英文文献原文
Mercury (Hg2+) effect on enzyme activities and hepatopancreas histo structures of juvenile Chinese mitten crab Eriocheir sinensis*Abstract We studied the effects of mercury (Hg2+) on antioxidant and digestive enzyme activities in terms of LC50 value and on hepatopancreas histo structures of juvenile Chinese mitten crabs Eriocheir sinensis in 40-day exposure to various concentrations of Hg2+ (0, 0.01, 0.05, 0.10, 0.20, and 0.30 mg/L). The results show that the activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPX) and catalase (CAT) significantly increased in the concentrations of 0.01 and 0.05 mg/L, while that of enzyme decreased in 0.10, 0.20 and 0.30 mg/L treatments. Meanwhile, Hg2+ disrupted the histo structures of the hepatopancreas, causing decreases in activities of pepsin, tryptase, amylase, and cellulose, which are synthesized in the hepatopancreas. Moreover, as the Hg2+ concentration increased, the survival rate of the crabs decreased, worst at 56.57% in 0.30 mg/L. Therefore, although crabs are able to tolerate low levels of mercury pollution, high levels lead to cellular injury and tissue damage in hepatopancreas, which then loses some of its vital physiological functions such as absorption, storage, and secretion.Keyword: Eriocheir sinensis; mercury; hepatopancreas; antioxidant enzymes; histo structure; digestive ; enzymes1 INTRODUCTIONMercury is a nonessential metal for aquatic animals (Bano et al., 1989). Due to anthropogenic input and environmental transport of mercury, pollution of the aquatic environment has increased significantly in the past decade (Mason et al., 1994; Botton, 2000). Waterborne mercury penetrates into aquatic animals, accumulates in different tissues, and induces adverse effects at the molecular, cellular and tissue levels (Bianchini et al., 1996; St-Amand et al., 1999; Chou et al., 2002).The Chinese mitten crab, Eriocheir sinensis (Edwards, 1853), is one of the most economically important crab species in China, with annual production reaching 500 000 tons and valued at US$2.2 billion in 2005. Previous investigations have described acute toxicity (Bianchini et al., 1996) and morphological changes in the gills of E. sinensis exposed to mercury (Zhao et al., 2008). However, the mechanism of mercury toxicity to E. sinensis is still largely unknown.Previous studies show that ambient mercury exposure leads to the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) including O2-, OH-, O2-and H2O2 (Ali et al., 2000). ROS are very unstable and highly reactive, and can induce alterations in the structure of cellular macromolecules, such as proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, etc. (Michiels et al., 1988). ROS formation can also induce cellular damage (Verlecar et al., 2008). Superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and glutathione peroxidase (GPX) are the primary enzymes responsible for scavenging ROS. Homeostatic mechanisms act to equilibrate the amount of ROS generated under stress conditions in order to protect an organism from adverse effects(Pan et al., 2006; Yan et al., 2007). In addition, the activity of these enzymes is regulated by health status and environmental stress (Winston et al., 1991). Although several studies have reported ROS formation, antioxidant enzyme activity, and scavenger responses in crustaceans (Sridevi et al., 1998; Yan et al., 2007), little is known about the relationship between ambient Hg2+ and the antioxidant defensive systems of Eriocheir sinensis.* Supported by the National Basic Research Program of China (973 Program) (No. 2007CB407306);Basic Scientific Research Operation Cost of State-level Public Welfare Scientific Research Institute of Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences (No. 2007KYYW08)** Corresponding author: xhwang@The hepatopancreas in various crustacean species functions as the major digestive gland, and it is very sensitive to heavy metals and other water-born pollutants (Bhavan et al., 2000; Yang et al., 2007; Li et al., 2007). The excretion of digestive enzymes, which reflects digestive activity, is one of the most important physiological functions of the crustacean hepatopancreas, and is affected by copper (Cu2+) (Yang et al., 2005). Histo structural analysis of the hepatopancreas has been used as a practical means of assessing the physiological adaptation of Macrobrachium rosenbergii to copper (Li et al., 2007). Hg2+ is more toxic than Cu, or other metal ions, to Macrobrachium nipponensis and Eriocheir sinensis (Zhang et al., 2008; Zhao et al., 2009). Canli et al. (1995) reported that both organic, and inorganic, mercury were mainly taken up from seawater through the gills of Norway lobsters, Nephrops norvegicus. However, little is known about the histo structural changes within the hepatopancreas of E. sinensis after Hg2+ exposure. The objectives of this study were to examine survival rates, the activity of three antioxidant enzymes (superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase and catalase) and five digestive enzymes (pepsin, tryptase, amylase, cellulase and lipase), and histo structural changes in the hepatopancreas of E. sinensis exposed to different ambient Hg2+ concentrations. We hope this study will provide both cytological and cytochemical evidence regarding the physiological changes in E. sinensis as a response to increasing ambient Hg2+ concentrations.2 MATERIALS AND METHODS2.1 AnimalsJuvenile Eriocheir Sinensis, weighing 27.360 1±2.23 g and with a carapace width of 3.48±0.32 cm, were obtained from a private farm located in Ninghe, Tianjin, China, and acclimatized for 10 days in aerated fresh tap water (pH 7.5±1.0, DO 7.5±0.5 mg/L, total hardness 213.5±5.0 mg/L as CaCO3) with an inherent Hg2+ concentration of 0.003 4 µg/L. The crabs were fed a commercial diet designed for E. sinensis by Dajiang Products, Shanghai, China (32% protein, 4.0% lipid, 8.0% fiber, 5.0% ash, with a mercury content less than 0.01 µg/kg).2.2 Experiment procedureMercury test solutions were prepared by dissolving 1.354 g of HgCl2 (Fluka, Germany) in 1 000 ml of distilled water to yield stock solution with a mercury concentration of 1 g/L. The different experimental concentrations were prepared by diluting the stock solution with fresh, aerated tap water. According to the results of the acute (LC50) experiment (Zhao et al., 2009), approximately 1/60, 1/12, 1/6, 1/3 and 1/2 of the 96 h LC50 corresponded to 0.01, 0.05, 0.10, 0.20, 0.30 mg/L Hg2+ were used as the test solutions for the sub-lethal experiments. The sub-lethal experiments were performed in triplicate and 10 crabs were exposed to 10 liters of water, or test solution, in a 40cm×30cm×20cm polyethylene tank. The crabs were fed with the same commercial diet as above, twice a day (09:00 and 17:00) at 8% of body weight per day. The test Hg2+ solution was renewed daily at 16:00, and excess food and feces were removed. Throughout all experiments the light regime was 14 hours of light and 10 hours of darkness, and water temperature, pH, and dissolved oxygen averaged 21±2°C, 7.5±1, 5.5±0.5 mg/L respectively.At the end of the 40 days of sub-lethal mercury exposure, crabs at intermolt were dissected, and the hepatopancreas was divided into two parts. One part was chopped into0.5cm×0.5cm×0.3cm specimens and fixed in Bouin’s fixative for 48 hours for histological study. The other part was stored at -70°C until biochemical analysis.2.3 Enzyme activity assayTo assess enzyme activity, the hepatopancreas stored at -70°C was weighed, and then homogenized in five times w/v homogenate buffer solution (10 mmol/L sodium citrate/0.1 mol/L sodium chloride; pH 7.0). Part of the crude homogenate was used directly to determine the lipase activity. The remaining homogenate was centrifuged at 10 000 g at 4°C for 15 minutes. The supernatant was separated, and divided into sub-samples for each enzyme assay. These samples were stored in 1.5 ml Eppendorf tubes at -20°C until analyses, which were done within 24 hours. SOD activity was measured by the method described by McCord et al. (1969). One unit of SOD activity was defined as the amount of enzyme that inhibited the NBT photoreduction reaction by 50% per minute per milligram of total protein present in hepatopancreas (U/mg protein). GPX activity was assayed by the method of Paglia et al. (1967). One unit of GPX activity was defined as the amount of enzyme that decreased 1 µmol NADPH per minute per milligram of total protein at a temperature of 25°C and a pH of 8.0 (U/mg protein). CAT was determined by following the reduction of hydrogen peroxide at 240 nm (Beers et al., 1952). One unit of CAT activity was defined as the amount of enzyme needed to degrade 1 µmol H2O2 per minute per milligram of total protein present in hepatopancreas (U/mg protein) at 30°C and pH 8.0.Pepsin activity was determined according to the method described by Liu et al. (1991) and revised according to Stellmach’s methods (1988). One unit of pepsin enzyme activity(U) was defined as the amount of enzyme that released 1 µg tyrosine per minute per milligram of protein. Tryptase activity was determined according to the method of Liu et al. (1991) with casein as a substrate. One enzyme activity unit (U) was defined as the number of micromoles of tyrosine released per minute per milligram of protein. Amylase and cellulase activities were determined by the method of Pan et al. (1997), using amylopectin and carboxymethylcellulose as substrates, respectively. One unit of amylase or cellulase activity was defined as the number of micromoles of glucose released per minute per milligram of protein. Lipase activity was determined by Zhu’s method (1981) using olive oil as substrate. One enzyme activity unit (U) was defined as the amount of enzyme that catalyzed the release of 1 µg of fatty acid per minute per milligram of protein.Protein concentrations were determined according to the method of Lowry et al. (1951) using bovine serum albumin as a standard.2.4 Histology of the digestive glandThe fixed tissues were dehydrated in ascending concentrations of alcohol, cleared in toluene, embedded in paraffin and 6 μm sections cut using a rotary microtome. Sections tissues were then stained with hematoxylin and eosin (H&E).2.5 Statistical analysisEach numerical measurement was expressed as mean ± standard error, and was subjected to one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA, SPSS for Windows, version 15.0) to determine significant differences between treatments. If a significant difference was identified, differences between means were compared using Duncan's multiple range tests (1955) P<0.05 was considered significant.3 RESULTS3.1 Survival ratesThe survival rates of crabs exposed to each test solution is shown in Fig.1. The survival rates after 40 days exposure to 0.01, 0.05, 0.10, 0.20 and 0.30 mg/L Hg2+ were 86.67%, 83.33%, 73.33%, 60% and 56.67%, respectively. Though no significant differences were observed between crabs exposed to 0.01 mg/L Hg2+ and controls (P>0.05), the survival rates of crabs exposed to 0.05, 0.10, 0.20 and 0.30 mg/L Hg2+ were significantly lower than the controls (P<0.05).Fig1Fig.1 The effect of waterborne Hg2+on the survival rates of Eriocheir sinensisVertical bars represent the standard error of the mean. Bars with the same letter are not significantly different (P>0.05)3.2 SOD, CAT and GPX activitiesThe SOD, CAT and GPX activities in the hepatopancreas of the crabs in the different treatments group are shown in Table 1. Ambient Hg2+ exposure significantly affected the activity of these three antioxidant enzymes. SOD, GPX and CAT activity in the hepatopancreas of crabs exposed to 0.01 and 0.05 mg/L Hg2+ were significantly higher than in the controls. However, SOD, GPX and CAT activity in the hepatopancreas of crabs exposed to 0.10, 0.20 and 0.30 mg/L Hg2+ was significantly lower than that in the controls.3.3 Digestive enzyme activityThe effects of Hg2+ on the activity of pepsin, tryptase, amylase, cellulase and lipase in E. sinensis hepatopancreas extracts are summarized in Table 2. The activity of pepsin, tryptase, amylase and cellulase was 1.58, 3.56, 154.47, and 2.06 U/mg protein, respectively, in the control groups, and decreased with increasing ambient Hg2+ concentration. The lowest levels of pepsin, tryptase, amylase and cellulase activity (1.14, 1.14, 63.34, and 0.67 U/mg protein, respectively) were found in the crabs exposed to 0.30 mg/L Hg2+. Unlike the other four enzymes, lipase activity showed a “low-high-low” trend in the different treatment groups. The lipase activity in crabs exposed to 0.01, 0.05 and 0.10 mg/L Hg2+ was significantly higher than that in control. However, lipase activity in crabs exposed to 0.20 and 0.30 mg/L Hg2+ was significantly lower than that in control.Table 1 Effect of Hg2+ on antioxidant enzymes activities within the hepatopancreas of Eriocheir sinensisTable 2 Effect of Hg2+ on digestive enzyme profiles extracted from hepatopancreas of Eriocheir sinensis3.4 Hepatopancreas histostructureFig.2 shows the effects of ambient Hg2+ on the histological structures within the hepatopancreas of E. sinensis. The severity of the damage increases with the mercury dosage. Although there was no discernable histological damage to the hepatopancreas of the crabs exposed to 0.01 mg/L Hg2+, increased numbers of R cells were observed (Fig.2.2). In crabs exposed to 0.05 mg/L Hg2+, the basal lamina was thickened, and rippled from the epithelium in some areas of the tubules (Fig.2.3). Increased numbers of R cells were huddled together in some areas of the tubules. Vacuolization was observed in the hepatopancreas epithelial cells of crabs exposed to 0.10 mg/L Hg2+ (Fig.2.4). Tumid epithelial cells decreased the diameter of the tubule lumen, and a melanin-like material (M) was deposited in the vacuoles of the epithelial cells. In crabs exposed to 0.20 mg/L Hg2+, degeneration of the vacuolated cells was noticed, and the tubule lumen was almost occluded by the expansion and swelling of the tubular epithelial cells (Fig.2.5). The cell boundary between the different cells was not clear, and more melanin-likematerial was observed within the cells. The integrity of the tubules within hepatopancreas was completely disrupted in the crabs exposed to 0.30 mg/L Hg2+ (Fig.2.6). Necrotic tubules in the hepatopancreas were separated from the basal lamina, and tissue debris was deposited in the tubule lumen.4 DISCUSSIONIn the present study, survival rates were significantly decreased by exposure to ambient Hg2+ concentrations as low as 0.05 mg/L. This result agrees with other studies showing that mercury is more toxic than other heavy metals such as copper and zinc (St-Amand et al., 1999; Zhang et al., 2008). Rainbow et al. (1989) reported that decapod crustaceans can regulate essential metals in the body to a threshold environmental concentration. However, mercury is a non-essential metal and, as such, cannot be regulated by the crabs, so more mercury accumulates in the body and survival rates decrease. Due to poor understanding on the mechanism involved in mercury toxicity in crustaceans, it is not clear how and why mercury is the most toxic heavy metal to crustaceans. Therefore, to understand in depth the mercury toxicity to E. sinensis, we analyzed the activity of both antioxidant and digestive enzymes, and the histology of the hepatopancreas in the crabs. Mercury is a well-known pro-oxidant that induces oxidative stress via ROS formation (Zaman et al., 1994). SOD, GPX and CAT are the primary enzymes responsible for free radical scavenging, and are involved in the protective mechanisms to mitigate oxidative stress, which appeared in phagocytosis (Elumalai et al., 2007; Verlecar et al., 2008). Their activities are related to the health status of the organism, which is affected by different factors including nutrition, environment, etc. (Winston et al., 1991; Li et al., 2008). Usually, higher levels of SOD, GPX and CAT activity indicate that more free radicals are involved for scavenging (Li et al., 2008; Verlecar et al., 2008). Therefore, significantly higher SOD, GPX and CAT activities in the crabs exposed to 0.01 and 0.05 mg/L Hg2+ might indicate that the stress induced by mercury exposure results in the accumulation of free radicals in the crabs. The crabs would then suffer serious oxidative damage if these radicals were not scavenged (Winston et al., 1991). Therefore, the enhanced activity of these three antioxidant enzymes at 0.01 and 0.05 mg/L Hg2+ may enable the crabs to maintain relative good health by scavenging free radicals produced. However, the activities of SOD, GPX and CAT were significantly inhibited in crabs exposed to 0.10, 0.20 and 0.30 mg/L Hg2+. It is well-known that there are two types of SOD in cytoplasm of mitochondria within eukaryotic cell: Cu-Zn-SOD and Mn-SOD; both can convert O2- to H2O2 (McCord et al., 1969). Cu2+/Zn2+or Mn2+, as the cofactors for SOD, plays a key role in the dismutation induced by SOD (McCord et al., 1969). As a bivalent metal, the excess Hg2+ in 0.10, 0.20 and 0.30 mg/L Hg2+ treatment groups could displace the Cu2+/Zn2+ or Mn2+ from SOD, and decrease its activity (Yan et al., 2007).The principal H2O2 scavenging enzymes are GPX and CAT. GPX catalyses the conversion of H2O2 to H2O and O2 at the expense of reduced glutathione (Vijayavel et al., 2004). It has been reported that the active center of GPX contains Ser-Cys residues (Yan et al., 2007). Mercury is a sulfhydryl reagent, and its main biological action is to bind exposed cysteine residues on proteins (Wang et al., 1996). Therefore, the decreased GPX activity in the 0.10, 0.20 and 0.30 mg/L Hg2+ groups might be due to mercury binding to the cysteine residues in active sites of GPX, changing its structure and then decreasing its activity. Most CAT is within peroxisomes and cytosol, and its function (along with SOD) is to convert H2O2 into H2O and O2. Decreased SOD activity would lead to a fall in the level of CAT through a chain reaction (Vijayavel et al., 2004). Another possible explanation is that excess Hg2+ disrupts the structural integrity of the mitochondria and otherorganelles, decreasing their ability to synthesis CAT (Zaman et al., 1994). When crabs are under severe oxidative stress, ROS accumulate in their bodies and can damage tissues, impair cell membranes function, and even disrupt vital cellular functions (Rikans et al., 1997). Similar results were reported when crustaceans were exposed to cadmium, chromium and other heavy metals (Sridevi et al., 1998; Wan et al., 2004; Pan et al., 2006).Histopathology shows that the crustacean hepatopancreas is a sensitive organ, and liable to injury by water-born pollutants (Bhavan et al., 2000). Exposure to Hg2+ for 40 days resulted in the hepatopancreas tubules of E. sinensis losing both structural integrity and cellular organization, and the extent of this damage increased with the Hg2+concentration, which was evidenced by thickening the basal lamina, deposition of melanin-like material in cells, vacuolization of cytoplasm, and disorganization of cells. Similar observations have been made in Macrobrachium rosenbergii exposed to copper (Li et al., 2007) and Chasmagnathus granulatus exposed to microcystins (Pinho et al., 2003). The thickening of the basal lamina observed in our study may represent a defensive mechanism against the toxicant (Jiravanichpaisal et al., 1994), attributable to the production of collagenous fibers and melanin, or to coagulation and walling-off by hemocytes (Bautista et al., 1994). Pinho et al. (2003) expressed that the deposition of melanin-like material in the cells was a result of an immune reaction. Söderhäll et al. (1992) also reported that the cellular reactions used for defense by crustaceans that have only simple and primitive immune systems are frequently followed by a process of melanization. Although the precise function of melanin in the immune responses of arthropods is still not clear, it is thought that this compound may act as a ROS scavenger (Nappi et al., 1993.)It is widely accepted that R cells are involved in the absorption of diffusible metabolites and nutrients, and in the storage of lipids and glycogen (Al-Mohanna et al., Al-Mohanna 1989). In our study, the number of R cells per tubule increased in the crabs exposed to 0.01 and 0.05 mg/L Hg2+, and this may be the result of an elevation of the lipid content. X-ray microanalyses revealed that R cells can detoxify heavy metals by accumulating them in an insoluble form within the cytoplasm, before excretion (Hopkin et al., 1979; Lyon et al., 1984). The melanin-like materials that accumulated in the crabs exposed to 0.10 and 0.20 mg/L Hg2+ might be an indication that the detoxification was carried out by the R cells.We also measured the activity of pepsin, tryptase, amylase and cellulase in crabs, and found that they decreased with increasing Hg2+ concentration. The study of digestive enzymes may aid in understanding the digestive physiology of the crabs under adverse conditions. The digestive enzyme activity in crustaceans plays a central role in nutritional physiology, and may directly or indirectly regulate growth (Li et al., 2008). The decline of digestive enzyme activity in the crabs in this study suggests decreased digestive activity after exposure to mercury. This provides evidence that crabs cannot obtain enough nutrition to remain healthy. Also, the digestive enzymes required for extracellular digestion are synthesized in the F cells of the hepatopancreas (Papathanassiou et al., 1984; Al-Mohanna et al., 1989). When the microstructure of the F cells is damaged by ambient Hg2+, their function of excreting digestive enzymes would be inhibited. Unlike the other four digestive enzymes studies, lipase activity was induced in crabs exposed to 0.01, 0.05 and 0.10 mg/L Hg2+. This result shows that lipid metabolism is abnormally active to relieve the mercury toxicity in crabs exposed to those groups.Similar result also appeared in crabs exposed to copper (Yang et al., 2005).In summary, the elevated levels of SOD, GPX and CAT activity shown in the crabs exposed to0.01 and 0.05 mg/L Hg2+ meant that the crabs were protected against the oxidative stress generated by mercury. However, when the concentration of ambient Hg2+ increased to 0.10, 0.20 and 0.30 mg/L Hg2+, the declining enzyme activity meant that this protection suffered, and the structure of the hepatopancreas was disrupted, resulting in impaired physiological function and death.对酶的活动和中国青少年中华绒螯蟹肝胰脏组织相容结构*汞（汞离子）作用1. Typical organization of the hepatopancreas of E. sinensis (control). Normal arrangement of hepatopancreas tubules and cells, ×400 (Bar=50 µm);2. The hepatopancreas tubules of test crabs exposed to 0.01 mg/L Hg2+,×400 (Bar=50 µm). Increased numbers of R cells are compared with controls;3. The hepatopancreas tubules of test crabs exposed to 0.05 mg/L Hg2+, ×400 (Bar=50 µm). Basal lamina is thickened and rippled from the epithelium. The organization of the epithelial cel ls is disordered;4. The hepatopancreas tubules of test crabs exposed to 0.10 mg/L Hg2+, ×400 (Bar=50 µm). Epithelial cells are swelled and the Tlu is narrowed. The vacuoles in some R and B cells are increased in number and the cells appear dilapidated;5. The hepatopancreas tubules of test crabs exposed to 0.20 mg/L Hg2+, ×400 (Bar=50 µm). B cells are cracked; the Bm is thickened; the Tlu has disappeared on this longitudinal slice;6. The hepatopancreas tubules of test crabs exposed to 0.30 mg/L Hg2+, ×400 (Bar=50 µm). Necrotic cells (Nt) in the hepatopancreas are separated from the Bm, tissue debris appears in the Tlu. The normal structure of the hepatopancreas tubule is completely disorganized;B: B cell (Blisterlike cell); Bm: Basement membrane; F: F cell (Fibrillar cells); Mm: melanin-like material; Nt: Necrotic cells; R: R cell (Resorptive cell); Tlu: Tubule lumen1. 中华绒螯蟹肝胰腺的正常组织（对照组）。
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最后的英⽂参考⽂献2英⽂正⽂资料英⽂正⽂资料ABSTRACTDesign and manufacturing are the core activities for realizing a marketable and profitable product. A number of evolutionary changes have taken place over the past couple of decades in the areas of both design and manufacturing. First we explore the developments in what is called CAD. The major focus in CAD technology development has been on advancing representation completeness. First there was the development of a two-dimensional (2D) drafting system in the 1960s. Then the extension of 2D drafting systems to three-dimensional (3D) models led to the development of wire frame-based modeling systems. However, it was not possible to represent higher order geometry data such as surface data. To bridge this gap, surface based models were developed in the early 1970s. Even though the surface models provided some higher level information, such as surface data for boundary representation, this was still not sufficient to represent solid or volume enclosure information. The need for solid modeling intensified with the development of application programs such as numerical control (NC) verification codes and automation mesh generation. A volume representation of the part is needed for performing topological validity checks. The solid modeling technology has evolved only since the mid-1970s. A large number of comprehensive software products are now available that enable integration of geometric modeling with design analysis and computer aided manufacturing .The latest evolutionary development in the CAD/CAM industry has been knowledge-based engineering systems that can capture both geometric and nongeometric product information, such as engineering rules, part dependences, and manufacturing constraints, resulting in more informationally complete product definitions.Optimum DesignIn the design of any component , there are always associate with the design certain desirable and undesirable effects. It is possible to obtain design solutions without1西安交通⼤学城市学院本科⽣毕业设计（论⽂）paying too much attention to these effects (other than casually checking that the component will perform its required function without failure); such a solution might be termed an adequate design .In many instances, however, it is necessary to give more than casual consideration to the various effects: either to maximize a desirable one or minimize an undesirable one . The design solution may then be termed an optimum design . For example , it may be required to minimize the cost of a component (particularly if the design is for mass production ), to minimize weight or deflection , or to obtain maximum power transmission capability or load carrying capacity .When any component is designed , certain functional requirements must be satisfied , and there are usually many design solutions which will satisfy these requirements. It is the purpose of the optimum design method to present a procedure of design which will give an optimum solution , taking account of all the factors involved .Any idealized engineering system can be described by a finite set of quantities. For example, an elastic structure modeled by finite elements is characterized by the mode coordinates … Some of these quantities are fixed in advance and they will not be changed by the redesign process (they are often called prescribed parameters ). The others are the design variables; they will be modified during each redesign process in order to gradually optimize the mechanical system. A function of the design variables must be defined, whose value permits selecting different feasible design variables; this is the objective function (e.g. the weight of an aerospace structures ). A design is said to be feasible if it satisfies all the requirements that are imposed to the mechanical system when performing its tasks. Usually , requiring that a design is feasible amounts to assigning upper or lower limits to quantities characterizing the system behavior (inequality constraints ).Sometimes given values , rather than lower or upper bounds , are imposed to these quantities (equality constraints ).Taking again the case of structural optimization , the behavior constraints are placed on stresses, displacement , frequencies, buckling loads, etc…Reliability DesignConsumer products, industrial machinery , and military equipment are intently evaluated for reliability of performance and life expectancy. Although the “military” and particular industrial users (for example ,power plants both fossil fuel and muclear 2 fuel ) have always followed some sort of reliability programs, consumer products have of late received the widest attention and publicity. One of the most important foundations for product reliability is its design, and it is apparent that the designershould at least be acquainted with some of the guidelines.The article entitle d “A Manual of Reliability ”offers the following definition of reliability:” Reliability is the probability that a device will perform without failure a specific function under given conditions for a given period of time “. From this definition, we see that a thorough and in-depth analysis of reliability will involve statistics and probability theory .All products , systems , assemblies, components and parts exhibit different failure rates over their service lives. Although the shape of the curve varies, most exhibit a low failure rate during most of their useful lives and higher failure rates at the beginning and end of their usefullives.The curve is usually shaped like a bathtub as is shown in figure 1. Infant mortality of manufactured parts occurs because a certain percentage, however small , of seemingly identical parts are defective. If those parts are included in a system, the system will fail early in its service life. Product warranties are usually designed to reduce customer losses due to infant mortality. Parts wear out due to friction, overload , plastic deformation , fatigue , changes in composition do to excessive heat,3西安交通⼤学城市学院本科⽣毕业设计（论⽂）corrosion ,fouling , abuse , etc.The design function of engineering should include an examination of reliability and should seek to provide adequate reliability in a part or system commensurate with its use. When the safety of people is concerned, product reliability with respect to potential injury producting failure must be very high . Human health and safety cannot be compromised for the sake of profit .Computer-Aided DesignThe computer has grown to become essential in the operations of business, government, the military, engineering, and research. It has also demonstrated itself ,especially in recent years, to be a very powerful tool in design and manufacturing . In this chapter, we consider the application of computer technology to the design of a product. That is computer-aided design or CAD. Computer-aided design involves any type of design activity which makes use of the computer to develop, analyze, or modify an engineering design. Modern CAD systems (also often called CAD/CAM systems ) are based on interactive computer graphics (ICG). Interactive computer graphics denotes a user-oriented system in which the computer is employed to create, transform, and display data in the form of picture or symbols . The user in the computer graphics design system is the designer , who communicates data and commands to the computer through any of several input devices. The computer communicates with the user via a cathode ray tube (CRT).The designer create an image on the CRT screen by entering commands to call the desired software subroutines stored in the computer . In most systems, the image is constructed out of basic geometric elements-points, lines, circles, and so on. It can be modified according to the commands of the designer-enlarged, reduced in size, moved to another location on the screen, rotated, and other transformations. Through these various manipulations , the required details of the image are formulated.The typical ICG system is a combination of hardware and software.The hardware includes a central processing unit(CPU),one or more workstations (including the graphics display terminals), and peripheral devices such as printers, plotters, and drafting equipment . The software consists of the computer programs needed to implement graphics processing on the system. The software would also typically include additional specialized application programs to accomplish the particular4engineering functions required by the user company .It is important to note the fact that the ICG system is one component of a computer-aided design system. The other major component is the human designer . Interactive computer graphics is a tool used by the designer to solve a design problem. In effect, the ICG system magnifies the powers of the designer. This has been referred to as the synergistic effect. The designer performs the portion of the design process that is most suitable to human intellectual skills (conceptualization, independent thinking ); the computer performs the task best suited to its capabilities (speed of calculations, visual display, storage of large amounts of data ), and the resulting system exceeds the sum of its components.There are many benefits of computer-aided design, only some of which can be easily measured. Some of the benefits are intangible, reflected in improved work quality, more pertinent and usable information, and improved control, all of which are difficult to quantify. Other benefits are tangible, but the savings from them show up far downstream in the production process, so that it is difficult to assign a dollar figure to them in the design phase. Some of the benefits that derive from implementing CAD/CAM can be directly measured. In the subsections that follow, we elaborate on some of potential benefits of an integrated CAD/CAM system.Increased productivity translates into a more competitive position for the firm because it will reduce staff requirements on a given project. This leads to lower costs in addition to improving response time on projects with tight schedules.Surveying some of the larger CAD/CAM vendors, one finds that the productivity improvement ratio for a designer/draftsman is usually given as a range, typically from a low end of 3:1 to a high end in excess of 10:1(often far in excess of that figure). Productivity improvement in computer-aided design as compared to the traditional design process is dependent on such factors as:Complexity of the engineering drawing ;Level of detail required in the drawing ;Degree of repetitiveness in the designed parts;Degree of symmetry in the parts;5西安交通⼤学城市学院本科⽣毕业设计（论⽂）6Extensiveness of library of commonly used entities .As each of these factors is increased , the productivity advantage of CAD will tend to increase.Interactive computer-aided design is inherently faster than the traditional design process. It also speeds up the task of preparing reports and lists (e.g, the assembly lists) which are normally accomplished manually. Accordingly, it is possible with a CAD system to produce a finished set of component drawings and the associated reports in a relatively short time. Shorter lead times in design translate into shorter elapsed time between receipt of a customer order and delivery of the final product.The design analysis routines available in a CAD system help to consolidate the design process into a more logical word pattern. Rather than having a back-and-forth exchange between design and analysis groups, the same person can perform the analysis while remaining at a CAD workstation. This helps to improve the concentration of designers, since they are interacting with their designs in a real-time sense. Because of this analysis , capability designs can be created which are closer to optimum. There is a time saving to be derived from the computerized analysis routines, both in designer time and in elapsed time. This saving results from the rapid response of the design analysis and from the time no longer lost while the design finds its way from the designer’s drawing board to the design analyst’s queue and back again.An example of the success of this is drawn from the experience of the General Electric Company with the T700 engine. In designing a jet engine, weight is an important design consideration. During the design of the engine, weights of each component for each design alternative must be determined. This had in the past been done manually by dividing each part into simple geometrical shapes to conveniently compute the volumes and weights. Through the use of CAD and its mass properties analysis function, the mass properties were obtained in 25% of the time formerly taken.英⽂译⽂英⽂译⽂设计⽅法对于⽣产⼀种适合市场销售从⽽获利的产品来说，设计及制造是核⼼任务。
科研英文文献汇报英文--MicroRNA.
Methods
Results
Conclusion
全基因组 miRNA测序 miR-224 在ADC及SCC 中miR-224 明显 上调 相关分析 细胞转染 过表达及 下调系统 体外 细胞系 体内 裸鼠 寻找 作用靶点 相关分析 TNFAIP1及 SMAD4的3′-UTRs 共转染3′UTRs及 miRNA TNFAIP1及 SMAD4是否为 特异性靶点 转染细胞 相关分析 miR-224与 启动子甲基 化的关系 低甲基化探针 相关分析及 细胞系 佛脂醇治疗
MicroRNA-224 promotes tumor progression in nonsmall cell lung cancer
MiR-224促进非小细胞肺癌肿瘤形成
汇报人：李婷
目录
Contents
introduction
Methods Results
Discussion
Others
在全世界，肺癌是癌症相关性疾病中主要的致病因。 尽管手术及药物治疗水平有所提高，肺癌患者的生存率 依然极低。总体来说，分期较早的非小细胞肺癌患者， 无论是手术还是非手术患者均得到了控制。然而，非小 细胞肺癌导致局部及远处转移的分子机制尚不清楚。
666例ADC及SCC
86例NAT
相较于NATs，miR-224在ADC及SCC中明 显上调
Of the evaluable 468 primary lung ADC patients, 46 patients had matched normal adjacent tissues. Of the evaluable 198 primary lung squamous carcinoma patients, 40 patients had matched normal adjacent tissues.
电气工程及其自动化专业_外文文献_英文文献_外文翻译_plc方面.
1、外文原文A: Fundamentals of Single-chip MicrocomputerTh e si ng le -c hi p m ic ro co mp ut er i s t he c ul mi na ti on of both t h e de ve lo pm en t of the dig it al com pu te r an d th e in te gr at ed c i rc ui t arg ua bl y t h e tow m os t s ig ni f ic an t i nv en ti on s o f t he 20th c e nt ur y [1].Th es e tow type s of arch it ec tu re are foun d in sin g le -ch i p m i cr oc om pu te r. Som e empl oy the spli t prog ra m/da ta me mo ry of the H a rv ar d ar ch it ect u re , sh ow n in Fig.3-5A -1, oth ers fo ll ow the p h il os op hy , wi del y ada pt ed for gen er al -p ur po se com pu te rs and m i cr op ro ce ss o r s, o f ma ki ng no log i ca l di st in ct ion be tw ee n p r og ra m and dat a me mo ry as in the Pr in ce to n arch ite c tu re , show n i n Fig.3-5A-2.In gen er al ter ms a sin gl e -chi p mic ro co mp ut er i sc h ar ac te ri zed b y t he i nc or po ra ti on of a ll t he un it s of a co mp uter i n to a sin gl e d ev i ce , as sho wn inFi g3-5A -3.Fig.3-5A-1 A Harvard typeFig.3-5A-2. A conventional Princeton computerFig3-5A-3. Principal features of a microcomputerRead only memory (ROM.R OM is usua ll y for the pe rm an ent,n o n-vo la ti le stor a ge of an app lic a ti on s pr og ra m .M an ym i cr oc om pu te rs and m are inte nd e d for high -v ol um e ap pl ic at ions a n d he nc e t h e eco n om ic al man uf act u re of th e de vic e s re qu ir es t h at t he cont en t s o f t he prog ra m me m or y be co mm it t ed perm a ne ntly d u ri ng the man ufa c tu re of ch ip s .Cl ea rl y, thi s im pl ie s a r i go ro us app ro ach to ROM cod e deve l op me nt sin ce cha ng es can not b e mad e afte r manu f a c tu re .Th is dev e lo pm en t proc ess may invo lv e e m ul at io n us in g aso ph is ti ca te d de ve lo pm en t sy ste m wit h a h a rd wa re emu la tio n cap ab il it y as w el l as the use o f po we rf ul s o ft wa re too ls.So me man uf act u re rs pro vi de add it io na l RO M opt i on s by i n cl ud in g in their ra n ge dev ic es wit h (or int en de d fo r use wit h u s er pro gr am ma ble me mo ry. Th e sim p le st of th es e is usu al ly d e vi ce whi ch can op er at e in a micro p ro ce ssor mod e by usi ng som e o f the inp ut /outp u t li ne s as an ad dr es s an d da ta b us fora c ce ss in g ex te rna l mem or y. Thi s t y pe of de vi ce can beh av ef u nc ti on al ly as th e sing le chip mi cr oc om pu te r from whi ch it is d e ri ve d al be it wit h re st ri ct ed I/O and a mod if ied ex te rn al c i rc ui t. The use of thes e d ev ic es is com mo n eve n in prod uc ti on c i rc ui ts wher e t he vo lu me does no tj us ti f y t h e d ev el o pm en t c osts o f c us to m o n -ch i p R OM [2];t he re c a n s ti ll bea s ignif i ca nt saving i n I /O and o th er c h ip s com pa re d to a conv en ti on al mi c ro pr oc es sor b a se d ci rc ui t. Mor e ex ac t re pl ace m en t fo r RO M dev i ce s ca n be o b ta in ed in th e fo rm of va ri an ts w it h 'p ig gy -b ack 'E P RO M(Er as ab le pro gr am ma bl e ROM s oc ke ts or dev ic e s with EPROM i n st ea d o f RO M 。
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】TOY RECALLS——IS CHINA THE PROBLEM？Hari. Bapuji Paul W. BeamishChina exports about 20 billion toys per year and they are the second most commonly imported item by U.S. and Canada. It is estimated that about 10,000 factories in China manufacture toys for export. Considering this mutual dependence, it is important that the problems resulting in recalls are addressed carefully.Although the largest portion of recalls by Mattel involved design flaws, the CEO of Mattel blamed the Chinese manufacturers by saying that the problem resulted ‘in this case （because）one of our manufacturers did not follow the rules’. Several analysts too blamed the Chinese manufacturers. By placing blame where it did not belong, thereis a danger of losing the opportunity to learn from the errors that have occurred. The first step to learn from errors is to know why and where the error occurred. Further, the most critical step in preventing the recurrence of errors is to find out what and who can prevent it.……From:/loadpage.aspx?Page=ShowDoc&Category Alias=zonghe/ggmflm_zh&BlockAlias=sjhwsd&filename=/doc/sjhwsd/2 00709281954.xml, Sep. 2007玩具召回——是中国的问题吗？哈里·巴普基保罗·比密什中国每年大约出口20亿美元的玩具，最常见是从美国和加拿大进口项目。
英文文献文章
英文文献文章English Version:Title: Navigating the World of Academic LiteratureAcademic literature serves as the backbone of scholarly communication, providing a platform for researchers to share their findings, insights, and perspectives. It plays a crucial role in the advancement of knowledge and the dissemination of research.One of the key features of academic literature is its meticulous documentation and citation practices. This ensures that the work is transparent, verifiable, and contributes to the existing body of knowledge. Authors are expected to adhere to strict guidelines when it comes to formatting, referencing, and presenting their research to maintain a standard of academic integrity.The process of engaging with academic literature begins with a thorough review of existing publications. This often involves sifting through numerous articles, journals, and databases to identify relevant studies. Databases such as JSTOR, PubMed, and Google Scholar are invaluable resources for researchers looking to build a foundation of understanding in their field.As researchers delve deeper into their topic, they often encounter a variety of writing styles and methodologies. The ability to critically evaluate the sources and extract pertinent information is an essential skill. It is also important to recognize the cultural and linguistic nuances that may be present in literature from different regions.When reading academic literature, it's important to take notes and summarize key points. This not only aids in comprehension but also serves as a reference for future work. Highlighting, annotating, and creating a structured summary are common practices that help in synthesizing the information.The ultimate goal of academic literature is to contribute to the ongoing dialogue within a particular discipline. By publishing their research, authors hope to stimulate further inquiry, debate, and innovation. The impact of a piece of literature is often measured by its citations, reviews, and the influence it has on subsequent studies.In conclusion, academic literature is a vital component of the research landscape.It requires a commitment to严谨的研究和批判性思维，but the rewards of engaging with this rich source of knowledge are immense.Chinese Translation:标题：探索学术文献的世界学术文献是学术交流的支柱，为研究人员提供了一个分享他们的发现、见解和观点的平台。
英文文献原文及对应翻译
Adsorption char acter istics of copper , lead, zinc and cadmium ions by tourmaline(环境科学学报英文版) 电气石对铜、铅、锌、镉离子的吸附特性JIANG Kan1,*, SUN Tie-heng1,2 , SUN Li-na2, LI Hai-bo2(1. School of Municipal and Environmental Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China. jiangkan522@; 2. Key Laboratory of Environmental Engineering of Shenyang University, Shenyang 110041, China)摘要：本文研究了电气石对Cu2+、Pb2+、Zn2+和Cd2+的吸附特性，建立了吸附平衡方程。
研究四种金属离子的吸附等温线以及朗缪尔方程。
结果表明电气石能有效地去除水溶液中的重金属且具有选择性：Pb2+> Cu2+> Cd2+> Zn2+。
电气石对金属离子吸附量随着介质中金属离子的初始浓度的增加而增加。
电气石也可以增加金属溶液的pH值；发现电气石对Cu2+、Pb2+、Zn2+和Cd2+的最大吸附量为78.86、154.08、67.25和66.67mg/g；温度在25-55℃对电气石的吸附量影响很小。
此外研究了Cu2+、Pb2+、Zn2+和Cd2+的竞争吸附。
同时观察到电气石对单一金属离子的吸附能力为Pb>Cu>Zn>Cd，在两种金属系统中抑制支配地位是Pb>Cu，Pb>Zn，Pb>Cd，Cu>Zn，Cu>Cd，和Cd>Zn。
关键字：吸附；重金属含量；朗缪尔等温线；电气石介绍重金属是来自不同行业排出的废水，如电镀，金属表面处理，纺织，蓄电池，矿山，陶瓷，玻璃。
英文参考文献
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人工智能英文文献原文及译文
人工智能英文文献原文及译文附件四英文文献原文Artificial Intelligence"Artificial intelligence" is a word was originally Dartmouth in 1956 to put forward. From then on, researchers have developed many theories and principles, the concept of artificial intelligence is also expands. Artificial intelligence is a challenging job of science, the person must know computer knowledge, psychology and philosophy. Artificial intelligence is included a wide range of science, it is composed of different fields, such as machine learning, computer vision, etc, on the whole, the research on artificial intelligence is one of the main goals of the machine can do some usually need to perform complex human intelligence. But in different times and different people in the "complex" understanding is different. Such as heavy science and engineering calculation was supposed to be the brain to undertake, now computer can not only complete this calculation, and faster than the human brain can more accurately, and thus the people no longer put this calculation is regarded as "the need to perform complex human intelligence, complex tasks" work is defined as the development of The Times and the progress of technology, artificial intelligence is the science of specific target and nature as The Times change and development. On the one hand it continues to gain new progress on the one hand, and turning to more meaningful, the more difficult the target. Current can be used to study the main material of artificial intelligence and artificial intelligence technology to realize the machine is a computer, the development history of artificial intelligence is computer science and technology and the development together. Besides the computer science and artificial intelligence also involves information, cybernetics, automation, bionics, biology, psychology, logic, linguistics, medicine and philosophy and multi-discipline. Artificial intelligence research include: knowledge representation, automatic reasoning and search method, machine learning and knowledge acquisition and processing of knowledge system, natural language processing, computer vision, intelligent robot, automatic program design, etc.Practical application of machine vision: fingerprint identification,face recognition, retina identification, iris identification, palm, expert system, intelligent identification, search, theorem proving game, automatic programming, and aerospace applications.Artificial intelligence is a subject categories, belong to the door edge discipline of natural science and social science.Involving scientific philosophy and cognitive science, mathematics, neurophysiological, psychology, computer science, information theory, cybernetics, not qualitative theory, bionics.The research category of natural language processing, knowledge representation, intelligent search, reasoning, planning, machine learning, knowledge acquisition, combined scheduling problem, perception, pattern recognition, logic design program, soft calculation, inaccurate and uncertainty, the management of artificial life, neural network, and complex system, human thinking mode of genetic algorithm.Applications of intelligent control, robotics, language and image understanding, genetic programming robot factory.Safety problemsArtificial intelligence is currently in the study, but some scholars think that letting computers have IQ is very dangerous, it may be against humanity. The hidden danger in many movie happened.The definition of artificial intelligenceDefinition of artificial intelligence can be divided into two parts, namely "artificial" or "intelligent". "Artificial" better understanding, also is controversial. Sometimes we will consider what people can make, or people have high degree of intelligence to create artificial intelligence, etc. But generally speaking, "artificial system" is usually significance of artificial system.What is the "smart", with many problems. This involves other such as consciousness, ego, thinking (including the unconscious thoughts etc. People only know of intelligence is one intelligent, this is the universal view of our own. But we are very limited understanding of the intelligence of the intelligent people constitute elements are necessary to find, so it is difficult to define what is "artificial" manufacturing "intelligent". So the artificial intelligence research often involved in the study of intelligent itself. Other about animal or other artificial intelligence system is widely considered to be related to the study of artificial intelligence.Artificial intelligence is currently in the computer field, the moreextensive attention. And in the robot, economic and political decisions, control system, simulation system application. In other areas, it also played an indispensable role.The famous American Stanford university professor nelson artificial intelligence research center of artificial intelligence under such a definition: "artificial intelligence about the knowledge of the subject is and how to represent knowledge -- how to gain knowledge and use of scientific knowledge. But another American MIT professor Winston thought: "artificial intelligence is how to make the computer to do what only can do intelligent work." These comments reflect the artificial intelligence discipline basic ideas and basic content. Namely artificial intelligence is the study of human intelligence activities, has certain law, research of artificial intelligence system, how to make the computer to complete before the intelligence needs to do work, also is to study how the application of computer hardware and software to simulate human some intelligent behavior of the basic theory, methods and techniques.Artificial intelligence is a branch of computer science, since the 1970s, known as one of the three technologies (space technology, energy technology, artificial intelligence). Also considered the 21st century (genetic engineering, nano science, artificial intelligence) is one of the three technologies. It is nearly three years it has been developed rapidly, and in many fields are widely applied, and have made great achievements, artificial intelligence has gradually become an independent branch, both in theory and practice are already becomes a system. Its research results are gradually integrated into people's lives, and create more happiness for mankind.Artificial intelligence is that the computer simulation research of some thinking process and intelligent behavior (such as study, reasoning, thinking, planning, etc.), including computer to realize intelligent principle, make similar to that of human intelligence, computer can achieve higher level of computer application. Artificial intelligence will involve the computer science, philosophy and linguistics, psychology, etc. That was almost natural science and social science disciplines, the scope of all already far beyond the scope of computer science and artificial intelligence and thinking science is the relationship between theory and practice, artificial intelligence is in the mode of thinking science technology application level, is one of its application. From the view of thinking, artificial intelligence is notlimited to logical thinking, want to consider the thinking in image, the inspiration of thought of artificial intelligence can promote the development of the breakthrough, mathematics are often thought of as a variety of basic science, mathematics and language, thought into fields, artificial intelligence subject also must not use mathematical tool, mathematical logic, the fuzzy mathematics in standard etc, mathematics into the scope of artificial intelligence discipline, they will promote each other and develop faster.A brief history of artificial intelligenceArtificial intelligence can be traced back to ancient Egypt's legend, but with 1941, since the development of computer technology has finally can create machine intelligence, "artificial intelligence" is a word in 1956 was first proposed, Dartmouth learned since then, researchers have developed many theories and principles, the concept of artificial intelligence, it expands and not in the long history of the development of artificial intelligence, the slower than expected, but has been in advance, from 40 years ago, now appears to have many AI programs, and they also affected the development of other technologies. The emergence of AI programs, creating immeasurable wealth for the community, promoting the development of human civilization.The computer era1941 an invention that information storage and handling all aspects of the revolution happened. This also appeared in the U.S. and Germany's invention is the first electronic computer. Take a few big pack of air conditioning room, the programmer's nightmare: just run a program for thousands of lines to set the 1949. After improvement can be stored procedure computer programs that make it easier to input, and the development of the theory of computer science, and ultimately computer ai. This in electronic computer processing methods of data, for the invention of artificial intelligence could provide a kind of media.The beginning of AIAlthough the computer AI provides necessary for technical basis, but until the early 1950s, people noticed between machine and human intelligence. Norbert Wiener is the study of the theory of American feedback. Most familiar feedback control example is the thermostat. It will be collected room temperature and hope, and reaction temperature compared to open or close small heater, thus controlling environmental temperature. The importance of the study lies in the feedback loop Wiener:all theoretically the intelligence activities are a result of feedback mechanism and feedback mechanism is. Can use machine. The findings of the simulation of early development of AI.1955, Simon and end Newell called "a logical experts" program. This program is considered by many to be the first AI programs. It will each problem is expressed as a tree, then choose the model may be correct conclusion that a problem to solve. "logic" to the public and the AI expert research field effect makes it AI developing an important milestone in 1956, is considered to be the father of artificial intelligence of John McCarthy organized a society, will be a lot of interest machine intelligence experts and scholars together for a month. He asked them to Vermont Dartmouth in "artificial intelligence research in summer." since then, this area was named "artificial intelligence" although Dartmouth learn not very successful, but it was the founder of the centralized and AI AI research for later laid a foundation.After the meeting of Dartmouth, AI research started seven years. Although the rapid development of field haven't define some of the ideas, meeting has been reconsidered and Carnegie Mellon university. And MIT began to build AI research center is confronted with new challenges. Research needs to establish the: more effective to solve the problem of the system, such as "logic" in reducing search; expert There is the establishment of the system can be self learning.In 1957, "a new program general problem-solving machine" first version was tested. This program is by the same logic "experts" group development. The GPS expanded Wiener feedback principle, can solve many common problem. Two years later, IBM has established a grind investigate group Herbert AI. Gelerneter spent three years to make a geometric theorem of solutions of the program. This achievement was a sensation.When more and more programs, McCarthy busy emerge in the history of an AI. 1958 McCarthy announced his new fruit: LISP until today still LISP language. In. "" mean" LISP list processing ", it quickly adopted for most AI developers.In 1963 MIT from the United States government got a pen is 22millions dollars funding for research funding. The machine auxiliary recognition from the defense advanced research program, have guaranteed in the technological progress on this plan ahead of the Soviet union. Attracted worldwide computer scientists, accelerate the pace of development of AI research.Large programAfter years of program. It appeared a famous called "SHRDLU." SHRDLU "is" the tiny part of the world "project, including the world (for example, only limited quantity of geometrical form of research and programming). In the MIT leadership of Minsky Marvin by researchers found, facing the object, the small computer programs can solve the problem space and logic. Other as in the late 1960's STUDENT", "can solve algebraic problems," SIR "can understand the simple English sentence. These procedures for handling the language understanding and logic.In the 1970s another expert system. An expert system is a intelligent computer program system, and its internal contains a lot of certain areas of experience and knowledge with expert level, can use the human experts' knowledge and methods to solve the problems to deal with this problem domain. That is, the expert system is a specialized knowledge and experience of the program system. Progress is the expert system could predict under certain conditions, the probability of a solution for the computer already has. Great capacity, expert systems possible from the data of expert system. It is widely used in the market. Ten years, expert system used in stock, advance help doctors diagnose diseases, and determine the position of mineral instructions miners. All of this because of expert system of law and information storage capacity and become possible.In the 1970s, a new method was used for many developing, famous as AI Minsky tectonic theory put forward David Marr. Another new theory of machine vision square, for example, how a pair of image by shadow, shape, color, texture and basic information border. Through the analysis of these images distinguish letter, can infer what might be the image in the same period. PROLOGE result is another language, in 1972. In the 1980s, the more rapid progress during the AI, and more to go into business. 1986, the AI related software and hardware sales $4.25 billion dollars. Expert system for its utility, especially by demand. Like digital electric company with such company XCON expert system for the VAX mainframe programming. Dupont, general motors and Boeing has lots of dependence of expert system for computer expert. Some production expert system of manufacture software auxiliary, such as Teknowledge and Intellicorp established. In order to find and correct the mistakes, existing expert system and some other experts system was designed，such as teach users learn TVC expert system of the operating system.From the lab to daily lifePeople began to feel the computer technique and artificial intelligence. No influence of computer technology belong to a group of researchers in the lab. Personal computers and computer technology to numerous technical magazine now before a people. Like the United States artificial intelligence association foundation. Because of the need to develop, AI had a private company researchers into the boom. More than 150 a DEC (it employs more than 700 employees engaged in AI research) that have spent 10 billion dollars in internal AI team.Some other AI areas in the 1980s to enter the market. One is the machine vision Marr and achievements of Minsky. Now use the camera and production, quality control computer. Although still very humble, these systems have been able to distinguish the objects and through the different shape. Until 1985 America has more than 100 companies producing machine vision systems, sales were us $8 million.But the 1980s to AI and industrial all is not a good year for years. 1986-87 AI system requirements, the loss of industry nearly five hundred million dollars. Teknowledge like Intellicorp and two loss of more than $6 million, about one-third of the profits of the huge losses forced many research funding cuts the guide led. Another disappointing is the defense advanced research programme support of so-called "intelligent" this project truck purpose is to develop a can finish the task in many battlefield robot. Since the defects and successful hopeless, Pentagon stopped project funding.Despite these setbacks, AI is still in development of new technology slowly. In Japan were developed in the United States, such as the fuzzy logic, it can never determine the conditions of decision making, And neural network, regarded as the possible approaches to realizing artificial intelligence. Anyhow, the eighties was introduced into the market, the AI and shows the practical value. Sure, it will be the key to the 21st century. "artificial intelligence technology acceptance inspection in desert storm" action of military intelligence test equipment through war. Artificial intelligence technology is used to display the missile system and warning and other advanced weapons. AI technology has also entered family. Intelligent computer increase attracting public interest. The emergence of network game, enriching people's life.Some of the main Macintosh and IBM for application software such as voice and character recognition has can buy, Using fuzzy logic,AI technology to simplify the camera equipment. The artificial intelligence technology related to promote greater demand for new progress appear constantly. In a word ，Artificial intelligence has and will continue to inevitably changed our life.附件三英文文献译文人工智能“人工智能”一词最初是在1956 年Dartmouth在学会上提出来的。
参考文献 英文
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