语言学语言学1
语言学第一二章知识点
Chapte r one Introd uctio n一、定义1.语言学Lin guisti csLingui stics is genera lly define d as the scient ificstudyof langua ge.2.普通语言学G e nera l Lingui s ticsThe studyof langua ge as a wholeis oftencalled Genera l lingui stics.3.语言lang uageLangua ge is a system of arbitr ary vocalsymbol s used for humancommun icati on.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征De signFeaturesIt refers to the defini ng proper tiesof humanlangua ge that distin guish it from any animal system of commun icati on.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrarine ss任意性Productivit y多产性（创造性）Dualit y双重性Displa cemen t移位性Cultural transm i ssio n文化传递5.语言能力Co mpete n ce（抽象）Compet enceis the idealuser‘sknowle dge of the rulesof his langua ge.6.语言运用pe rform ance（具体）Perfor mance is the actual realiz ation of this knowle dge in lingui sticcommun icati on.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的具体体现。
语言学第一章
语言学第一章Chapter 1 Invitation to linguistics1.1 Why study language?1. Language is very essential to human beings.2. In language there are many things we should know.3. For further understanding, we need to study language scientifically.1.2 What is language?Language is a means of verbal communication. It is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.3 Design features of languageThe features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication.1.3.1 ArbitrarinessArbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings.1.3.2 DualityDuality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.1.3.3 CreativityCreativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness.Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences.1.3.4 DisplacementDisplacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of conversation.1.4 Origin of language1. The bow-wow theoryIn primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived and speech developed from that.2. The pooh-pooh theoryIn the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pains, anger and joy which gradually developed into language.3. The “yo-he-ho” theoryAs primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language.1.5 Functions of languageJacobson——language has six functions:1. Referential指称功能: to convey message and information;2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake;3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions;4. Conative意动功能: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties;5. Phatic寒暄功能: to establish communion with others;6. Metalingual元语功能: to clear up intentions, words and meanings.Halliday ——that language has three metafunctions:1. Ideational function: to convey new information, to communicate a content that is unknown to thehearer;2. Interpersonal function: embodying all use of language to express social and personal relationships;3. Textual function: referring to the fact that language has mechanisms to make any stretch of spokenand written discourse into a coherent and unified text and make a living passage different from a random list of sentences.Hu Zhuanglin——language has at least seven functions:1.5.1 InformativeThe informative function means language is the instrument of thought and people often use it to communicate new information.1.5.2 Interpersonal functionThe interpersonal function means people can use language to establish and maintain their status in a society.1.5.3 Performative施为功能The performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.1.5.4 Emotive functionThe emotive function is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.1.5.5 Phatic communionThe phatic communion means people always use some small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day,etc., to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without any factual content.1.5.6 Recreational functionThe recreational function means people use language for the sheer joy of using it, suc h as a baby’s babbling or a chanter’s chanting.1.5.7 Metalingual functionThe metalingual function means people can use language to talk about itself. E.g. I can use the word “book” to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression “the word book” t o talk about the sign “b-o-o-k” itself.1.6 What is linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one community, but the language of all human beings.1.7 Main branches of linguistics1.7.1 PhoneticsPhonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics.1.7.2 PhonologyPhonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.1.7.3 MorphologyMorphology studies the minimal units of meaning –morphemes and word-formation processes.1.7.4 SyntaxSyntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.1.7.5 SemanticsSemantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.1.7.6 PragmaticsPragmatics is the study of meaning in context.1.8 MacrolinguisticsMacrolinguistics is the study of language in all aspects, distinct from microlinguistics, which dealtsolely with the formal aspect of language system.1.8.1 Psycholinguistics心理语言学Psycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances (and in language acquisition for example).1.8.2 Sociolinguistics社会语言学Sociolinguistics is the study of the characteristics of language varieties1, the characteristics of their functions2, and the characteristics of their speakers3. (123相互作用构成一个speech community 语言社团)1.8.3 Anthropological linguistics人类语言学Anthropological linguistics studies the history and structure of formerly unwritten language, the emergence of language and the divergence of languages.1.8.4 Computational linguistics计算语言学Computational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which centers around the use of computers to process or produce human language.1.9 Important distinctions in linguistics1.9.1 Descriptive描写vs. Prescriptive规定A linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses the facts observed.It is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for the “correct” use of language.1.9.2 Synchronic共时vs. Diachronic历时The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study.The description of a language as it changes through the time is a diachronic study.The distinction between synchronic and dischronic studies is only theoretically clear.原因：①Languages are in a constant state of changing.②The language of any speech community is never uniform.③When a language changes, one set o f features are not suddenly replaced by another set of features.1.9.3 Langue 语言& parole言语Saussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as langue and parole.Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.Parole refers to the actualized language, or realization of langue.区别：①Langue is abstract but parole is specific to the situation in which it occurs.②Langue is not actually spoken by anyone; parole is alwaysa naturally occurring event.③Langue is relatively stable and systematic; parole is subject to personal and situational constraints.1.9.4 Competence and performanceAccording to Chomsky, a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language in concretesituations is called performance.Competence is the ideal language user`s knowledge of the rules of his language.Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances.。
语言学_课文翻译
第一章：绪论1．什么是语言学？1．1定义语言学常被定义为是对语言进行系统科学研究的学科。
语言学研究的不是某一种特定的语言，而是人类所有的语言。
为了揭示语言的本质，语言学家首先要对语言实际使用进行观察，并在此基础上形成有关语言使用的概括性假设，这些初步形成的假设要在语言使用中进行进一步的检验，最终形成一条语言理论。
1．2语言学的研究范畴:对语言体系作全面研究的语言学研究称为普通语言学。
语音学主要是对语言声音媒介的研究，它不只是研究某一特定的语言的声音媒介，而是所有语言的声音媒介。
音系学与语音学不同，它主要研究特定语言的语音体系，即音是如何结合在一起产生有意义的单位。
形态学主要研究单词的内部语义结构，及这些叫做词素的语义最小单位是如何结合构成单词。
句法学主要研究构成潜在句子的句法规则。
语义学以研究语义为目的，传统语义学主要研究抽象的意义，独立于语境之外的意义，语用学也是研究语义，但是它把语义研究置于语言使用语境中加以研究。
语言不是一个孤立的现象，而是一种社会现象，各种社会因素都会对语言的使用产生影响。
从社会的角度来研究语言的科学被称之为社会语言学。
语言和社会之间的关系是社会语言学研究的主要内容。
心理语言学主要从心理学的角度来研究语言。
它要研究人们在使用语言时大脑的工作机理，如人是如何习得母语的，人的大脑是如何加工和记忆语言信息等问题。
把语言学的研究成果应用到实践中的科学形成了应用语言学。
狭义上，应用语言学指把语言理论和原则运用于语言教学的科学，在广义上，它指把语言理论与原则应用于解决实际问题的科学。
除此之外还有人类语言学、神经语言学、数学语言学、计算语言学等。
1．3语言学研究中的几对基本概念1．3．1规定性和描述性语言学研究是描述性的，不是规定性的。
这是语言学和传统语法的一个重要区别。
语言学研究的目的是对人们使用的语言进行客观描述与分析，而不是对语言的使用作出规定。
传统语法是规定性的，它主要建立在笔头语言基础之上，旨在规定一系列的语法规则，并且把这些语法规则强加给语言使用者。
第一章 语言和语言学
四、语言的结构类型
• 上面的四种分类只是一种大体上的分类，实际上各 个语言的情况都很复杂，单纯属于上面某一类的语 言很少，大多数语言都是大体上属于某一类，也有 一些不属于这类语言类型的特点。 • 语言的词法分类也可以根据形态变化是否丰富把世 界上的语言分为三类：综合语、分析语、综合—— 分析语。综合语的主要特点是词有丰富的形态变化， 如德语、俄语等；分析语的主要特点是缺乏形态变 化，词序和虚词是主要的语法手段，如汉语等；综 合——分析语是介于综合语和分析语之间的一种语 言，既有综合语的特点，有一定的形态变化，又有 分析语的特点，词序和虚词的作用也比较大，如英 语等。
• 语言符号的组合规则主要体现在结构和功能两个方面。 由两个较小的语言片断组合成较大的语言片断以后， 较小的语言片断之间就发生了结构关系。两个词语能 否构成某种结构关系，是由词语的功能决定的。
三、语言的基本关系
• 语言系统中的符号与符号之间，存在着各种复杂的联 系，但这些复杂的联系可以概括为两种基本关系：组 合关系和聚合关系。 • （一）组合关系 • 若干较小的语言单位组合成较大的语言单位，其构成 成分之间的关系就是组合关系，又称线性序列关系。 • 组合关系也就是结构关系，有相同组合关系的语言单 位构成的类，就是结构类。 • 组合关系在语言的各个子系统中普遍存在。 • 词语之间的组合是有规则的。 • 语言单位之间的组合是有层次性的。
二、语言的子系统
• （一）语音系统 • 每一种语言的语音要素都是自成系统的。语音系统 由音位和音节两级单位构成。语音的系统性主要体 现在音位之间的对立和音节内部的组合两个方面。 • （二）语义系统 • 每一种语言的语义要素也是自成系统的。一种语言 的语义系统也可以分成几个不同层级的语义单位。 其中最基本的语义单位是义项，义项是语言符号的 意义。义项的构成成分是义素。义项与义项组合成 义丛，义项和义丛又是构成句义的语义成分。语义 的系统性主要表现在义项的聚合关系和句义的组合 规则两方面。
语言学（1）
1 “赋，诗歌”等中国传统文学体裁的语言形成机制是（ D ）A 预设B 多余C 类推D 对称2.在时间线条的某一位置上，可以相互替换的语言符号之间的关系是( B )A.组合关系B.聚合关系C.层级关系D.表里关系3. 就表现形式来看，人类语言符号属于（B ）A.视觉符号B.听觉符号C.嗅觉符号D.触觉符号4. 可以归并在同一音位中的音素是（ A ）A.具有互补关系，语音上又相似的音素B.语音上相似的音素C.彼此能区分词的语音形式和意义的音素D.具有非对立性关系的音素5. 英语的长短音和汉语的声调能够区别意义，它们（ C ）A.都是音质音位B. 前者是音质音位，后者是非音质音位C.都是非音质音位D. 前者是非音位变体，后者是音质音位6.英语中“independent”和“impossible”中的“in”“im”都表示否定，这种语流音叫（B ）A.增音B.同化C.异化D.脱落7.“outstanding”这个词构词方式是（ B ）A.词缀+词根+加词尾B.词缀+词根C.词根+词缀D.词根+词尾8.汉语拼音bang中的韵腹a是( D )A.舌面前、低、圆唇元音B.舌面前、低、不圆唇元音C.舌面央、低、圆唇元音D舌面后、低、不圆唇元音9.下例语言单位，不是词的是（ D）A．马虎 B.瓜子 C.愿景 D.别去10.就“买书”，“借米”两例看，下列说法正确的是（ A）A “买”与“书”有组合关系，与“借”有聚合关系B “买“与”书“有组合关系，与”米“有聚合关系C “买“与”借”有组合关系，“与米”有聚合关系D “买”与“借”有组合关系，与“米”有聚合关系11.同一音位的各个变体之间的关系是（ D ）A.互相补充B.自由替换C.互相对立D.互不对立12.汉语的“我”，翻译成英语在不同的句子成分中，I分别是“I”和“me”“my”“mine”，这里使用的语法手段是（ B ）A.重叠法B.异根法C.重音移动法D.外部附和法13.“奥林匹克运动会”这个词包含的语素数量是（ C ）A.2个B.3个C.4个D.7个14.从词的构造方式看，汉语“健儿”一词属于（ C ）A．单纯词 B.派生词 C.复合词 D.简缩词15.“船头”“石子”的构词方式分别是（ D ）A．都是词根加词缀 B前者是词根加词缀，后者是词根加词根C．都是词根加词根 D.前者是词根加词根，后者是词根加词缀16.英国语言哲学家奥斯汀提出的著名语用学理论是( A )A,言语行为 B.会语含义 C礼貌原则 D 语境17.把现代汉语第三人称代词写成“他”“她”（ D ）A 表示性范畴B 表示格范畴C表示人称范畴D 什么语法范畴都不表示18.汉语普通话中没有的发音部位是( B )A.双唇 B 齿间 C唇齿 D 舌面19.下列关于”语言”和”言语”的说法不正确的是( C)A.语言是抽象的,言语是具体的B.语言是有限的,言语是无限的C.语言是个别的,言语是一般的D.语言是从大量的言语事实中抽象概括出来的20.下列特点中不属于屈折语的有（B ）A.有丰富的词形变化B.没有内部屈折C.一个变词语素可以同时表示好几种语法意 D：词根和变词语素之间结合紧密21 下列语言。
语言学概论第1章语言
符号与征候不同（指的是发生某种情况的迹象） （1）符号的含义：符号就是由社会约定俗成的，由
一定的形式构成的表示一定意义的记号或标记， 其作用是指称现实现象。 （2）符号的构成：形式和内容
（3）符号的种类很多 视觉符号、听觉符号触觉符号
（3）语言符号的特点： a、任意性 b、线条性 C、稳定性 d、可变性、发展性 e、生成性 f、概括性、民族性、时代性
a、任意性（约定性、强制性）和二重性（两面性）
思考：为什么人类会有这样多形形色色的语言？
语言符号的任意性特点具体表现
语言符号的任意性特点具体表现：
第一，语言符号的音义的结合是任意性的，由社 会约定俗成的，即什么样的语音形式表达什么样 的意义内容，什么样的意义内容用什么样的语音 形式表现是任意的；
白花 红花 蓝花 紫花 大花 小花 好花
上层 底层
第三级 三级 第二级
第一级
句子 词 语素 音位
音义结合的符号 与符号的序列
性质上的飞跃； 数量上的飞跃
思考：
任何一种语言所包含的句子的数量都是无 限的，那么人类为什么能在有限的时间内掌握 语言呢？
第一、语言是一种层级结构，最底层的音 位（几十个）是很少的；第二、用语素（几千 个）组成的词（几万个）的数量也是有限的， 而且可以重复使用，这样就通过词的不同组合 创造出数量庞大的句子（无数个）来；第三、 更加重要的是词和词组合成为句子的规则也是 有限的。
B,为什么说组合关系、聚合关系是语言系统中两种最基本 的关系？请举例说明。
第一章 语言
（三）社会性——人类语言与动物语言的区别 （四）全民性——怎样理解语言没有阶级性 三、语言的功能 (一)交际职能：语言是人类最重要的交际工具 (二)思维职能 1、思维和思想不同 2、思维能力与思维方式不同 3、语言和思维的关系 4、语言和思维的区别
语言学第一章笔记和习题
Chapter one 学点语言学语言学是对语言的系统研究，对于一个学习英语的人来说，应该懂一点语言学的知识，它可以在理论上对学习语言有指导作用，有助于更好的学习语言。
The Goals for this CourseTo get a scientific view on language;To understand some basic theories on linguistics;To understand the applications of the linguistic theories, especially in the fields of language teaching & learning (SLA or TEFL), cross-cultural communication……;To prepare for the future research work.The Requirements for this courseClass attendanceClassroom discussionFulfillment of the assignmentMonthly examExaminationReference Books戴炜栋，何兆熊，(2002)，《新编简明英语语言学教程》，上海外语教育出版社。
胡壮麟，(2001)，《语言学教程》，北京大学出版社。
胡壮麟，李战子，《语言学简明教程》，北京大学出版社刘润清，(1995)，《西方语言学流派》，外语教学与研究出版社。
Fromkin,V. & R. Rodman, (1998), An Introduction to Language the sixth edition, Orlando, Florida: Holt, Ranehart & Winston, Inc.许国璋先生认为把语言定义成交际工具不够科学,至少不够严谨.他对语言的定义做了如下概括:语言是一种符号系统.当它作用于人与人之间的关系的时候,它是表达相互反应的中介;当它作用于人与客观世界的关系的时候,它是认知事物的工具;当它作用于文化的时候,它是文化的载体.Teaching aims: let the students have the general idea about language and linguistics.Teaching difficulties: design features of language; some important distinctions in linguisticsWhy do we study language?A tool for communicationAn integral part of our life and humanityIf we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity.What can language mean?Language can meanwhat a person says (e.g. bad language, expressions)the way of speaking or writing (e.g. Shakespeare‘s language, Luxun‘s language)a particular variety or level of speech or writing (e.g. language for special purpose, colloquial language)the abstract system underlying the totality of the speech/writing behavior of a community (e.g. Chinese language, first language)the common features of all human languages (e.g. He studies language)a tool for human communication. (social function)a set of rules. (rule-governed)The origins of language---the myth of languageThe Biblical accountLanguage was God‘s gift to human beings.The bow-wow theoryLanguage was an imitation of natural sounds, such as the cries of animals, like quack, cuckoo.The pooh-pooh theoryLanguage arose from instinctive emotional cries, expressive of pain or joy.The yo-he-ho theoryLanguage arose from the noises made by a group of people engaged in joint labour or effort – lifting a huge hunted game, moving a rock, etc.The evolution theoryLanguage originated in the process of labour and answered the call of social need.To sum up:The divine-origin theory: language is a gift of god to mankind.The invention theory: imitative, cries of nature, the grunts of men working together.The evolutionary theory: the result of physical and psychological development.What is LanguageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.What is communication?A process in which information is transmitted from a source (sender or speaker) to a goal (receiver or listener).A system----elements in it are arranged according to certain rules. They cannot be arranged at will.e.g. He the table cleaned. (×) bkli (×)Arbitrary----there is no intrinsic (logic) connection between a linguistic form and its meaning.Symbols----words are just the symbols associated with objects, actions, and ideas by convention.V ocal--------the primary medium for all languages is sound, no matter how well developed their writing systems are.Writing systems came into being much later than the spoken forms.People with little or no literacy can also be competent language users.Human ----language is human-specific.Human beings have different kinds of brains and vocal capacity.―Language Acquisition Device‖(LAD)Design features of language 语言的结构特征Design features refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.a. arbitrariness----the form of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. The link between them is a matter of convention.E.g. ―house‖ uchi (Japanese)Mansion (French)房子(Chinese)conventionality----It means that in any language there are certain sequences of sounds that have a conventionally accepted meaning. Those words are customarily used by all speakers with the same intendedmeaning and understood by all listeners in the same way.There are two different schools of belief concerning arbitrariness. Most people, especially structural linguists believe that language is arbitrary by nature. Other people, however, hold that language is iconic, that is, there is a direct relation or correspondence between sound and meaning, such as onomatopoeia.(cuckoo; crash)For the majority of animal signals, there does appear to be a clear connection between the conveyed message and the signal used to convey it, And for them, the sets of signals used in communication is finite.b. duality----language is simultaneously organized at two levels or layers, namely, the level of sounds and that of meaning.the higher level ----words which are meaningfulthe lower or the basic level----sounds which are meaningless, but can be grouped and regrouped into words. Dog: woof (but not ―w-oo-f ‖ )This duality of levels is, in fact, one of the most economical features of human language, since with a limited set of distinct sounds we are capable of producing a very large number of sound combinations (e.g. words) which are distinct in meaning.The principle of economyc. Productivity/Creativity----language is resourceful. It makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.(novel utterances are continually being created.)non-human signals ,on the other hand, appears to have little flexibility.e.g. an experiment of bee communication:The worker bee, normally able to communicate the location of a nectar source , will fail to do so if the location is really ‗new‘. In one experiment, a hive of bees was placed at the foot of a radio tower and a food source at the top. Ten bees were taken to the top, shown the food source, and sent off to tell the rest of the hive about their find. The message was conveyed via a bee dance and the whole gang buzzed off to get the free food. They flow around in all directions, but couldn‘t locate the food. The problem may be that bee communication regarding location has a fixed set of signals, all of which related to horizontal distance. The bee cannot create a ‗new ‘ message indicating vertical distance.d. Displacement----human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present at the moment of communication.Bee communication:When a worker bee finds a source of nectar and returns to the hive, it can perform a complex dance routine to communicate to the other bees the location of this nectar. Depending on the type of dance (round dance for nearby and tail-wagging dance, with variable tempo, for further away and how far), The other bees can work put where this newly discovered feast can be found. Bee communication has displacement in an extremely limited form. However, it must be the most recent food source.e. Cultural transmission----genetic transmissionYou acquire a language in a culture with other speakers and not from parental genes.The process whereby language is passed on from one generation to the next is described as cultural transmission.f. interchangeability: it means that individuals who use a language can both send and receive any permissible message within that communication system. Human beings can be a producer as well as receiver of messages.g. human vocal tractFunctions of language (3+6+7+3)1. Three main functionsthe descriptive function: the primary function of language. It is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified.the expressive function: it supplies information about the user‘s feelings, preferences, prejudices and values. the social function：also referred to as the interpersonal function, serves to establish and maintain social relations between people2. The Russian-born structural linguists Roman Jakobson identifies six elements of a speech event and relates each one of them to one specific language function. That is, in conjunction of the six primary factors of any speech event, he established a well-known framework of language functions based on the six key elements of communication in his famous article: Linguistics and PoeticsAddresser—Emotive (intonation showing anger)Addressee—Conative (imperatives and vocatives)Context—Referential (conveys a message or information)Message—Poetic (indulge in language for its own sake)Contact—Phatic communion (to establish communion with others)Code—Metalinguistic (to clear up intentions, words and meanings)3. In the early 1970s the British linguist M.A.K. Halliday found that child language performed seven basic functions, namely, instrumental, regulatory, representational, interactional, personal, heuristic, and imaginative. This system contains three macrofunctions—the ideational, the interpersonal and the textual function.three meta-functions proposed by M. A. K. Halliday(1) The ideational functionTo identify things, to think, or to record information. It constructs a model of experience and constructs logical relations(2) The interpersonal functionTo get along in a community. It enacts social relationships(3) The textual functionTo form a text. It creates relevance to context.What is Linguistics(语言学)Linguistics is a scientific study of language .It is a major branch of social science.Linguistics studies not just one language of any society, but the language of all human society, language in general.A scientific study is one which is based on the systematic investigation of data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.Process of linguistic study:① Certain linguistic facts are observed, generalization are formed;② Hypotheses are formulated;③ Hypotheses are tested by further observations;④ A linguistic theory is constructed.observation------generalization-----hypothesis------tested by further observation------theoryPerson who studies linguistics is known as a linguist.The Scope of LinguisticsGeneral linguistics is the study of language as a whole.Internal branches: intra-disciplinary divisions (micro-linguistics)Phonetics(语音学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription.Phonology(音韵学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of languages.Morphology(词法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the form of words.Syntax(句法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the rules governing the combination of words into sentences.Semantics(语义学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of language.Pragmatics(语用学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of language in use.External branches: inter-disciplinary divisions (macro-linguistics)Applied linguistics(应用语言学) is the study of the teaching of foreign and second languages. Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society.Psycholinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and the mind.Historical Linguistics(历史语言学) is the study of language changes.Anthropological linguistics(人文语言学) uses the theories and methods of anthropology to study language variation and language use in relation to the cultural patterns and beliefs of man.Neurolinguistics(神经语言学) studies the neurological basis of language development and use in human beings. Mathematical linguistics(数学语言学) studies the mathematical features of language, often employing models and concepts of mathematics.Computational linguistics(计算语言学) is an approach to linguistics in which mathematical techniques and concepts(概念) are applied, often with the aid of a computer.Features of linguisticsDescriptiveDealing with spoken languageSynchronicSome Basic Distinctions(区分) in Linguistics1. Speech and WritingOne general principle(原则) of linguistic analysis is the primacy of speech over writing. Writing gives language new scope(范畴) and uses that speech does not have.2. Descriptive(描述性) or Prescriptive(说明性)A linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for "correct" behavior.3. Synchronic(共时) and Diachronic(历时) StudiesThe description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study and The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.4. Langue(语言) and Parole(言语)This is a distinction made by the Swiss linguist F.De Saussure (索绪尔）early last century. langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and parole refers to the actualized(实际的) language, or realization of langue.5. Competence(能力)and Performance(行为)Competence is the ideal language user's knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance is the actualrealization of this knowledge in utterances(发声).6. Potential and Behavior: English linguist Halliday makes another similar distinction in the 1960s, namely the distinction between linguistic potential and linguistic behavior. He approaches language from a functional view and concentrates primarily on what speakers do with language which led to the distinction between linguistic potential (what speakers can do with language) and behavior (what speakers actually do with language). In Halliday‘s distinction between potential and behavior, potential is similar to Saussure‘s ―langue‖and Chomsky‘s competence, and behavior is similar to Saussure‘s ―parole‖ and Chomsky‘s performance.7. Modern linguistics started with the public ation of F. de Saussure‘ s book ―Course in General Linguistics‖ in the early 20th century. So Saussure is often described as ―father of modern linguistics‖.The general approach traditionally formed to the study of language before that is roughly referred to as ―traditional grammar.‖ They differ in several basic ways:Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive. A linguist is interested in what is said, not in what he thinks ought to be said. He describes language in all its aspects, but does not prescribe rules of ―correctness‖.Secondly, modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tend to emphasize, may be over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.Then, modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework. To modern linguists ,it is unthinkable to judge one language by standards of another. They are trying to set up a universal framework, but that would be based on the features shared by most of the languages used by mankind.Chapter I IntroductionI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general.3. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks.4. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and checked against the observed facts.5. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole.6. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study.7. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies the combinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication.8. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences.9. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology.10. Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences.11. The study of meaning in language is known as semantics.12. Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings.13. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context.14.Social changes can often bring about language changes.15. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society.16. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive.17. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar.18. A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some point in time.19 Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the written language.20. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by F. de Saussure.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:21. Chomsky defines ― competence‖ as the ideal user's k__________ of the rules of his language.ngue refers to the a__________ linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules.23.D_________ is one of the design features of human language which refers to the phenomenon that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units.nguage is a system of a_________ vocal symbols used for human communication.25. The discipline that studies the rules governing the formation of words into permissible sentences in languages is called s________.26. Human capacity for language has a g ____ basis, but the details of language have to be taught and learned.27. P ____ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.28. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practical problems. The study of such applications is generally known as a________ linguistics.nguage is p___________ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard before.30. Linguistics is generally defined as the s ____ study of language.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.31. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be ______________.A. prescriptiveB. analyticC. descriptiveD. linguistic32.Which of the following is not a design feature of human language?A. ArbitrarinessB. DisplacementC. DualityD. Meaningfulness33. Modern linguistics regards the written language as ____________.A. primaryB. correctC. secondaryD. stable34. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, because ___________.A. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writingB. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.C. speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongueD. All of the above35. A historical study of language is a ____ study of language.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. comparative36.Saussure took a (n)__________ view of language, while Chomsky looks at language from a ________ point of view.A. sociological…psychologicalB. psych ological…sociologicalC. applied… pragmaticD.semantic and linguistic37. According to F. de Saussure, ____ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.A. paroleB. performanceC. langueD. Language38. Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connection between _________ and meanings.A. senseB. soundsC. objectsD. ideas39. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This feature is called_________,A. displacementB. dualityC. flexibilityD. cultural transmission40. The details of any language system is passed on from one generation to the next through ____ , rather than by instinct.A. learningB. teachingC. booksD. both A and B。
语言学概论(一)
导言一、语言学的对象和任务二、语言学的发展三、语言学的功用四、《语言学概论》的性质、内容和任务一、语言学的对象和任务语言学（linguistics）是一门研究语言现象和语言规律的学科。
语言是语言学的研究对象。
语言学的基本任务是研究语言的规律，使人们懂得关于语言的理性知识。
语言是一套构造复杂的符号系统，是人类最重要的交际工具。
从单个的语言符号来看，它是由声音和意义结合而成的；从整个语言符号系统来说，它是由词汇和语法构成的。
因此，语音、词汇、语义、语法是语言的基础要素。
语言的各种学科对语言的不同方面分别进行研究，就形成了语言学的各种学科。
部门语言学：以语言的基础要素及与各基础要素相关的问题为研究对象。
如：语音学、词汇学、语义学、语法学、词典学、文字学、修辞学等等。
具体语言学：以某一种具体语言为研究对象。
如汉语语言学、英语语言学。
对具体语言的研究有描写的和历史的两个不同的角度。
描写语言学（共时语言学）：截取语言的某一时期的横断面，描写和研究语言在这个时期相对稳定的系统。
如古代汉语、近代汉语、现代汉语。
历史语言学（历时语言学）：研究语言从一个时期到另一个时期发展演变的过程。
如汉语史、英语发展史。
对具体语言的基础要素及语言运用各方面分别加以研究，就形成了具体语言学的各个分科，如汉语语音学、汉语词汇学、汉语语义学、汉语语法学、汉语修辞学等等。
普通语言学以一般语言为研究对象，它综合各种具体语言的研究成果，探索人类语言的普遍性质和一般规律。
其研究内容包括语言的起源、语言的本质、语言结构上的共同特点和一般原理、语言的发展等等。
《语言学概论》所讲授的内容就属于普通语言学范围。
应用语言学有狭义和广义之分。
狭义应用语言学专指语言教学的研究，广义应用语言学是指语言理论应用于对语言学相关学科的研究而形成的一些新的边缘学科，如社会语言学、心理语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学等等。
二、语言学的发展语言学成为一门独立的学科是在19世纪。
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Linguistics is usually defined as the science of language or, alternatively, as the scientific study of language.Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Systematic---- rule-governed, elements in it are arranged accor ding to certain rules; can’t be combined at will.Arbitrary---- no intrinsic（natural）connection between the word and the thing it denotes。
Convention: the link between a linguistic sign and its meaning.Symbolic---- language signs are associated with objects, actions, ideas by convention.V ocal---- the primary medium is sound for all languages; writing system came much later than spoken form.Human-specific---- different from the communication systems other forms of life possess. Design features: the features that define our human languages.Design features:Arbitrariness.Linguistic forms are said to lack any physical correspondence with entities in the world to which they refer.Duality:By duality is meant the property of having two levels of structures, such that unites of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.The Advantages of Duality:A large number of different units can be formed out of a small number of elements-Creativity:By creativity we mean Language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness.Displacement:Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. Human language is stimulus-free(无刺激的)Origin of languang:The divine-origin theory”:man was created almost instantaneously, and at the moment of his creation, he was provided with speech as a divine gift.(language was given by God)The invention theory:which holds that man invented his own language.‘yo-he-ho’ theory (language first began in social setting, that of men working together)‘pooh-pooh’ theory (expression of emotion as ‘cries of nature’)bow-wow’theory (imitation of the sound of nature)The evolutionary theory:Stress the importance of the biological base.Some genetic mutation leads to development of modern man. Brain capacity outweighs other animals. (language is developed by a long process of evolution involing biological and social factors as a whole.) Functions of Language:1.5.1 Informative:when language is used to express human experience and knowledge about the world.1.5.2 Interpersonal function:when language is used to establish and maintain social relations.1.5.3 Performative:the use of language to ‘do things’, to perform actions.Primarily used to change the social status of the person, often in quite formal and ritualized language.It can also extend to the control of reality as on some magical or religious occasion.1.5.4 Emotive function:when language is used to change the emotional states of an audienceor used to express the speakers’ emotions or attitudes towards something or some person.1.5.5 Phatic communion---refers to language used for establishing an atmosphere or maintaining social contact rather than for exchange information or ideas (e.g. comments on the weather, or enquiries about health). (the social interaction of language)保持人际1.5.6 Recreational function：when language is used for the pure joy of using it.1.5.7 Metalingual function：Language can be used to talk about itself。
语言讨论语言。
Tool language, such as in paraphrases, in translation works, etc.This makes the language infinitely self-reflexive: we human beings can talk about talk and think about thinking, and thus only humans can ask what it means to communicate, to think, to be human.Branches:1.7.1 Phonetics语音学---The science which studies the characteristics of human sound-making, especially those sounds used in speech, and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription.（production,transmission,perception.）1) articulatory phonetics ( 发音语言学) is the study of the way speech sounds are made by the vocal organs;2) acoustic phonetics(声学语音学)studies the physical properties of speech sound, as transmitted between mouth and ear;3) auditory phonetics(听觉语音学Perceptual) studies the perceptual response to speech sounds, as mediated by ear, auditory nerve and brain.1.7.2 Phonology-音系学-- studies the sound system of languages. The aim of phonology is to demonstrate the patterns of distinctive sound found in a language, and to make as general statements as possible about the nature of sound systems in the languages of the world.1.7.3 Morphology-形态学--- studies the structure of forms of words, primarily through the use of the morpheme construct.1.7.4 Syntax句法学---the study of the interrelationships between elements of sentence structure, and of the rules governing the arrangement of sentences in sequences.1.7.5 Semantics语义学--the study of meaning in language.1.7.6 Pragmatics语用学--the study of meaning in the context of use.1.8.1 Psycholinguistics 语言心理学--- studies the correlation between linguistic behavior and the psychological processes thought to underlie that behavior: (a) the mental process that a person uses in producing and understanding language, and (b) how humans learn language.1.9.1 Descriptive vs. prescriptive：Descriptive描述型---to describe the fact of linguistic usage as they are, and not how they ought to be, with reference to some real or imagined ideal state.---People do not say X.Prescriptive规定型---a term used to characterize any approach which attempt to lay down rules of correctness as to how language should be used.----Don’t say X.1.9.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic(by Swiss linguist, Ferdinand de Saussure)Synchronic 公识性(linguistics)---languages are studied at some point of time in history. : one describes a ‘state’ of language, disregardi ng whatever changes might be taking place.不注重变化e.g. A Grammar of Modern Greek, Shakespeare's language, etc.Diachronic历时性----languages are studied as its changes through time. The description of language is from point of view of their historical development 变化for example, the changes which have taken place between Old and Modern English could be described in phonological, grammatical and semantic terms.e.g. How is the Indo-European family develops through history?1.9.3 Langue & parole（by de Saussure）Langue语言---refers to the language system shared by a community of speakersParole言语---is the concrete act of speaking in actual situations by an individual speaker.1.9.4 Competence and performance（by Noam Chomsky）Competence语言能力----refers to a person’s knowledge of his language, the system of rules which he has mastered so that he is able to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences, and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities.Performance语言应用（表达能力）---refers to language seen as a set of specific utterances produced by native-speakers, as encountered in a corpus.（the actual use of language in concrete situations ）。