engrs.,TEECA,July,1961(AIEE Preprint 61-21).BScintillation at 1kV is very critical,and it may be desirable to remove the series resistor and to decrease further the contaminant rate,that is,so that 0.075mL is applied only once every 2min.With such slow rates,it is possible also to obtain scintillation at voltages even lower than 1kV to permit test of relatively poormaterials.8.7Regardless of whether the start-up is for new or old specimens,watch the scintillations for theﬁrst15min,and periodically at least once every hour thereafter.Thus,the tracking time can be noted,in addition to watching for:8.7.1Steady scintillation between successive injections, 8.7.2Loss of any contaminant,such as by squirting out of side ofﬁlter paper,8.7.3Whether the contaminant stream down the test speci-men face is steady instead of in spurts,8.7.4Air bubble leaks into the syringes which would change the contaminant feed rate,and8.7.5Stuck syringe pistons.8.8Note the time,but do not stop the test to disconnect,any test specimen that has tracked to the1-in.mark.Stopping the test and removing the voltage,even momentarily,will permit the contaminant to saturate excessively the partially tracked area of other unfailed specimens,with resultant vigorous scintillation after restart.Excessive current in any specimen that continues to track will be taken care of by the fuse resistor.8.9If the test is not completed within the working day,the test can be continued the following day if the following precautions are taken:8.9.1Remove voltage,and stop the contaminant feed.8.9.2Thoroughly wash down theﬁlter paper with distilled water.Do not replace theﬁlter paper.8.9.3Thoroughly wash down the specimen face with dis-tilled water.8.9.4Throw out the contaminant left in the supply beaker and replace with distilled water so that the feed hose sinker will not become encrusted with dried contaminant residue.Do not pump this distilled water into the hose,ﬁlter paper,or syringe.8.10The method of voltage application and the evaluation of tracking or erosion characteristics depend upon the different test techniques used as described in Sections9-11and Annex A1.9.Initial Tracking Voltage Test Method9.1For the determination of the initial tracking voltage, apply the voltage between the electrodes in250-V steps.Hold each voltage for1h(unless failure is indicated)before increasing by250V to the next step.A starting test voltage must be determined so that tracking failure does not occur sooner than the third step(between2and3h).Adjust the rate of contaminant application so as to maintain effective scintil-lation at the different voltages(see Table1).Time can be saved in the determination of the appropriate starting test voltage for a speciﬁc material if an intermediate to high voltage isﬁrst selected(that is,3.25kV).If the specimen fails quickly on the ﬁrst voltage step,the starting voltage for the next test should be decreased,usually at least1kV.On the other hand,if four steps or more are needed to cause failure,then the initial voltage may be increased accordingly.Experience helps in the determina-tion of the appropriate starting voltage.9.2The end point of the test is reached at the voltage step where progressive tracking starts.Careful observation is needed to note when isolated markings on the surfaceﬁrst join together and start progressing upward from the bottom elec-trode.It is important to let this track proceed at least1⁄2in.(13 mm)up the specimen surface before discontinuing the test to make certain that progressive tracking is actually under way. (Some test specimens appear to start tracking and then“clean up.”)Record the voltage at which continuous tracking is established as the“initial tracking voltage.”The elapsed time in the voltage step at which progressive tracking starts should be recorded but is not considered to be as signiﬁcant as the value of the voltage.9.3Observe and record the character of the track and the appearance of the test specimen at the end of test.Tracking may be,for example,broad,narrow,ﬁlamentary,or dendritic (tree-like),with or without deep erosion.The track may be black,brown,or sometimes even white,and may perhaps occur alongﬁber bundles in the material.The residue in the track may be hard,tough,brittle,powdery,ﬂuffy,etc.The specimen itself in the presence of the contaminant and scintillation may change color,the weave in fabric reinforcement may become more pronounced,delamination may be apparent,etc.9.4Maintain the contaminant feed rate constant throughout the test.Calibrate the rate(see Annex A2)at the beginning and end of each test day,or more often if the rate appears to be variable.A feed rate constancy of less than65%(preferably 61%)is desirable for the duration of track testing of a specimen.10.Time-to-Track Test Method10.1For the time-to-track technique,a constant,speciﬁed test voltage(Note3)is used and the tracking time is recorded. If the test voltage is not speciﬁed,a voltage750V lower than the initial tracking voltage as determined in Section9may be used.All materials in a tracking class must,of course,be tested at the same voltage.The requirements of Table1must be met for the test voltage used.N OTE3—A test voltage of2.5kV has been found generally useful for many track-resistant materials of1⁄4-in.(6.5-mm)thickness.For poor tracking materials and thicknesses to1⁄16in.(1.5mm),preliminary evaluations indicate promise for the use of1.5kV with no series resistor. For less than2.0kV,scintillation is difficult to maintain.The maximum useful voltage is6kV.Precautions should be taken for over5-kV voltages.10.2Since relatively long tracking time may result(as much as10+h),it is important to ensure that the contaminant feed rate remains constant over the total test period.Calibrate the rate(see Annex A2)both before the start and at the end of each test or at least at the beginning and end of each day.10.3The time to track a distance of1in.(25.4mm)above the lower electrode(to the reference mark of Fig.2)is taken as the failure criterion and should be reported in hours and minutes.A taut horizontal string within the test enclosure can be used as a sighting reference to judge whether tracking has progressed to the reference marks.If the time to track is less than10min or more than about15h,it may be assumed that the material is out of the voltage class,and a lower or higher test voltage should be selected if evaluation is required in this case.10.4Failure time for the total2-in.(50-mm)distance between electrodes(instead of the25.4-mm test distance)is not representative of the track resistance of the material,since the last1⁄4to1⁄2in.(65to125mm)of the gap(depending on the material)is failed by burning and arcing more so than bytracking.10.5Observe the character of the track and report it together with the description of the test specimen as described in9.3.11.Report11.1Report the following information:11.1.1Type and designation of material tested,11.1.2Details of specimen fabrication including size,thick-ness,cleaning procedure and solvent used,surfaceﬁnishing,if any,preconditioning,etc.,11.1.3Orientation of the specimen in respect to electrodes (that is,machine-direction,cross-machine direction,warp di-rection,ﬁll direction,etc.),11.1.4Contaminant composition,concentration,conductiv-ity,and temperature of liquid during conductivity measure-ment,and11.1.5Test voltage or voltages and the associated rate of contaminant application.11.2In addition,report the following for the speciﬁc tests: 11.2.1For Initial Tracking Voltage Test:11.2.1.1Initial tracking voltage for each specimen as well as the number of voltage steps used including theﬁnal step at which continuous tracking occurred,11.2.1.2Time to progressive tracking(9.2)during the last voltage step,and11.2.1.3Appearance of the test specimen and the track, including a notation as to the qualitative degree of erosion.11.2.2For Time-to-Track Test:11.2.2.1Value of the test voltage,11.2.2.2Time-to-track,in hours and minutes,11.2.2.3Appearance of the test specimen and the track, including a notation as to the qualitative degree of accompa-nying erosion,and11.2.2.4Rate of contaminant application at the beginning as well as the end of each test date.12.Precision and Bias12.1The coefficient of variation,for tests on the same material in a single laboratory is estimated to range from20to 27%.This estimate is based upon the evaluation of10 specimens of a glass-reinforced laminate.From a sample of the laminate,120specimens were prepared.Twelve laboratories tested10specimens taken from the120.12.2A statement of bias cannot be made since a standard reference material of known tracking or erosion resistance is not currently available.13.Keywords13.1erosion;electrical;erosion resistance;inclined-plane; liquid contaminant;surface arcing;surface tracking;time-to-track method;track;tracking;tracking resistance;tracking voltage;voltage method;wettracking FIG.6Assembled Display of One TestSpecimenANNEXES(Mandatory Information)A1.EROSION TEST METHODA1.1For erosion studies a constant voltage as described in Section 10is used.This value (2kV)is below the value to cause progressive tracking.The test specimen must be at least 1⁄4in.(6.5mm)and preferably at least 1⁄2in.(13mm)thick.Erosion may be measured as a function of time of voltage application or after a speciﬁed time such as 24h.Erosion occurs as a single hole or as multiple holes usually just above one or more of the teeth of the bottom electrode.The eroded hole may contain more or less decomposed residue from the specimen or may be completely free of any residue (that is,polymethylmethacrylate or polytetraﬂuoroethylene).A1.2While 0.1%NH 4Cl contaminated solution may be used,it must be recognized that the nature of the contaminant is important with speciﬁc materials (that is,sodium nitrate,sodium carbonate,and sodium hydroxide all cause much more erosion of materials like polyester resins and even polytet-raﬂuoroethylene than ammonium chloride does).Conse-quently,the nature of the contamination expected in service or the particular susceptibility of the test material should be considered in the selection of the contaminant.If the resistivity of the contaminant solution is held between 370and 400V ·cmthe values given in Table 1for effective scintillation usually hold.However,an increase in contaminant conductivity or the addition of a carbonaceous material like sugar will increase the degree of erosion and in some cases,the tendency to erode rather than to track.In such cases,as noted in Table 1,it is necessary to increase the rate of contaminant application so that effective scintillation occurs at the test voltage.For erosion,relatively long test times,such as 24or 48h,may be used.In such cases,it is particularly important that the rate of contaminant application hold constant over the total test period.The rate should be calibrated (see Annex A2)both before the start and at the end of the test.A1.3To measure erosion quantitatively,it is necessary to remove carefully and mechanically any decomposed residue in the hole or holes.A dial micrometer depth-gage with a 0.0625-in.(3-mm)sensing rod having a 1-in.(25-mm)long taper ending at a point radiused to 0.010in.(0.25mm)is used.The difference in reading between uneroded and the maximum reading in the eroded areas is taken as the maximum eroded depth.In the case of multiple holes,the maximum eroded depth in each major hole may be reported.To measure theerodedFIG.7Method of Operation of PipetAssembly。

tco层镀膜工艺

tco层镀膜工艺TCO层镀膜工艺介绍TCO（透明导电氧化物）层镀膜工艺是一种用于制备透明导电膜的技术。

该技术广泛应用于太阳能电池、液晶显示器、光电子器件等领域。

本文将介绍TCO层镀膜工艺的原理、应用和最新研究进展。

原理TCO层镀膜工艺使用一种或多种氧化物作为镀膜材料。

这些氧化物具有良好的导电性和透明性，因此非常适合用于制备透明导电膜。

在制备过程中，先将基底材料进行清洗和预处理，然后将氧化物溶液沉积在基底上。

通过热处理或化学反应，形成均匀、透明的导电膜。

应用TCO层镀膜工艺在太阳能电池、液晶显示器、光电子器件等领域具有广泛的应用。

太阳能电池在太阳能电池中，TCO层镀膜工艺可以用来制备透明导电膜，提高太阳能电池的光吸收效率和电流输出。

此外，TCO层还能够降低电池表面的反射，提高光的利用率。

液晶显示器在液晶显示器中，TCO层镀膜工艺可以用于制备透明导电电极，用于控制液晶分子的取向和光的透射。

通过使用TCO层，可以提高液晶显示器的图像质量和响应速度。

光电子器件TCO层镀膜工艺还可以用于制备光电子器件中的透明导电膜，如光伏电池、有机光电转换器件等。

这些器件需要透明的导电膜来收集和输送电流，TCO层镀膜技术能够满足这一需求。

最新研究进展TCO层镀膜工艺在近年来得到了广泛的研究和应用。

研究人员致力于提高TCO层的导电性、透明性和稳定性。

他们通过控制材料的组成、厚度和制备工艺等参数，不断优化TCO层的性能。

此外，还有研究者尝试将TCO层和其他材料结合起来，以实现更多样化的功能。

结论TCO层镀膜工艺是一种重要的制备透明导电膜的技术。

它在太阳能电池、液晶显示器、光电子器件等领域有着广泛的应用前景。

随着技术的不断进步和研究的深入，相信TCO层镀膜工艺将会在未来发展出更多的应用和创新。

优势与挑战优势•高透明性：TCO层具有高透明性，可以使光线穿透并达到下层材料。

•优良的导电性：TCO层有较低的电阻，能够有效地传导电流。

光电子单词表中英对照

1. semiconductor: 半导体，常温下导电性能介于导体(conductor)与绝缘体(insulator)之间的材料。

2. light-emitting diode (LED): 发光二极管3. laser diode (LD): 半导体激光器4. photodiode: 光电二极管5. electrons: 电子6. holes: 空穴7. energy gap: 能隙8. photon: 光子9. insulator: 绝缘体10. transistor: 晶体管11. solar cell: 太阳能电池12. quantum dot: 量子点13. doping: 掺杂。

14. Pauli exclusion principle: 泡利不相容原理。

15. Fermi level: 费米能级16. valence band: 价带17. conduction band: 导带18. optical fiber: 光纤19. energy level: 能级。

20. electron–hole pair: 电子-空穴对。

21. impurity: 杂质。

22. dopant: 掺杂剂。

23. intrinsic (pure) semiconductor: 纯半导体。

24. p-type semiconductor: P 型半导体25. n-type semiconductor: N 型半导体。

26. p–n junction: PN 结27. space charge region(depletion layer): 空间电荷区(耗尽层)。

28. forward-bias voltage: 正向偏置电压29. ground state: 基态30. upper level: 上能级31. lower level: 下能级33. electromagnetic radiation:电磁辐射。

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Transparent and conducting electrodes for organic electronics from reduced grapheneoxideGoki Eda, Yun-Yue Lin, Steve Miller, Chun-Wei Chen, Wei-Fang Su, and Manish ChhowallaCitation: Applied Physics Letters 92, 233305 (2008); doi: 10.1063/1.2937846View online: /10.1063/1.2937846View Table of Contents: /content/aip/journal/apl/92/23?ver=pdfcovPublished by the AIP PublishingThis article is copyrighted as indicated in the article. Reuse of AIP content is subject to the terms at: /termsconditions. Downloaded to IP:119.78.98.118 On: Wed, 15 Jan 2014 07:22:51Transparent and conducting electrodes for organic electronics from reduced graphene oxideGoki Eda,1,a ͒Yun-Yue Lin,2Steve Miller,1Chun-Wei Chen,2,a ͒Wei-Fang Su,2and Manish Chhowalla 1,a ͒1Materials Science and Engineering,Rutgers University,607Taylor Road,Piscataway,New Jersey 08854,USA 2Department of Materials Science and Engineering,National Taiwan University,Taipei 10617,Taiwan͑Received 5January 2008;accepted 9May 2008;published online 13June 2008͒The deposition and optoelectronic properties of reduced graphene oxide thin ﬁlms are described.Thin ﬁlms with thicknesses ranging from 1–10nm have been deposited by the vacuum ﬁltration method.The conductivity of the thin ﬁlms can be varied over six orders of magnitude by varying the ﬁltration volume of the graphene oxide aqueous suspension while maintaining the transmittance between 60%–95%.In addition,enhancement in the conductance through Cl doping is demonstrated.The combination of the reduction and Cl treatments make the reduced graphene oxide thin ﬁlms sufﬁciently conducting to incorporate them as the hole collecting electrode in proof of concept organic photovoltaic devices.©2008American Institute of Physics .͓DOI:10.1063/1.2937846͔Interest in the unique properties of graphene has led to numerous studies 1–7because it can be easily deposited by the Scotch tape method 2and identiﬁed on 300nm SiO 2.3An ideal monolayer of graphene has transparency of 98%͑Ref.8͒with sheet resistance of ϳ6k ⍀/ᮀ,making it suitable for transparent and conducting electrodes.However,for techno-logical feasibility,uniform deposition over large areas is nec-essary.Chemical routes for obtaining single sheets of graphene from reduction of graphene oxide ͑GO ͒have been reported.9,10This is appealing because GO can be easily sus-pended in aqueous suspensions 11and deposited on a wide range of substrates.Although the overall efﬁciency of the best OPVs is ap-proximately 5%,13,14lower than inorganics,15the economics could allow their widespread use.Presently,state-of-the-art transparent and conducting hole collecting electrode is in-dium tin oxide ͑ITO ͒͑transparency Ͼ90%at ␭=550nm and low sheet resistance=10–30⍀/ᮀ͒.However,ITO cracks upon ﬂexing.Thus,to move toward truly ﬂexible OPVs,al-ternatives to ITO and Al electrodes are needed.The use of solution deposited single walled carbon nano-tube ͑SWNT ͒thin ﬁlms as cathodes in OPVs has been demonstrated.16,17Transparent and conducting thin ﬁlms from thermal reduction of GO ͑sheet resistance as low as ϳ600⍀/ᮀwith transparency of ϳ60%͒at 1100°C in Ar /H 2atmosphere have been reported 18,19and demonstrated to be suitable as electrodes for dye sensitized solar cells.18These interesting properties make reduced GO thin ﬁlms an emerging material for organic electronics.The transparent and conducting reduced GO thin ﬁlms were prepared from an aqueous suspension obtained by the exfoliation of graphite oxide using the modiﬁed Hummers method.20The structure of GO has been widely studied and consists of the attachment of hydroxyl,carboxyl,and ep-oxide groups 21,22which render it highly soluble in water,allowing exfoliation into individual sheets.We employed thevacuum ﬁltration technique to deposit uniform layers of GO.12,22–25The technique involves ﬁltrating the suspension containing the GO sheets through a 25nm pore size mixed cellulose ester membrane.As the liquid is ﬁltrated,the GO sheets block some of the pores where the permeation rate of the liquid is dramatically reduced.Therefore,in regions where the pores are not blocked,the permeation rate is en-hanced until covered by GO sheets.Once the GO ﬁlms are deposited on the ester membrane,it is necessary to transfer them onto substrates.The transfer process is performed by placing the ester membrane with the ﬁlm side down onto the substrate.The ester membrane is then etched away by se-quential acetone washes.The process is highly repeatable and the ﬁlms are well adhered to glass and plastic substrates,allowing lithographic processing without delamination.12Scanning electron microscopy ͑SEM ͒images of reduced GO thin ﬁlms on SiO 2/Si substrate are shown in Figs.1͑a ͒–1͑d ͒.The lighter regions in the SEM images represent either single layer GO or voids between the GO sheets.12It can be seen that the fraction of voids decreases with ﬁltration volume until around 80mL.The average thickness of the ﬁlms can be varied from 1to 5nm by varying the ﬁltration volume from 20to 80ml while keeping the concentration of GO constant ͑0.33mg /l ͒.A thickness of 1nm correlates to a single GO sheet due to functional groups and adsorbed water.26The thicknesses of our thin ﬁlms have been mea-sured by Raman mapping of 2D peak,27ellipsometry,and atomic force microscope ͑AFM ͒proﬁlometry.Raman map-ping and ellipsometry results have been reported elsewhere.12The thicknesses versus effective ﬁltration vol-umes measured by AFM are shown in Fig.1͑e ͒.We deﬁne effective ﬁltration volume as the volume of 0.33mg /l sus-pension required to deposit equivalent amount of GO when the concentration of the suspension is changed.Above ﬁltra-tion volumes of 80ml,the ﬁlm thickness increases almost linearly whereas no signiﬁcant change is seen for 60and 70ml.This is attributed to the fact that voids are present at low ﬁltration volumes and a continuous ﬁlm is achieved at approximately 80ml.a ͒Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.Electronic ad-dresses:manish1@ and chunwei@.tw.APPLIED PHYSICS LETTERS 92,233305͑2008͒0003-6951/2008/92͑23͒/233305/3/$23.00©2008American Institute of Physics92,233305-1 This article is copyrighted as indicated in the article. Reuse of AIP content is subject to the terms at: /termsconditions. Downloaded to IP:119.78.98.118 On: Wed, 15 Jan 2014 07:22:51GO thin ﬁlms are electrically insulating and must be reduced in order to make them conducting.The reduction of GO ﬁlms can be performed by exposing to hydrazine vapor at room temperature 28or at slightly elevated temperatures ͑80°C ͒.9,10The reduction process is believed to occur by breaking the sp 3carbon-oxygen bonds which leads to sp 2hybridized carbon,thereby recovering ␲electrons.21Elimi-nation of the sp 3bonds leads to a higher concentration of delocalized ␲electrons which results in the decrease of re-sistivity.The reduction treatment has been monitored by x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy,12which shows that the C–O bonds are removed with the reduction treatment.We recently showed 12that a combination of hydrazine vapor and low temperature annealing ͑200°C ͒in nitrogen or vacuum reduces the sheet resistance signiﬁcantly.Figure 2͑a ͒shows sheet resistance of GO ﬁlms after the combined re-duction steps as a function of ﬁltration volume.Figure 2͑a ͒is data from our previous study 12but is repeated here for the sake of completion.The sheet resistance decreases dramati-cally with the ﬁltration volume after annealing but saturates above a critical volume because the reduction treatment isonly effective for the top few layers.The transmittance at550nm versus the sheet resistance of the thin ﬁlms is shownin Fig.2͑b ͒and was found to monotonously increase in 300–900nm wavelength range ͑not shown ͒with no clear absorption peaks.It can be seen that the for the lowest sheet resistance ͑70k ⍀/ᮀ͒,the transmittance of the ﬁlm is ap-proximately 65%.In order to further decrease the sheet resistance,we at-tempted to dope the ﬁlms by dipping in thionyl chloride ͑SOCl 2͒for 1h.We previously demonstrated in SWNT thin ﬁlms that the attachment of Cl using this method leads to p -type doping and enhanced sheet conductance.29We found that for thin ﬁlms of reduced GO,the sheet resistance can be reduced by a factor of nearly 5while for thicker ﬁlms the effect is moderate.The increase in conductance with SOCl 2treatment is demonstrated in the transfer characteristics of doped and undoped reduced GO thin ﬁlm transistors ͑TFTs ͒shown in Fig.3.The TFT characteristics are typical of re-duced GO devices measured in air.9,10It can be seen that exposure to SOCl 2leads to a ﬁvefold increase in the source-drain current which can be translated to a similar decrease in the sheet resistance,as reported in Ref.12.TheneutralityFIG.1.͑Color online ͒SEM micrographs of reduced GO thin ﬁlms prepared by ﬁltrating 0.33mg /l GO suspension in volumes of ͑a ͒20ml,͑b ͒30ml,͑c ͒50ml,and ͑d ͒70ml.Contrast is observed between the SiO 2/Si substrate ͑light ͒and reduced GO ͑dark ͒.The scale bar corresponds to 20␮m.͑e ͒Reduced GO ﬁlm thicknesses as a function of effective ﬁltration volume.Films were prepared on SiO 2/Si substrates and the step height at the edges of a scratch was measured with AFM at more than ten different locations for eachsample.FIG.2.͑Color online ͒͑a ͒Sheet resistance of reduced GO thin ﬁlms as a function of effective ﬁltration volume.Measurements were made at more than ﬁve different areas of the ﬁlms.͑b ͒Transmittance at ␭=550nm as a function of sheet resistance for reduced GO thinﬁlms.FIG.3.͑Color online ͒͑a ͒Transfer characteristics of a reduced GO thin ﬁlm before and after dipping in SOCl 2for 1h.The ﬁlm was prepared at a ﬁltration volume of 30ml with 0.33mg /l GO suspension and transferredonto a Si substrate with 300nm thermally grown oxide.Au was used as source and drain electrodes and the channel length was 21␮m.The gate voltage was swept from positive to negative with 1V step.This article is copyrighted as indicated in the article. Reuse of AIP content is subject to the terms at: /termsconditions. Downloaded to IP:119.78.98.118 On: Wed, 15 Jan 2014 07:22:51point which is observed at the gate voltage of ϳ60V for untreated ﬁlm moves further toward the positive gate voltage ͑Ͼ100V,which is beyond the capability of our measure-ment apparatus ͒upon SOCl 2treatment indicating p -type doping with Cl.Proof of concept devices consisting of the reduced and doped GO thin ﬁlms as the cathodes in OPVs were fabricated.12Here,we provide more details regarding device fabrication and performance.In order to utilize the most conducting material as the electrode,reduced thin ﬁlms deposited at a ﬁltration volume of 480ml and treated with SOCl 2by dipping in solution for 1h were fabricated.OPV devices were prepared by initially spin coating ͑4500rpm ͒a layer of poly ͑3,4-ethylene dioxythiophene ͒:poly ͑styrene-sulfonate ͒͑PEDOT:PSS ͒on top of the reduced and doped GO thin ﬁlms.Subsequently,regioregular ͑94%͒poly ͑3-hexylthiophene ͒͑P3HT ͒͑molecular weight ϳ58000͒and phenyl-C61-butyric acid methyl ester ͑PCBM ͒nanocompos-ite layer was deposited on top.The P3HT:PCBM ratio was 1:1and the concentration of solid to chlorobenzene solvent was 20mg /ml.The spin coating speed for P3HT:PCBM was 700rpm to achieve a thickness of approximately 120nm.Thermally evaporated Al was used as the top electrode for the OPV devices.The current density versus the applied voltage results from the reduced GO electrode devices in dark and under illumination are shown in Fig.4.The efﬁciency of the de-vices was approximately 0.1%.We veriﬁed that the output in Fig.4was not the result of PEDOT:PSS by fabricating de-vices where PEDOT:PSS was used as the hole collecting electrode.In all of our devices fabricated with PEDOT:PSS alone,we were not able to make working devices.Thus,the reduced GO in our OPV devices indeed act as hole collecting electrodes.The data under illumination are far from the ideal diode characteristics and the devices are limited by the large resistance ͑on the order of 105⍀/ᮀ͒of the 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