国际经济学 多米尼克
国际经济学第11章 国际贸易与经济发展
11.2 贸易对发展的重要性
11.2A 贸易理论与经济发展 （一）经济增长的概念
经济增长是指一个国家或地区生产商品和劳务能力的增长。如果考 虑到人口增加和价格的变动情况，经济增长还应包括人均福利的增长。
美国经济学家S•库兹涅茨：一个国家的经济增长，可以定义为给居 民提供种类日益繁多的经济产品的能力长期上升，这种不断增长的能力 是建立在先进技术以及所需要的制度和思想意识之相应的调整的基础上 的。
11.2B 作为增长动力的贸易
较高的出口水平意味着这个国家有了提高其进口水平的手段 出口的增长也趋向于使有关国家的投资领域发生变化
出口使得一国得到规模经济的利益
世界市场上的竞争会给一国的出口工业造成压力 一个日益发展的出口部门还会鼓励国内外的投资
经济增长的6个特征： 产量增长率、人口增长率、人均产量增长率都相当高；
生产率增长率高；
经济结构的变革速度提高； 社会结构与意识形态结构迅速改革；
增长在世界范围内迅速扩大；
世界增长是不平衡的。
（二）经济增长与经济发展 经济增长一般说来是一个量的概念，而经济发展则是一个比较复杂的质的 概念。从广泛的意义说，经济发展不仅包括经济增长，而且还包括国民的生活 质量，以及整个社会经济结构和制度结构的总体进步。总之，经济发展是反映 一个经易与经济发展的关系，包括互相联系的两个方面：一是国际贸易对经济 发展的作用，二是经济发展对国际贸易的影响
国际贸易在经济发展中的作用
对外贸易与经济发展的关系，归根到底是交换与生产的关系 从最本质的意义讲，生产决定交换，但如果从再生产过程看，作为再生产过程 的一个阶段的交换不仅仅是一个消极的被决定的东西，在一定条件下，交换也 能对生产发生反作用，有时会对生产的发展发生巨大的推动作用或阻碍作用。
国际经济学多米尼克
第五章要素禀赋与赫克歇尔-俄林理论该章是对之前贸易模型的扩展，扩展分为两个方面①产生比较优势的基础（什么决定了比较优势）②用扩展后的模型来分析国际贸易对双方要素收入的影响（国际贸易对劳动收入和国际收入差异的影响）；5.2 赫克歇尔-俄林理论的假设5.2A假设条件①有两个国家、两种商品、两种生产要素（劳动&资本）<2*2*2 模型>；②在生产中使用相同的技术；③两个国家中，X都是劳动密集型产品，Y都是资本密集型产品；④两种商品的生产都是规模报酬不变的；⑤生产均为不完全分工；⑥两国需求偏好相同；⑦两种商品、两种要素市场都是完全竞争的；⑧要素可以在国内自由流动，不能在国际间自由流动；⑨没有运输成本、关税、影响贸易自由进行的其他壁垒；⑩两国资源均得到充分利用；11. 两国的贸易是平衡的；<|2*2*2模型→技术相同→资源充分利用|→|（商品）规模报酬不变→不完全分工→X劳动+Y资本→要素国际间不流动→没有壁垒|→|（市场）完全竞争→需求偏好相同|→贸易平衡>5.3B 假设的含义假设3：【劳动密集型】：X相对于Y使用的劳动比例较高/在相同的要素价格下，生产商品X的劳动资本比率（L/K）要高于生产Y的这一比率；【资本密集型】：Y相对于X使用的资本比例较高/生产Y的资本劳动比高于生产X的资本劳动比；假设4：【规模报酬不变】：增加生产某一商品的劳动和资本投入会带来该商品的产量的同比例的增加；假设7：【完全竞争】：商品X和Y的生产者、消费者和贸易者都很小，他们的行为不会影响这些商品的价格；长期中，商品价格=生产成本（减去所有的成本，生产者将不会获得任何超额利润）；假设8：【国内要素自由流动】：劳动和资本可以自由、快速的从低收入的地区及产业流向高收入的地区和产业，知道该国各个地区及产业同类劳动和资本的收益相等位置；5.3 要素密集度、要素充裕度和生产可能性曲线的形状5.3A要素密集度（要素密集度—劳动资本比L/K—针对商品而言）；衡量劳动密集型或资本密集型产品时，要看资本劳动的比例（K/L）而不是绝对数量；如果在任何可能的相对价格水平下，生产Y的资本/劳动均大于生产X的资本/劳动，则我们可以，明确的说Y的资本密集型商品；5.3B 要素充裕度（要素充裕度—相对要素价格P K/P L—针对于国家而言）；【要素充裕度】：（以实物单位定义）各国所有可以利用的资本和劳动的综合来衡量（仅考虑了供给方面的因素）；（以相对要素价格）每个国家的资本的租用价格和劳动时间价格来定义（考虑了供给和需求两方面的因素）；【资本充裕】：①如果国家2的可用总资本和可用总劳动的比率（TK/TL）大于国家1的这一比率；②如果国家2的资本租用价格和劳动时间价格的比率（P K/P L）小于国家1的这一比率；【资本的租用价格】：资本的租用价格是利率（r）；【劳动的时间价格】：劳动的时间价格是工资率（w）；5.3C 要素充裕度和生产可能性曲线的形状由于要素密集程度以及充裕程度的不同，使得生产可能性曲线的平坦程度发生改变；国家1：X是劳动密集型产品，国家1是劳动充裕的国家→生产可能性曲线偏向代表X商品的X轴；国家2：Y是资本密集型产品，国家2是资本充裕的国家→生产可能性曲线偏向代表Y商品的Y轴；5.4 要素禀赋论和赫-俄理论<要素禀赋是国际贸易中具有比较优势的基础>【赫-俄理论的两种理论形式】：①赫克歇尔-俄林定理，研究和预测贸易模式；②要素价格均等理论，研究国际贸易对要素价格的影响；5.4A赫克歇尔-俄林定理【赫克歇尔-俄林定理】：一国应当出口该国相对充裕和便宜的要素密集型的商品，进口该国相对稀缺和昂贵的要素密集型的产品；（劳动相对充裕的国家应当出口劳动密集型产品，进口资本密集型产品）；【造成商品价格差异、比较优势的原因】：各国的相对要素充裕度或称要素禀赋是国际贸易中各国具有比较优势的基本原因和决定因素；（赫克歇尔-俄林定理也称为要素比例/要素禀赋理论）每个国家都应专业化生产并出口该国相对充裕和便宜的要素密集型商品，进口该国相对稀缺和昂贵的要素密集型商品；赫克歇尔-俄林定理认为相对要素充裕度和相对要素价格之间的差异是导致两国贸易前相对商品价格不同的原因，后转换为两国间绝对要素价格和绝对商品价格的差异，这绝对价格差异才是国际贸易发生的直接原因；5.4B赫克歇尔-俄林理论的一般均衡框架偏好+生产要素的分配→产品的最终需求→要素的派生需求+要素的供给→要素的价格→商品的价格；前提假设中，各国的需求偏好相同，所以不同国家对各种生产要素的不同供给就成为导致各国相对要素价格不同的唯一的原因；5.5 要素价格均等与收入分配（H-O-S定理）5.5A要素价格均等定理<国际贸易会缩小国际间同质要素的收入的差距&各国相对要素差异>【要素价格均等（H-O-S）定理】：国际贸易会使各国同质要素获得相同的相对与绝对收入。
国际经济学(多米尼克萨瓦尔多)课后答案
*CHAPTER 2(Core Chapter)COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGEANSWERS TO REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS1. The mercantilists believed that the way for a nation to become rich and powerful was toexport more than it imported. The resulting export surplus would then be settled by an inflow of gold and silver and the more gold and silver a nation had, the richer and more powerful it was. Thus, the government had to do all in its power to stimulate th e nation’s exports and discourage and restrict imports. However, since all nations could not simultaneously have an export surplus and the amount of gold and silver was fixed at any particular point in time, one nation could gain only at the expense of other nations. The mercantilists thus preached economic nationalism, believing that national interests were basically in conflict.Adam Smith, on the other hand, believed that free trade would make all nations better off.All of this is relevant today because many of the arguments made in favor of restricting international trade to protect domestic jobs are very similar to the mercantilists arguments made three or four centuries ago. That is why we can say that “mercantilism is alive and well in the twenty-fi rst century”. Thus we have to be prepared to answer anddemonstrate that these arguments are basically wrong.2. According to Adam Smith, the basis for trade was absolute advantage, or one country beingmore productive or efficient in the production of some commodities and other countries being more productive in the production of other commodities.The gains from trade arise as each country specialized in the production of the commodities in which it had an absolute advantage and importing those commodities in which the nation had an absolute disadvantage.Adam Smith believed in free trade and laissez-faire, or as little government interference with the economic system as possible. There were to be only a few exceptions to this policy of laissez-faire and free trade. One of these was the protection of industries important for national defense.3. Ricardo’s law of comparative advantage is superior to Smith’s theory of absolute advantagein that it showed that even if a nation is less efficient than or has an absolute disadvantage in the production of all commodities with respect to the other nations, there is still a basis forbeneficial trade for all nations.The gains from trade arise from the increased production of all commodities that arises when each country specializes in the production of and exports the commoditiesof its comparative advantage and imports the other commodities.A nation that is less efficient than others will be able to export the commodities of itscomparative advantage by having its wages and other costs sufficiently lower than in othernations so as to make the commodities of its comparative advantage cheaper in terms of the same currency with respect to the other nations.4. a. In case A, the United States has an absolute and a comparative advantage in wheat andthe United Kingdom in cloth. In case B, the United States has an absolute advantage (so that the United Kingdom has an absolute disadvantage) in both commodities. In case C, theUnited States has an absolute advantage in wheat but has neither an absolute advantage nor disadvantage in cloth. In case D, the United States has an absolute advantage over theUnited Kingdom in both commodities.b. In case A, the United States has a comparative advantage in wheat and the UnitedKingdom in cloth. In case B, the United States has a comparative advantage in wheat and the United Kingdom in cloth. In case C, the United States has a comparative advantage in wheat and the United Kingdom in cloth. In case D, the United States and the United Kingdom havea comparative advantage in neither commodities.5. a. The United States gains 1C.b. The United Kingdom gains 4C.c. 3C < 4W < 8C.d. The United States would gain 3C while the United Kingdom would gain 2C.6. a. The cost in terms of labor content of producing wheat is 1/4 in the United States and 1 inthe United Kingdom, while the cost in terms of labor content of producing cloth is 1/3 in the United States and 1/2 in the United Kingdom.b. In the United States, Pw=$1.50 and Pc=$2.00.c. In the United Kingdom, Pw=£1.00 and Pc=£0.50.7. The United States has a comparative disadvantage in the production of textiles. Restrictingtextile imports would keep U.S. workers from eventually moving into industries in which the United States has a comparative advantage and in which wages are higher.8. Ricardo’s explanation of the law of comparative is unacceptable because it is based on thelabor theory of value, which is not an acceptable theory of value.The explanation of the law of comparative advantage can be based on the opportunity cost doctrine, which is an acceptable theory of value.9. The production possibilities frontier reflects the opportunity costs of producing bothcommodities in the nation.The production possibilities frontier under constant costs is a (negatively sloped) straight line.The absolute slope of the production possibilities frontier reflects or gives the price of the commodity plotted along the horizontal axis in relation to the commodity plotted along the vertical axis.10. a. See Figure 1.1.b. In the United States Pw/Pc=3/4, while in the United Kingdom, Pw/Pc=2.c. In the United States Pc/Pw=4/3, while in the United Kingdom Pc/Pw=1/2.d. See Figure 1.2.The autarky points are A and A' in the United States and the United Kingdom, respectively.The points of production with trade are B and B' in the United States and the United Kingdom, respectively.The points of consumption are E and E' in the United States and the United Kingdom, respectively. The gains from trade are shown by E > A for the U.S. and E' > A' for the U.K.ANSWERS TO REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS1. a. Increasing opportunity costs arise because resources or factors of production are nothomogeneous (i.e., all units of the same factor are not identical or of the same quality) and not used in the same fixed proportion or intensity in the production of all commodities.This means that as the nation produces more of a commodity; it must utilize resources that become progressively less efficient or less suited for the production of that commodity. As a result, the nation must give up more and more of the second commodity to release justenough resources to produce each additional unit of the first commodity (i.e., it facesincreasing costs).b. In the real world, the production frontiers of different nations will usually differ becauseof differences in factor endowments and technology.2. a. See Figure3.1.b. The slope of the transformationcurve increases as the nationproduces more of X and decreasesas the nation produces more of Y.These reflect increasingopportunity costs as the nationproduces more of X or Y.3. a. See Figures 3.2a and 3.2b.b. Nation 1 has a comparative advantage in X and Nation 2 in Y.c. If the relative commodity price line in autarky has equal slope in both nations. This is rare.4. a. See Figures 3.3a and 3.3 b. Points B and B’ are the production points in Nations 1 and 2,respectively, with specialization and trade and E and E’ are the consumption points.b. Nation 1 gains by the amount by which community indifference curve III (point E) isabove indifference curve I (point A). Nation 2 gains to the extent that community indifference curve III’ (point E’) is above indifference curve I’ (point A).5. a. The equilibrium-relative commodity price in isolation is the relative price that prevailsin the nation without trade or in autarky.b. The equilibrium-relative commodity price in isolation for the commodity plotted alongthe horizontal axis is given by the (absolute) slope of the tangent of the production frontier and the community indifference curve at the point of production and consumption in thenation in isolation.c. The nation with the lower equilibrium relative commodity price in isolation or autarkyhas a comparative advantage in the commodity measured along the commodity axis and a comparative disadvantage in the commodity measured along the vertical axis.6. a. Nation 1 is better off at point E’ than at point A’ because point E’ is on higher communityindifference curve III than at point A, which is on lower community indifference curve I.b. Nation 1 consumes less of commodity Y at point E’ (40Y) than at point A’ (60Y) becauseP Y/P X is much higher at point E’ (P B’ =1) than at point A’ (P A’ =1/4, the inverse of P X/P Y=4).7. a. The reason for incomplete specialization under increasing costs is that as each nationspecializes in the production of the commodity of its comparative advantage, the relative commodity price in each nation moves toward each other (i.e., become less unequal) until they are identical in both nations. At that point, it does not pay for either nation to continue to expand the production of the commodity of its initial comparative advantage. This occurs before either nation has completely specialized in production.b. Under constant costs, each nation specializes completely in production of thecommodity of its comparative advantage (i.e., produces only that commodity). The reason is that since it pays for the nation to obtain some of the commodity of its comparativedisadvantage from the other nation, then it pays for the nation to get all of the commodity of its comparative disadvantage from the other nation (i.e., to specialize completely in the production of the commodity of its comparative advantage).8. See Figure 3.5 (Please disregard Figure 3.4, which shows how to derive the demand andsupply curve for commodity X for Nation 1 and Nation 2 that are used to show how theequilibrium relative commodity price is determined with trade – a topic that is covered inAppendix A3.1.Nations 1 and 2 have identical production frontiers (shown by a single curve) but different tastes (indifference curves). In isolation, Nation 1 produces and consumes at point A and Nation 2 at point A’. Since P A < P A’, Nation 1 has a comparative advantage in X and Nation2 in Y.With trade, Nation 1 specializes in the production of X and produces at B, while Nation 2 specializes in Y and produces at B’ (which coincides with B). By exchanging BC = C’E’ of X for CE = C’B of Y with each other (see trade triangles BCE and B’C’E’), Nation 1 ends up consuming at E on indifference curve III (higher than indifference curve I at point A) and Nation 2 consumes at on indifference curve III’ (higher than indifference curve I’ at po int A’).9. a. If the terms of trade of a nation improved from 100 to 110 over a given period of time, theterms of trade of the trade partner would deteriorate by about 9 percent over the same period of time [(100-110)/110 = -0.09 =0.9%].b. A deterioration in the terms of trade of the trade partner can be said to be unfavorable to thetrade partner because the trade partner must pay a higher price for its imports in terms of its exports.c. This does not necessarily mean that the welfare of the trade partner has decreased becausethe deterioration in its terms of trade may have resulted from an increase in productivity that is shared with the other nation.10. It is true that Mexico's wages are much lower than U.S. wages (they are about one fifth of theaverage wage in the United States), but labor productivity is much higher in the United Statesand so labor costs are not necessarily higher than in Mexico. In any event, trade can still be based on comparative advantage.*CHAPTER 4(Core Chapter)THE HECKSCHER-OHLIN AND OTHER TRADE THEORIES ANSWERS TO REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS1. a. The Heckscher–Ohlin (H-0) theorem postulates that a nation will export thosecommodi ties whose production requires the intensive use of the nation’s relativelyabundant and cheap factor and import the commodities whose production requires theintensive use of the nation’s relatively scarce and expensive factor. In short, the relatively labor-rich nation exports relatively labor-intensive commodities and imports the relatively capital-intensive commodities.b. Heckscher and Ohlin identify the relative difference in factor endowments amongnations as the basic determinant of comparative advantage and international trade.c. The H-O Theory represents an extension of the standard trade model because itexplains the basis for comparative advantage (classical economists, such as Ricardo hadassumed it) and examines the effect of international trade on factor prices and incomedistribution (which classical economists had left unanswered).2. See Figure 4.1.3. a. The factor–price equalization theorem postulates that international trade will bringabout the equalization of the returns to homogeneous or identical factors across nations.b. The Stopler-Samuelson theorem postulates that free international trade reduces the realincome of the nation’s relatively scarce factor and increases the real income of the nation’s relatively abundant factor.c. The specific-factors model postulates that the opening of trade (1) benefits the specificfactor used in the production of t he nation’s export commodity, (2) harms the specific factor used in the production of the nation’s import-competing industry, and (3) leads to anambiguous effect (i.e., it may benefit or harm) the mobile factor.d. Trade acts as a substitute for the international mobility of factors of production in itseffect on factor prices. With perfect mobility, labor would migrate from the low-wagenation to the high-wage nation until wages in the two nations are equalized. Similarly,capital would move from the low-interest to the high-interest nation until the rate ofinterest was equalized in the two nations.4. a. The Leontief paradox refers to the original Leontief’s finding that U.S. importsubstitutes were more K-intensive than U.S. exports. This was the opposite of what the H-O theorem postulated.b. The Leontief paradox was resolved by including human capital into the calculationsand excluding industries based on natural resources. Recent research using data on many sectors, for many countries, over many years, and considering that countries couldspecialize in a particular subset or group of commodities that were best suited to theirspecific factor endowments, provides strong support for the H-O theorem.c. The Hecksher-Olhin theory remains the centerpiece of modern trade theory for explaininginternational trade today. To be sure, there are other forces (such as economies of scale,product differentiation, and technological differences across countries) that provide additional reasons and explanations for some international trade not explained by the basic H-O model.These other trade theories complement the basic H-O model in explaining the pattern ofinternational trade in the world today.5. International trade with developing economies, especially newly industrializing economies(NIEs), contributed in two ways to increased wage inequalities between skilled and unskilled workers in the United States during the past two decades. Directly, by reducing the demand for unskilled workers as a result of increased U.S. imports of labor-intensive manufactures and, indirectly, by speeding up the introduction of labor-saving innovations, which furtherreduced the U.S. demand for unskilled workers. International trade, however, was only asmall cause of increased wage inequalities in the United States. The most important causewas technological change.6. a. Economies of scale refer to the production situation where output grows proportionatelymore than the increase in inputs or factors of production. For example, output may morethan double with a doubling of inputs.b. Even if two nations were identical in every respect, there is still a basis for mutuallybeneficial trade based on economies of scale. When each nation specializes in theproduction of one commodity, the combined total world output of both commodities will be greater than without specialization when economies of scale are present. With trade, each nation then shares in these gains.c. The new international economies of scale refers to the increase in productivity resultingfrom firms purchasing parts and components from nations where they are made cheaper and better, and by establishing production facilities abroad.7. a. Product differentiation refers to products that are similar, but not identical.Intra-industry trade refers to trade in differentiated products, as opposed to inter-industry trade in completely different products.b. Intra-industry trade arises in order to take advantage of important economies of scale inproduction. That is, with intra-industry trade each firm or plant in industrial countries can specialize in the production of only one, or at most a few, varieties and styles of the same product rather than many different varieties and styles of a product and achieve economies of scale.c. With few varieties and styles, more specialized and faster machinery can be developedfor a continuous operation and a longer production run. The nation then imports othervarieties and styles from other nations. Intra-industry trade benefits consumers because of the wider range of choices (i.e., the greater variety of differentiated products) available at the lower prices made possible by economies of scale in production.*CHAPTER 5(Core Chapter)TRADE RESTRICTIONS: TARIFFSANSWERS TO REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS1. a. See Figure 5.1.b. Consumption is 70X, production is 50X and imports are 20X.c. The consumption effect is –30X, the production effect is +30X, the trade effect is –60X,and the revenue effect is $30 (see Figure 5.1).2. a. The consumer surplus is $250 without and $l22.50 with the tariff (see Figure 5.1).b. Of the increase in the revenue of producers with the tariff (as compared with theirrevenues under free trade), $22.50 represents the increase in production costs and another $22.50 represents the increase in rent or producer surplus (see Figure 5.1).c. The dollar value or the protection cost of the tariff is $45 (see Figure 5.1).3.The dollar value or the protection cost of the tariff is $45 (see Figure 5.2).4.The dollar value or the protection cost of the tariff is $45 (see Figure5.3).5. The optimum tariff is the tariff that maximizes the net benefit resulting from theimprovement in the nation’s terms of trade against the negative effect resulting fromreduction in the volume of trade.6. a. When a nation imposes an optimum tariff, the trad e partner’s welfare declines becauseof the lower volume of trade and the deterioration in its terms of trade.b. The trade partner is likely to retaliate and in the end both nations are likely to losebecause of the reduction in the volume of trade.7. Even when the trade partner does not retaliate when one nation imposes the optimum tariff,the gains of the tariff-imposing nation are less than the losses of the trade partner, so thatthe world as a whole is worse off than under free trade. It is in this sense that free trademaximizes world welfare.8. a. The nominal tariff is calculated on the market price of the product or service. The rateof effective protection, on the other hand, is calculated on the value added in the nation. It is equal to the value of the price of the commodity or service minus the value of theimported inputs used in the production of the commodity or service.b. The nominal tariff is important to consumers because it determines by how much theprice of the imported commodity increases. The rate of effective protection is important for domestic producers because it determines the actual rate of protection provided by thetariff to domestic processing.9. a. Rates of effective protection in industrial nations are generally much higher than thecorresponding nominal rates and increase with the degree of processing.b. The tariff structure of developed nations is of great concern for developing nationsbecause it discourages manufacturing production in developing nations.10. If a nation reduces the nominal tariff on the importation of the raw materials required toproduce a commodity but does not reduce the tariff on the importation of the finalcommodity produced with the imported raw material, then the effective tariff rates willincrease relative to the nominal tariff rate on the commodity.*CHAPTER 6(Core Chapter)NONTARIFF TRADE BARRIERS ANDTHE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF PROTECTIONISMANSWERS TO REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS1. a. An import quota will increase the price of the product to domestic consumers, reducethe domestic consumption of the good, increase domestic production, and result in aprotection or deadweight loss to the economy.b. The effects of an import quota are identical to those of an equivalent import tariff,except that with a quota the government does not collect a tariff revenue (unless it auctions off import quotas to the highest bidder). The import quota is also more restrictive than an equivalent import tariff because foreign producers cannot increase their exports bylowering their prices.2.By penciling in D”X in Figure 1, we can see that the effects of the import quota are:P x=$2.00 and consumption is 60X, of which 40X are produced domestically and 20X areimported; by auctioning off import licenses, the revenue effect would be $20.3.The effects of an export quota of 20X are identical to those of an import quota of 20X or a100 percent import tariff on commodity X, except that the revenue effect is collected by the exporters, rather than by the domestic importers or their government.7. a. The infant-industry argument postulates that temporary protection may be justified inorder to allow a developing nation to develop an industry in which it has a potentialcomparative advantage. Temporary trade protection is then justified to establish and protect the domestic industr y during its “infancy” until it can grow and meet foreign competition.For this argument to be valid, however, protection must be temporary and the return in the grown-up industry must be sufficiently high to also offset the higher prices paid bydomestic consumers of the commodity during the period of infancy.b. The infant-industry argument must be qualified in several important ways to beacceptable. First, this argument is more justified for developing nations (where capitalmarkets may not function properly) than for industrial nations. Second, it is usuallydifficult to identify which industry or potential industry qualifies for this treatment, andexperience has shown that protection, once given, is difficult to remove. Third, and most important, what trade protection (say in the form of an import tariff) can do, an equivalent production subsidy to the infant industry can do better.8. a. According to strategic industrial trade policy a nation can create a comparativeadvantage (through temporary trade protection, subsidies, tax benefits, and cooperativegovernment–industry programs) in a high-technology field deemed crucial to future growth in the nation.b. There are also serious difficulties in carrying strategic industrial and trade policies.First, it is extremely difficult to pick winners (i.e., choose the industries that will contribute significantly to growth in the future). Second, if most leading nations undertake strategictrade policies at the same time, their efforts are largely neutralized. Third, when a country does achieve substantial success with a strategic trade policy, this comes at the expense of other countries (i.e., it is a beggar-thy-neighbor policy), which are, therefore, likely to retaliate. Faced with all these practical difficulties, even supporters of strategic trade policy grudgingly acknowledge that free trade is still the best policy, after all.*CHAPTER 7(Core Chapter)ECONOMIC INTEGRATIONANSWERS TO REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS1.If Nation A imposes a 100 percent ad valorem tariff on imports of commodity X fromNation B and Nation C, Nation A will produce commodity X domestically because thedomestic price of commodity X is $10 as compared with the tariff-inclusive price of $16 if Nation A imported commodity X from Nation B and $12 if Nation A imported commodity X from nation C.2. a. If Nation A forms a customs union with Nation B, Nation A will import commodity Xfrom Nation B at the price of $8 instead of producing it itself at $10 or importing it fromNation C at the tariff-inclusive price of $12.b. The formation by Nation A of a customs union with Nation B leads to trade creationonly because Nation A replaces the domestic production of commodity X at Px=$10 with tariff-free imports of commodity X from Nation B at Px=$8.3.If Nation A imposes a 50 percent ad valorem tariff on imports of commodity X fromNation B and Nation C, Nation A will import commodity X from nation C at thetariff-inclusive price of $9 instead of producing commodity X itself or importing it from Nation B at the tariff-inclusive price of $12.4. a. If Nation A forms a customs union with Nation B, Nation A will import commodity Xfrom Nation B at the price of $8 instead of importing it from Nation C at the tariff-inclusive price of $9.b. The formation by Nation A of a customs union with Nation B leads not only to tradecreation but also to trade diversion because it replaces lower-cost imports of commodity X of $6 (from the point of view of Nation A as a whole) with higher priced imports ofCommodity X from Nation B at $8.Specifically, Nation A's importers do not import commodity X from Nation C because the tariff-inclusive price of commodity X from Nation C is $9 as compared with the no-tariff price of $8 for imports of commodity X from Nation B. However, since the government of Nation A collects the $3 tariff per unit on imports of commodity X fromNation C, the net effective price for imports of commodity X from Nation C is really $6 for Nation A as a whole.5. a. See Figure 7.1.b. The net gain from the trade-diverting customs union shown in Figure 1 is given byC'JJ'+B'HH'-MJ'H'N. As contrasted with the case in Figure 7-1 in the text, however, the sum of the areas of the two triangles (measuring gains) is here greater than the area therectangle (measuring the loss). Thus, the nation would now gain from the formation of acustom union. Had we drawn the figure on graph paper, we would have been able tomeasure the net gain in monetary terms also.6. A customs union that leads to both trade creation and trade diversion is more likely to leadto a net positive welfare gain of the nation joining the union (1) the smaller is the relative inefficiency of the union member in relation to the non-union member and (2) the higher is the level of the tariff imposed by the customs union on the non-union member.7.The dynamic benefits resulting from the formation of a customs union are (1) increasedcompetition, (2) economies of scale, (3) stimulus to investment, and (4) better utilization of economic resources. These are likely to be much more significant than the static benefits.8.See Figure 7.2. The formation of the customs union has no effect.。
国际经济学多米尼克萨尔15ch课后答案
Answer to Problems1. a. The rate of inflation in the United Kingdom from 1973 to 2001 was:116.1 – 15.6 = 100.5 = 1.460 or 146.0%(116.1+15.6)/2 68.85On the other hand, the rate of inflation in the United States from 1973 to 2001 was:112.1 – 34.3 = 77.8 = 1.063 or 106.3%(112.1+34.3)/2 73.2Thus, the inflation rate in the United Kingdom minus the inflation rate in the United Statesfrom 1973 to 2001 was:146.0% - 1063% = 39.7%From 1973 to 2001, the British pound depreciated with respect to the U.S. dollar from£0.4078 to the dollar in 1973 and £0.6944 per dollar in 2001 or by0.6944 – 0.4078 = 0.2866 = 0.520 or 52.0%(0.6944+0.4078)/2 0.5511b. The relative PPP theory did hold only to the extent that the rate of inflation was higher in theUnited Kingdom and the pound depreciated with respect to the U.S. between 1973 and 2001.But the percent depreciation of the British pound with respect to the dollar was much greater than that predicted by the relative PPP.Note that in the above calculations, percentage changes were obtained by the averageof the beginning and end values. You may want to ask the class to do the same whenassigning this and the next problem so as to get the same answer.2. The rate of inflation in Switzerland from 1973 to 2001 was:103.2 – 45.0 = 58.2 = 0.785 or 78.5%(103.2+45.0)/2 74.1Thus, the inflation rate in Switzerland minus the inflation rate in the United States (found inProblem 1a) is:78.5% - 106.3% = -27.8%From 1973 to 2001, the Swiss franc appreciated with respect to the U.S. dollar from3.1648 Swiss francs per dollar in 1973 to 1.6876 Swiss francs per dollar in 2001 or by11.6876 - 3.1648 = -1.4772 = -0.609 or –60.9%(1.6876+3.1648)/2 2.4262The relative PPP theory did hold only to the extent that the rate of inflation was lower in Switzerland and the Swiss franc appreciated with respect to the U.S. between 1973 and 2001.But the percent appreciation of the Swiss franc with respect to the dollar was much greater than that predicted by the relative PPP.3. a. Md=kPY=(1/V)(PY)=(1/5)(200)=$40 billion.b. If the nation's nominal GDP rises to $220 billion, Md=220/5=$44 billion.c. If the nation's nominal GNP increases by 10 percent each year,Md increases also by 10 per cent each year.4. a. Monetary base of the nation is,D+F=8+2=$10 billion.b. The value of the money multiplier is,m=1/LLR=1/0.25=4.c. The value of the nation's total money supply isMs=m(D+F)=4(8+2)=$40 billion5. a. Md=Ms and the nation is in balance of payments equilibrium.b. Md of $44 billion exceeds Ms of $40 by $4 billion.With m=4, there will be an inflow of money or international reserves from abroad of $1billion to equate Ms to Md. Thus, the nation's balance of payments surplus will be equalto $1.The nation will face a continuous inflow of money or international reserves, year in and year out.7. Md=100/4=25 falls short of Ms=30 and there will be an outflow of international reserves(a deficit in the nation's balance of payments).8.According to the monetary approach, inflation in the second nation is caused by excessivemoney creation there. As a result, either the first nation's exchange rate has to appreciateto keep its balance of payments in equilibrium or its monetary base will rise (so that inflationwill spread to nation 1).2。
国际经济学 多米尼克
第十二章国际资源流动与跨国公司12.4 国际资本流动的福利效应12.4A 对资本输入国与输出国的作用（鼓励资本的自由流动，要素的价格出现均等化）【纵观】：国际资本流动增加了国际资源分配的效率，从而增加了世界的产出和福利；VMPK1和VMPK2（资本边际产品值）中较为陡峭的一条将从国际资本流动中获利较大；【备注】：VMPK—资本的边际产品收益；在竞争条件下，VMPK代表资本的报酬或收益；12.4B 对于资本输入国与输出国的其他影响【影响】：①当投资国因对外投资而整体收益时，以及吸收国从国外投资中收益时，这些投资会导致资本和劳动的国内收入的重新分配。
如果允许非充分就业的存在，对外投资会降低投资国的就业水平而增加被投资国的就业水平；<改变收入分配，改善被投资国的就业水平>；②资本输出国国际收支恶化，资本输入国国际收支得到改善；资本的输出输入对国际收支的即时作用在输出国是负的，在输入国是正的，但长期作用不确定（对输出国负的作用可能被为输出国资本品、零部件等的大量出口换回的收入所抵消）；<短期内改善了资本输入国的国际收支情况>；③资本输出国的税基与所纳税额都减少了，而资本输入国的税基与所纳税额却都相应提高了；④对外投资通过影响两国的产品产量以及贸易量，从而影响两国的贸易条件；⑤对外投资会影响输出国的技术领先地位；⑥吸收对外投资会是输入国自己经济的控制力和执行独立经济政策的能力受到制约；12.6 国际劳工迁徙的原因及其福利效应12.6A 国际劳工迁徙的动机【主要动机】：受到国外更高的实际工资和收入的美好前景的吸引；12.6B 国际劳工迁徙的福利效应图12.2 国际劳工迁徙的产出与福利效应【分析&备注】：①VMPL：劳动的边际产品收益；在竞争的条件下，VMPL代表了劳动的真实工资；②劳工迁徙前的状态（就业/失业），影响了移民后世界总产出增加的数量；12.6C 国际劳动迁徙的其他福利影响【脑力流失】：高技能员工的流动问题；（非法移民etc）；。
国际经济学 多米尼克
第六章规模经济、不完全竞争与国际贸易放松赫-俄理论的部分假设前提，对理论做出调整和扩展；6.2 赫克歇尔-俄林模型与新贸易理论【对假设的放松】：①两个以上国家、两种以上商品、两种以上要素<n*n*n模型>；②各国使用不相同的技术<可以将技术看做是生产要素的一种>；③要素密集度颠倒发生概率很低；④规模报酬递增（形成了规模经济）；⑦产品、要素市场均为不完全竞争；⑧要素可以在国际间自由流动；11 各国之间的贸易不平衡；6.3 规模经济与国际贸易【规模报酬递增】：产出水平增长比例高于要素投入增长比例的生产状况；（发生的原因：大规模的生产可以更加有效的利用劳动力进行专业化分工&使用专业化、高效率的机器设备）；（规模报酬：投入要素与产出水平之间的关系；规模经济：产量与平均/机会成本的关系）【基于规模经济的贸易】：（注：规模经济→生产成本递减→生产可能性曲线凸向原点；与规模报酬的状态无关）；若两国在各个方面完全一样，则用同样的生产可能性曲线、社会无差异曲线来表示两国的情况；补充：①两国中哪个国家完全专业化生产X、Y没有区别；②规模报酬递增条件下，两国发生互惠贸易，不一定以两国完全相同为前提；③若规模经济在很大的产出水平上仍然存在，一国的少数几个企业会获得某种商品的整个市场；【完全垄断】：某种不存在替代品的商品只有一个生产同质或不同之商品的生产者；【寡头垄断】：某种同质或差异商品有几个生产者；【外包】：企业为了削减成本，在海外采购零部件；【离岸外包】：企业在自己设在海外的工厂生产产品所使用的部分零部件；6.4 不完全竞争与国际贸易6.4A基于产品差别的贸易（142-143）国际贸易中的一大部分是【差别产品】的【产业内贸易】；【结论】：比较优势确定产业间贸易的模式，差别产品生产中的规模经济导致产业内贸易；产业间贸易反映了自然形成的比较优势，产业内贸易发硬的是获得性的比较优势；6.4B 产业内贸易的测度【产业内贸易指数】：公式见纸；缺点：用不同的范围定义产业或商品种类时，获得的T值均会不同；但对于度量不同产业间的产业内贸易的差异，以及同一产业中随着时间推移产业内贸易的变化时十分有用；【垄断竞争】：很多厂商出售差别产品，而且进出该产业都比较容易的市场组织形式；若X，Y是同质的，则国家1出口X进口Y，国家2出口Y进口X；若X，Y是不同质的，则国家1是X的净出口国（进口其他种类的X，出口其他种类的Y），国家2是Y的净出口国（进口其他种类的Y，出口其他种类的X）；→当产品是同质的时候，只有产业间贸易；当产品是差别的，产业间、产业内贸易均会发生；两国的要素禀赋和技术越接近，与产业间贸易相比，产业内贸易越重要；6.5基于动态技术差异的贸易各国技术的动态变化也是引起国际贸易的单独因素之一；因包含了时间因素——赫克歇尔-俄林模型的动态扩展；6.5A技术差距与产品生命周期模型【技术差距模型】：工业国家之间的贸易的很大一部分都是以新产品和新工序的引进为基础的；（波斯奈建立的）；强调的是模仿过程中的时间滞后性；缺点：不能解释技术差距的大小，未给出技术差距产生和随着时间推移而消失的原因；【产品生命周期】：（弗农提出）强调的是产品的标准化过程；（当一种新产品刚刚诞生时，其生产往往需要高素质的劳动力。
国际经济学3 - 国际贸易的标准理论
需求 （社会无差异曲线）
贸易条件下的均衡
各国内部相对 价格相等
3.2 成本递增条件下的生产可能性 曲线
1、成本递增 引入目的：更接近经济现实
机会成本不变（ 1 ）不符合实际；（ 2 ）难以得到唯一的均 衡解。
定义：每多生产1单位的X产品所必须放弃的Y产品的生产数 量是不断增加的，即随着X产品产量的扩大，X的机会成本是 不断增加的。
3.5C 不完全分工(INCOMPLETE SPECIALIZATION)
固定成本下的贸易所得：在固定成本条件下，每一个国家都 完全分工生产其具有比较优势的商品。
C
C
U.S
120 70 60 A E B 90 110 180 W
120
B1
U.K
50 40
A1
E1
40 60 70 120
W
在机会成本递增条件下，在两国生产中存在着不完全分工 这种不完全分工的原因是：
3.4 孤立均衡
什么是孤立均衡？ 在不发生对外贸易的条件下，当一国达到其生产可能性曲线 所允许的最高的社会无差异曲线时，该国就达到了均衡状态， 这发生在社会无差异曲线与生产可能性曲线相切的位置上。 两条切线在切点的公切线的斜率给出了国内的均衡相对价格， 反映了该国的比较优势。
3.4A 对于孤立均衡的说明
在一般情况下，国际贸易会导致两国产品的相对价格都发生 改变，相对价格趋同。例如说在封闭情况下，A国X与Y产品的 相对价格是1：2，B国X与Y产品的相对价格是1：4，通过国 际贸易世界价格变为1：3，处于国际贸易之前两国相对价格 的中间地带，通过贸易，两国均获得好处。 但如果A国是大国，B国是小国，国际贸易的结果是世界相对 价格等于A国封闭状况下的国内价格，B国也即小国得到全部 的贸易好处。无论是李嘉图模型，还是标准贸易模型，都是 如此。
国际经济学 多米尼克萨尔 第八版 18章课件
The Mundell–Fleming model portrays the short-run relationship between an economy's nominal exchange rate, interest rate, and output (in contrast to the closed-economy ISLM model, which focuses only on the relationship between the interest rate and output). The Mundell–Fleming model has been used to argue that an economy cannot simultaneously maintain a fixed exchange rate, free capital movement, and an independent monetary policy. This principle is frequently called the "impossible trinity," or the "Mundell–Flemin63年，蒙代尔在《加拿大经济学杂志》上发表了 “固定和浮动汇率下的资本流动和稳定政策”。在这 篇有划时代意义的论文中，蒙代尔分析了开放经济中 货币政策和财政政策的短期效应。 他的基本结论是，宏观稳定政策的效果将随国际资本 流动的程度而发生变化。在不同的汇率体制下，宏观 政策的效果是完全不同的。在浮动汇率制度下，货币 政策有效而财政政策无效；在固定汇率制度下，财政 政策有效而货币政策无效。 在20世纪60年代，蒙代尔在国际货币基金组织的一位 同事弗莱明也对开放经济中的稳定政策进行了相似的 研究，说明资本是否自由流动以及不同的汇率制度对 一国宏观经济的影响，所以在教科书中，他们的思想 被称为“蒙代尔一弗莱明模型”(Mundell-Flemming Model)。
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第十四章外汇市场与汇率
【外汇市场】：是个人、公司、银行买外外汇或外币的市场；
14.2外汇市场的功能
【功能】：
1 基本功能是把资金和购买力从一个国家和一种货币转移到另一个国
家和另一种货币；
2 信贷功能；
3 提供套期保值和投机的机会；
【外汇市场参与者的分类】：
1 旅游者、进口商、出口商、投资者等传统外汇使用者，外汇的直接
供求者；
2 商业银行，外汇使用者、获得者的清算所；
3 外汇经纪人，商业银行通过他们互相调整外汇头寸；
4 中央银行，该国外汇收支失衡时的最后买卖人；
14.3 汇率
14.3A 均衡汇率
【汇率】：购买一单位外币所需的本币数量；
【汇率决定】：互动汇率制下，汇率有外汇的供给、需求曲线决定；【（本币）贬值】：外币以本币表示的价值上升；
【（本币）升值】：国外货币的国内价格下降；
（国内货币升值就是国外货币贬值）；
【有效汇率】：一国货币相对于该国最重要的一些贸易伙伴国的货币的汇率的加权平均值，权重由这些贸易伙伴国与本国贸易关系的重要程度决定；
14.3B 套利
【套利】：从某种相对便宜的货币中心购买这种货币，然后立即在较贵的另一货币中心卖掉，以赚取利润；
由于套利的存在，两种货币间的汇率在不同货币中心间趋于相等；14.3C 汇率和国际收支
【管制&浮动汇率】；在与外汇管制的浮动汇率制下，官方储备的损失仅仅表示官方干预外汇市场以影响汇率变动及水平的程度，二不代表国际收支平衡表的赤字情况（在此种情况的时候，通常通过用外汇储备进行一部分的干预，用本币贬值进行处理另一部分）；
【固定汇率制】：一国央行通过动用本国外汇储备，来维持固定水平下
的汇率；
14.4即期与远期汇率、货币互换、期货与期权
14.4A 即期与远期汇率
【即期交易】：交易达成后，在成交后两个交易日完成货币的收付；【远期交易】：当前签订的一份合约，规定在未来的某一天以今天商定的汇价买或卖某种数量的某种货币；（签订合约时不发生货币的收付）；
【远期汇率的均衡点】：是有未来交割的市场供给和需求曲线的交点决定的，在任何时点上，远期汇率可能等于、高于或低于即期汇率；
【远期贴水】：远期汇率低于即期汇率，则称外币对本币有远期贴水；【远期升水】：远期汇率高于即期汇率，则称外币对本币有远期升水；【远期贴水（FD）、升水（FP）率】：公式见纸；
14.4B 货币互换
【货币互换】：一种货币以即期汇率卖出，同时以远期汇率再购回，在一项合约中达成两种交易；
【互换率】：互换中即期与远期的汇价差；
14.6 利率套利和外汇市场的效率
【利率套利】：指短期流动资本在国际间流动，以便在国外获得较高的报酬；
14.6A无抛补套利
【无抛补套利】：对于将资金用于国外以获得较高利率是，对可能出现的汇率风险不进行规避；（利率套利过程，因欧盟的利率高于美国利率，将美元在即期市场上兑换为欧元，在欧盟地区进行投资，获取较高利息。
到期后，将欧元的本利和，在兑换回美元，在最后的过程中可能会面临欧元贬值的风险，使得收益减少）；
14.6B 抛补套利
【抛补套利】：是指在即期市场上买入准备投资的外币，同时卖出外汇远期以规避汇率风险；（在远期市场上将到期后会受到的以外币计价的本利和卖出）；
【抛补套利是获利可能性减小】：①资金的流动以及即期远期市场间货币的流动，使得两种货币的利差减小；②会使得远期贴水增加，从而减少获利；（393）；。