语言学《新编简明英语语言学教程》复习资料
新编简明英语语言学教程1-6章期末复习资料
新编简明英语语言学教程1-6章期末复习资料Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.语言识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性（创造性）Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递书上1.1.3语言学界里几个重要的概念区别（5-12）：5.语言能力Competence（抽象）Competence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performance（具体）Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的具体体现。
新编简明英语语言学教程考试复习资料之名词解释篇
一（试题九）31、Synchronic linguisticsLinguistics that studies language at one particular point of time, e.g. the study ofthe kind of English used during Shakespeare's time.32、displacementOne of the major defining features of human language. Human language is notrestricted by the "here" and "now" as animal communication is; we can virtually talk about anything we want, including what happened in the past, what is going to happen in the future, what is not existent in the immediate surroundings and even what we imagine.33、a minimal pairA pair of sound combinations which are identical in every way except one sound e.g. /pit/and /bit/.34、derivative affixesAffixes added to an existing form to create a new word, e.g.in-, -er 35, Syntax is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language, and it consists of a set of rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences.35、SyntaxThe study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentence is called syntax.36, Language transferLanguage transfer is a phenomenon that L2 learners subconsciously use their L1 knowledge in their learning process.37, HyponymyHyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more specific word and a more general, more inclusive word, The former is included in the latter. For example, a cat is a hyponym of animal.38, Sentence meaningSentence meaning refers to the intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of a predication. It is abstract and decontextualized. For example, semantic analysis of the sentence meaning of "The bag is heavy" results in the one-place predication BAG（BEING HEAVY）39, lingual francaLingual franca is a variety of language that serves as a medium of communication among groups of people of diverse linguistic backgrounds. For this reason, a lingual franca must be an agree-upon"common tongue"used by people thrown into social contact for various purposes, such as for social or commercial purposes.40, Cerebral cortexCerebral cortex is the outside surface of the brain, the decision-making organ of the body,receiving messages from all sensory organs and initiating all voluntary actions. Many of the cognitive abilities that distinguish humans from other mammals, such as sophisticated reasoning, linguistic skills, and musical ability, are believed to reside in the cortex.二（试题一）31、dualityOne of the major defining features of human language, Human language consists of two levels. At the lower level, there are a limited number of sounds which are meaningless while at the higher level there are an unlimited number of combinations of these sounds. It is also known as double articulation.32 、diachoronic linguisticsLinguistics that studies language over a period Di time, also known as historical linguistics, e.g. the study of the Chinese language since the end of the Qing dynasty up to the present.33, broad transcriptionA way to transcribe speech sounds. The basic principle is to use one letter to indicate one sound. It is generally used in dictionaries and language teaching textbooks.34, morphological rulesThe rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word, e.g. -ly can be added to a noun to form an adjective.35, phrase structure rulea rewrite rule that allows for the possible combinations of words to form phrases and sentences.36 relational oppositesRelational opposites, a kind of antonyms, refer to pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items, For example, "husband" and "wife", "father" and "son" etc.37、componential analysisComponential analysis is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning. The approach is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features. For example, the word "man" is analyzed as composing of +HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE.38 ContextContext is regarded as constituted by all kinds of knowledge assumed to be shared by the speaker and the hearer, For example, the knowledge of the knowledge used and the knowledge of the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place.39,euphemismA euphemism is a mild, indirect or less offensive word or expression that replaces a taboo word or serves to avoid more direct wording that might be harsh, unpleasantly direct, or offensive, e.g." pass" away for "die".40,brain lateralizationBrain lateralization refers to the localization of cognitive and perceptual functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain. For example, the right hemisphere processes stimuli more holistically and the left hemisphere more analytically. In most people, the left hemisphere has primary responsibility for language, while the right hemisphere controls visual and spatial skills.试题七1、ReferenceReference means what a linguistic from refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.2、perlocutionary actA perlocutionary act is the act per-formed by or resulting from saying something ; it is the consequence of, the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something.3、Linguistic tabooA linguistic taboo refers to a word or expression that is prohibited by the "polite" society from general use, such as obscene, profane and swear words etc.试题六1. assimilation ruleA phonological rule that makes one sound similar to a neighboring one by copying one of it phonetic features. For example, the /i: /sound in/: /to some extent nasalized because it is assimilated by the nasal sound /n/that follows it immediately.2.rootA root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself though it bears clear,definite meaning: it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word, e.g. liter-in literal, and literature.3. bound morphemesThe morphemes that cannot be used by themselves, but must be combined with other morphemes to form words that can be used independently4. surface structureA level of syntactic representation after the operation of necessary syntactic movement.5. grammaticalityGrammaticality refers to the grammatical well-formedness of a sentence. It is governed by the grammatical rules of the language. A grammatically well-formed sentence may not be semantically meaningful, For example, Green clouds are sleeping furiously6. elaborationElaboration is a kind of language change. it occurs when there is a need to reduce ambiguity and increase communicative clarity or expressiveness.7. bilingualismBilingualism refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers, such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation.8. creoleCreole refers to a language that is originally a pidgin, which comes to be adopted by a community as its native tongue, and children lean it as their first language9. the Sapir-whorf hypothesisThe hypothesis refers to the theory put forward by the American anthropological linguists Sapir and Whorf, which states that the language we speak determines the way we perceive the world and therefore the nature of thought. Whorf illustrated his view based in part on a number of differences that he observed among languages. For example, there are different words for snow in the Eskimo language. Proponents of the hypothesis believe that the English and Eskimo speakers perceive snow in different ways10. fossilizationFossilization is a process that sometimes occurs in second language learning in which incorrect linguistic features such as an accent or a grammatical pattern become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes in the target language.试题二1.general linguistics.The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.2.suprasegmental festuresThe phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments3.root and stemThe base form of a word; the existing form to whiich a derivational affixcan be added.4.hierarchical structureThe sentence structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic categories of each structural constituent, such as NPand VP5.naming theory and conceptualist viewThe words of a language are labels of the objects they stand for, alinguistic form is linkedthrough concepts to what it refers to6.maxims of quality and mannerDo not say what you believe to be false or without adequate evident,Avoid obscurity of expression and ambiguity, be brief and orderly.7.blendingA process of forming a new word by combining parts of other words8.sociolectA variety of languages used by a social class9.subvocal speechThought when it is close to language10.contrastive analysisA comparative procedure to establish linguistic differences betweenteaching purposes试题八1.cultural transmission (as a defining feature of human language)One of the major defining features of human language. Humans are born with the ability to acquire a language, but different from animals, the actual use of human language is not genetically transmitted, rather it is culturally transmitted, i.e. it has to be taught and learnt.2.phonic medium of languageThe limited range of sounds that are used in human language communication,i.e. the speech sounds3.voicingVoicing is a phonetic feature of some sounds. lt is caused by the vibration of thevocal cords4.Inflectional morphemesInflectional morphemes are morphemes that are used to indicate the grammatical relations and categories, such as-ed, (e)s, est in Englishaaaaa5. ReferenceReference is what a linguistic form refers to in the real world; it is a matter of the relationship between the form and the reality. For example, if we say, " The dog is barking,we must be talking about a certain dog known to both the speaker and the hearer in the situation. The actual dog the word"dog"refers to in this particular situation is the reference of the word"dog6. Locutionary actrefers to the act of uttering words, phrases, and clauses. It is the actof conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology. For example, bysaying " You have left the door wide open", the locutionary act performedthat by the speakeristhat he has uttered all the words and expressed what the words literally mean7. protolanguageA protolanguage is the original formof a language family that has ceased toexist. The proto form can be reconstructed by identifying and comparing similar linguistic forms with similar meanings across related languages8. ethnic dialectAn ethnic dialect is a social dialect of a language, often cutting across regional differences. It is spoken mainly by a less privileged population that has experienced some form of social isolation, such as racial discrimination or segregation9. RegistersRegisters are language varieties appropriate for use in particular speech situations, in contrast to language varieties that are associated with the social or regional grouping of their customary users. For this reason, registers are also known as situational dialects10. AcculturationAcculturation refers to a process of adapting to the culture and value system of thesecond language community11.stylistic synonymsstylistic synonyms are synonyms that differ in style, or in "the degree of formality. Some words tend to be more formal, others informal or casual. and still others neutral in style. For example, English has various ways to express the termination of life: die, pass away, decease, pop off, kick the bu cket, to mention a few. Of all these, " die is neutral in style; "pass away"and "decease "are more for, gop off "is casual; and the idiom "kick the bucker12.learner languagelearner language is normally, what a foreign/second language learner pro-duces. It is -also called interlanguage". Learner language contains an emerging linguistic system that has been developed by a learner of a second language(or L2) who has not become fully proficient yet but is, approximating the target language: preserving some features of their first language (or Ll), or overgeneralizing target language rules in speaking or writing the target language and-creating innovationsprehensible inputComprehensible input is the language input that can be understood by second or foreign language learners. According to Krashen's Comprehensible Input Hypothesis, the right level of input for language leaming is i +1, while i represents learners' current proficiency level, I means one level above that, this kind of input helps them acquire language naturally, rather than leam it consciously14.Intercultural communication.Intercultural communication,a form of global communication, is used to describe the wide range of communication problems that naturally app- ear within an organization made up of individuals from different religious, social, ethnic,and educational backgrounds. Intercultural communication is sometimes used synonymously with cross-cultural communication. In this sense it seeks to understand how people from different countries and cultures act, communicate and Perceive the world around them. As a separate notion, it studies situations where people from different cultural backgrounds interact15.AphasiaAphasia refers to language loss or disorders due to the lesions in the brain areas Specialized for language, which can be caused by a stroke, tumor, or other brain inuny.The loss may be total or partial, and may affect spoken and/or written language ability。
新编简明英语语言学教程笔记考试必备讲解
Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。
新编简明英语语言学教程期末复习资料
End-of-term Quiz and ReviewChapter I1. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive.2. If the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for "correct and standard" behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.3. The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study.4. A diachronic study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.5. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.6. Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by. It is abstract and stable; it is not the language people actually use.7. Parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules; it varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.8. Competence is the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language.9. Performance refers to the actual realization of ideal user’s knowledge in linguistic communication.10. Language is defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.11. Arbitrariness, as one of the features of language, means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.12. Productivity, as one of the features of language, means that language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.13. Duality, as one of the features of language, means that language is a system which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels.14. Displacement, as one of the features of language, means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places.15. Cultural transmission, as one of the features of language, means that language is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.16. Emotive (情绪性) is a language function used by the addresser to expresseshis/her attitudeto the topic or situation of communication, e.g. "I hate whatever they are planning for me! "17. Conative (意动性) is a language function used by the addresser to influence the addressee'scourse of action or ways of thinking, e.g. "Why not go and see another doctor?"18. Referential (指称性功能) is a language function used by the addresser to convey a messageor information, e.g. " As far as I know, the earth's resources are being astonishingly wasted. "19. Poetic (文学性) is a language function used by the addresser to use language for the solepurpose of displaying the beauty of language itself, e.g. poetry.20. Phatic (交际性) communion is a language function used by the addresser to establish or maintain good interpersonal relationships with the addressee, e.g. "Hi! How are you this morning?"21. Metalinguistic (元语言的) is a language function used by the addresser to use language to make clear the meaning of language itself, e.g. "Let me tell you what the word 'anorexia means. "Chapter II22. The three branches of phonetics include articulatory phonetics, auditory phonetics, and acoustic phonetics respectively.23. The articulatory apparatus（器官）of a human being is contained in three important areas: the pharyngeal cavity - the throat, the oral cavity - the mouth, and the nasal cavity - the nose.24. Broad transcription is the transcription with letter-symbols only.25. Narrow transcription is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics (变音符号).26. pit is transcribed as [ph1t] and the [p] sound is said to be aspirated.27. spit is transcribed as [spit] and the [p] sound is unaspirated.28. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they can be classified, etc.29. Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.30. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones.31. A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit.32. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of the phoneme.33. If two phonetically similar sounds are two distinctive phonemes, they are said to form a phonemic contrast, e.g. /p/ and /b/ in [pit] and [bit].34. Allophones complement each other in distribution, i.e. they occur in different phonetic environments. For instance, the clear always occurs before a vowel while the dark always occurs between a vowel and a consonant, or at the end of a word. So the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution.35. A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another result in a change of meaning. For example, in English, pill and billare identical except in /p/ and /b/. So these two sounds represent different phonemes, and they are the minimal pairs.36. The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules.37. The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by "copying" a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. For example, the [i:] sound is nasalized in words like bean, and green.38. We have noticed that in the pronunciation of such words as sign, design, and paradigm, there is no [g] sound although it is represented in spelling by the letter g. This is called deletion rule.39. Stress, tone and intonation are the suprasegmental features that occur above the level of the segments.40. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs are the content words of a language.41. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs are called open class words, since new words can be added to these classes regularly.42. Conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns consist of the "grammatical" or "functional" words.43. The number of conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns is small and stable since few new words are added, therefore such words have been referred to as closed class words.44. The most important component of a word structure is the morpheme – the smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function.45. A morpheme which can be a word by itself is called a free morpheme.46. A morpheme that must be attached to another one is a bound morpheme.47. The variant forms of a morpheme are called its allomorphs. An example is a used before a word beginning with a consonant and an before a word beginning with a vowel.48. Affixes are bound morphemes and they do not belong to a lexical category such as nouns or verbs.49. Derivational morphemes are so called because when they are conjoined to other morphemes or words, new words are derived, or formed.50. Inflectional morphemes are bound morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers and signify such concepts as tense, number, case and so on. They are attached to words or morphemes, but they never change their syntactic category.51. The XP rule: XP--(specifier) X (complement)52. In the example, “a story about a sentimental girl”, the PP is a complement.53. Complements are attached to the right of the head in English.54. Words which introduce the sentence complement are termed complementizers (shortened as Cs).55. The sentence introduced by the complementizer is called a complement clause.56. The construction in which the complement phrase is embedded is called matrix clause.57. “XP → (Spec) (Mod) X (Complement) (Mod)” is the expanded XP rule.58. The S rule is made of NP+VP59. Sentences, like other phrases, also have their own heads. They take an inflection (dubbed "Infl") as their heads.60. Inflection indicates the sentence's tense and agreement.61. Infl is a sentence head that takes an NP (the subject) as its specifier and a VP category as itscomplement.62. A yes-no question requires a transformation, a special type of rule that can move an elementfrom one position to another.63. A transformation known as inversion moves the auxiliary from the Infl position toa position to the left of the subject.64. The position the auxiliary occupies is the same as the position that a complementizer occupies.65. Do insertion is to insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position66. Deep structure is formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties.67. Corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence, surface structure results from appropriate transformations.68. In Wh Movement, we move the wh phrase to the beginning of the sentence.69. According to naming theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for.70. The limitations of naming theory are applicable to nouns only and there are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world.71. The conceptualist view holds the interpretation of meaning is linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.72. The contextualist view of meaning is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts.73. Two kinds of context are recognized: the situational context and the linguistic context.74. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, the collection of all its features; it is abstract and de-contextualized.75. Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.76. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.77. The same one word may have more than one meaning. This is what we call polysemy.78. Homonymy (同音（形）异义性) refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.79. Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.80. Words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms.81. Componential analysis is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning.82. A predication consists of argument and predicate.83. Pragmatics is defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.84. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered.85. The meaning of a sentence is abstract, and decontextualized86. The meaning of a/an utterance is concrete, and context dependent.87. A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, and clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.88. An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker's intention; it is the act performed in saying something.89. representatives means stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true.90. directives means to trying to get the hearer to do something.91. Commissives means committing the speaker himself to some future course of action.92. Expressives means expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state.93. Declarations means bringing about immediate changes by saying something.94. The primary speech act is the speaker's goal of communication.95. The secondary speech act is the means by which the speaker achieves his/her goal.96. According to the maxim of quantity, speakers should not make his/her contribution more informative than is required.97. The maxim of quality requires that speakers do not say what they believe to be false.98. Be relevant is the maxim of relation.99. According to the maxim of manner, speakers should avoid ambiguity and be brief. 100. Pragmatic failure occurs when the speaker fails to use language effectively to achieve a specific communicative purpose, or when the hearer fails to recognize the intention or the illocutionary force of the speaker’s utterance in the context of communication.。
笔记-新编简明英语语言学教程-复习资料
Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性（创造性）Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递5.语言能力Competence（抽象）Competence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performance（具体）Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的具体体现。
7.历时语言学Diachronic linguisticsThe study of language change through time. a diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time.8.共时语言学Synchronical linguisticsThe study of a given language at a given time.9.语言langue（抽象）The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.10.言语parole（具体）The realization of langue in actual use.11.规定性PrescriptiveIt aims to lay down rules for ”correct” behavior, to tell people what they should say and what should not say.12.描述性DescriptiveA linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.二、知识点nguage is not an isolated phenomenon, it’s a social activity carried out in a certain social environment by human beings.语言不是一种孤立的现象，而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一种社会活动。
（完整word版）新编简明英语语言学教程复习资料
（完整word版）新编简明英语语言学教程复习资料Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递The design features mentioned in the course book include arbitrariness, productivity or creativity, duality, displacement and cultural transmission.By arbitrariness it is meant that the symbols used in human language are arbitrary, i.e. there is no logical connection between the symbols and what they stand for.The feature of productivity means that language is productive or creative, i.e. it is possible for its users to construct and understand an unlimited number of sentences, includingsentences they have never heard before.Duality is a feature of the structure of the human language system, which consists of two levels. At the lower level there exist a limited number of sounds which are meaningless, while at the higher level these meaningless sounds can be arranged and rearranged in various ways to form meaningful language units, unlimited in number.The feature of displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or unreal, in the past, present, or future.Cultural transmission, in contrast to genetic transmission, refers to the fact that human babies, though born with the ability to acquire a language, must be taught to use it.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。
新编简明英语语言学知识点汇总(word文档物超所值)
新编简明英语语言学知识点汇总1 Introduction1.1 What is linguistics?Scientific study of language.Interpretation:①try to answer the basic questions and probe into various problems related to language;②linguistics studies not any particular language but language in general;③scientific study because based on systematic investigation of linguistic data.1.1.2 The scope of linguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called general linguistic.arranged and combined to form wordssyntax Rules governing the combination of words semantics The study of meaningpragmatics Study the meaning in contextAbove are major or core branches of linguistics;Following are linguistics link with other disciplines. sociolinguistics language and societypsycholinguistics How infant acquire mothertongue,processinformation……（language and brain）Applied linguistics Applied to the recovery oflanguage,language acquisition1.1.3 Some important distinctions in linguisticsprescriptive descriptiveAims to lay down rules for“correct &Describe and analyze the language actually use(modernstandard”;i.e.to tell people what they should sayor notlinguists believe thatwhatever occurs in the language people use should be described and analyzed)synchronic diachronicThe description of a language at some point oftimeThe description of a language as it changes through timeModern linguistics are most synchronic:①Difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development;②Synchronic description are often thought of as being descriptions of a language in its current existence.speech writingSpeech is prior to writing:①writing system is always “invented”by the users to record the speech when the need arises;②speech plays a greater role in terms of amount of conveying information;③speech is always the way native speaker acquire their mother tongue while writing is learn and taught in school;④spoken language reveals more feature of humanspeech,which is authentic while written language is only the revised record of speech.Langue 语言Parole 言语Abstract linguistic system; Relatively stable The realization of language in actual use; Concrete; Vary from person to person & situation to situationProposed by Swiss linguist F.de Saussure in the early 20th century:parole is a mass of linguistic facts,to abstract langue from parole.competence performanceThe ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his languageThe actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.proposed by American linguist N.Chomsky ,Similar toSaussure,what linguists should study is the ideal speaker’s competence,not the performance.Difference:Saussure took sociological view of language and hi s notion of langue is a matter of socialconvention;while Chomsky looks at psychological point and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.Traditional grammar Modern linguisticsPrescriptive;written language is primary; Force language into a Latin-based framework;Descriptive;Spoken language is primary; Trying to set up a universalframeworkModern linguistics begin from the publication of F.de Sassure’s book course in general linguistics1.2 What is language1.2.1 Definitions of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Characteristics:①language is system,elements of language are combined according to the rules;②language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and whatit stands for, A rose by any other name would smell as well;③language is vocal because the primary medium for all language is sound;④language is human -specific,different from animal communication.1.2.2 Design features of languageProposed by American linguist Charles Hockett:comparing the animal & human communication systems.Following are five major design features of human language:①arbitrarinessNo logical connection between meaning and sounds(except onomatopoetic and compound words)②productivityIt makes to possible to construction and interpretation ofnew signal by its users.③dualityLanguage is a system which consists of two structures. At the lower level there is a structure of sounds,which are meaningless by themselves.But the sounds can grouped or regrouped together into a larger numbers of units of meaning such as morpheme or words,which are found at the higher level of system(carp & park).Then the higher level can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite numbers of sentences;④DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speakers;⑤cultural transmissionWhile human capacity for language has a genetic basis,the details of any language systems are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught andlearned.(language is cultural transmitted[language not mutually intelligible] while animal call system is genetically transmitted)1.2.3 Functions of languageThree main functions of language which distinct from each other but actually overlapping to some degree:①descriptive functionThe primary function of language;The function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denial, and in some case even verified.e.g: The Sichuan earthquake is the most serious one China has ever suffered.②expressive functionSupply information about the user’sfeeling,preference,prejudices and value,etc.I will never come to this coffee shop again.③social functionServes to establish and maintain social relations between people. How can I help you, Sir?Others:Russian-born structural linguist Roman Jakobson：six elemens (function)of a speech:Addresser-emotive (动机) addressee-conative(意动) context-referential message-poetic contact-phatic communioncode-metalinguisticBritish linguistic M.A.K Halliday:①ideational function(语篇功能)[included descriptive & expressive functin] is to organize the speaker’s experience of the real or imaginary world.②interpersonal function is to indicate ,establish,or maintain social relationship between people.[social function]③textual function is to organize written or spoken texts to cohere within themselves and fit to the particular situation in which they are used.2.Phonology2.1 The phonic medium of languageSpeech sounds produced by human speech organTwo major media of communication:speech and writing;2.2phonetics2.2.1 what is phonetics?The study of phonic medium of language;it is concerned with all the sounds that occurs in the world’s language.发音语言学听觉语言学)声学语言学)2.2.2 organs of speechPharyngeal cavity(咽喉)Nasal cavity（鼻腔）Oral cavity（口腔）Voicing:vibration of the vocal cords2.2.3 orthgraphic representation of speech sounds :broad & narrowInternational phonetic alphabet:letter→soundsBroad(used in textbook):letter symbols [p]Narrow: letter symbols + diacritics(变音符)[p h it] [spit]h→aspiration [phonetician more interested in] 2.2.4 classification of English speech sounds 2.2.4.1 classification of English consonantLiquidsVD L,r（流音）GlidesVD w j （滑音）2.2.4.2 classification of English vowelsMonophthongs：front central back close I: I U: u Semi-close e e:Semi-open e C: open ae a^D a:2.3 phonology2.3.1 phonology & phonetics2.3.4 some rules in phonology2.3.5 suprasegmental features(phonemic features that occur above the level of segments)Stress : N & vTone：四声Intonation： different may convey different meaning even the sentences unchanged3.MorphologyGrammar that is concerned with word formation and word structureWord: the smallest free form found in languageMorpheme: the smallest unit of meaningRoot stem baseRoot: believeStem: believable (除掉所有的语法成份,留下词根和派生成份)Base：unbelievable (un的词基)Derivational morpheme:change category grammatical class of words Prefix:change meaningSuffix: change meaning and parts of speechInflectional morpheme:signify tense number caseWord formation:①Clipping（shortening & abbreviation）[no change of part of speech]I.e gym expo memo disco burger quake fridge script②back-formation[change of part of speech]I.e editor-edit hawker-hawk beggar-beg baby-sister--baby-sit Butcher-butch donation-donate orientation-orient(ate)③conversion(functional shift)I.e: N-v v-n a-v a-n④acronyms[pronounced as words]CEO B2B IT CPI IAD WTO BBS(FOR BULLETIN BOARD SYSTEM)APEC AIDS UNESCO UCLA IDD⑤initialism[produced as letters]C.O.D FBI EEC⑥blendingSmoke+fog=smogTaikong+astronaut=taikonaut⑦compoundingBittersweet landlady⑧onomatopoeiaBlast rustle5.SemanticsSome views concerning the study of meaning:1) the naming theory,plato,words →objectsLimitations: √N×ADJ ADV V√Concrete ×abstract2) the conceptualist viewSemantic triangle,ogden & richardswords→mind→wordsLimitations:what is the precisely link symbol and concept unclarify 3) ContextualismJ.R Firth。
新编简明英语语言学教程(重点笔记 赶考秘籍)
1.1 Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.It is a scientific study because it (a) is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data. It (b) discovers the nature and rules of the underlying language system. It (c) collects language facts that display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them.The study of language as a whole if often called general linguistics.phonetics(语音学): the study of soundsphonology(音位学): how sounds are put together and used to convey meaningmorphology(形态学): how morphemes(词素) are arranged and combined to form wordssyntax(句法学): the study of rules that govern the combination of words to form grammaticallypermissible sentencessemantics(语义学): the study of meaningpragmatics(语用学): the study of meaning in the context of language useinterdisciplinary branches: sociolinguistics(社会语言学), psycholinguistics(心理语言学), applied linguistics(应用语言学)Important distinctions in linguisticsprescriptive(规定性old linguistics) vs. descriptive(描述性modern linguistics)synchronic(共时性) vs. diachronic(历时性): most linguistic studies are of synchronic descriptions,which is prior in modern linguisticsspeech and writing: speech is prior to writing in modern linguisticslangue(语言系统abstract linguistic system) and parole(话语/言语realization of langue in actualuse): Swiss linguist F. de Saussure----forefather of modern linguisticscompetence(语言能力ideal user’s knowledge of rules of his language) and performance(语言运用actual realization of this knowledge): American linguist N. Chomskytraditional grammar and modern linguistics: Saussure’s book “Course in General Linguistics”marked the beginning of modern linguistics1.2 Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.LAD: Language Acquisition Device -----ChomskyArbitrariness (任意性): Different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.Productivity/creativity (能产性): Construction and interpretation of new signals are possible, so that large number of sentences can be produced.Duality (双层性): Two levels enable people to talk about anything within their knowledge. lower level(sounds)---higher level(words)Displacement(移位性): enable people to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time or place.Cultural transmission(文化传承): We are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of language system have to be taught and learned.2.1 Speech and writing are the two media for communication, of which speech ismore basic/primary.The sounds which are produced by humans through their speech organs and meaningful in communication constitute the phonic medium of language. The individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds.2.2 Phonetics is the study of the phonic medium of language, which concerned with all the sounds thatoccur in the world’s languages.articulatory phonetics, auditory phonetics, acoustic phoneticsSpeech organs:pharyngeal; cavity---throat; oral cavity---mouth; nasal cavity---noseIPA: 国际音标diacritics: 变音符broad transcription: 宽式标音(used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks)narrow transcription: 严式标音(used by phoneticians in their study)vowels(the air stream meets with no obstruction) and consonants(obstructed)stops(塞音), fricatives(擦音), affricates(塞擦音), liquids(流音), nasals, glides, bilabial(双唇音), laviodental(唇齿音), dental(齿音), alveolar(齿龈音), palatal(腭音), velar(软腭音), glottal(喉音)close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, open vowels(openness)unrounded vowels, rounded vowels(shape of the lips)long/tense vowels----short/lax vowelsmonophthongs(单元音), diphthongs(双元音) (single or combined)2.3 Phonology and phonetics differ in their approach and focus.phonology: how speech sounds form patterns and are used to convey meaningconcerned with sound system of a particular languagephonetics: of a general nature, interested in all the speech soundsA phone(音素) is a phonetic unit or segment.(speech sounds are all phones)a phone does not necessarily distinguish meaningA phoneme(音位) is a phonological unit.(an abstract unit of distinctive value)not particular sound, but is realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones(音位变体) of that phoneme.Rules in phonology:Sequential rules(序列规则)---rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.Assimilation rule(同化规则)---assimilates one sound to another by “copying”a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. for ease of articulation(清晰发音)e.g. green, screamDeletion rule(省略规则)---e.g. desi g nationSuprasegmental features(超切分特征): the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments.stress(重音)---word stress and sentence stressThe location of stress in English distinguishes meaning.E.g. ‘import (n.) im’port (v.) // blackbird vs. black birdtone(语调)---pitch variation(音高变体) distinguish meaning E.g. 汉语四声Intonation(音调)---English tones: falling tone, rising tone, fall-rise tone, rise-fall toneE.g. That’s not the book he wants.3.1 Morphology: study of the internal structure of words, and rules by which words are formed3.2 open class words(开放类): new words can be added—nouns, verbs, adjective and adverbsclosed class words(封闭类): “grammatical” or “functional” words3.3 Word is the smallest free form found in language.Morphemes are the minimal units of meaning.Free and bound morphemes(自由词素can be a word by itself粘着词素must be attached to another one---affix)3.4 V----teachN Af----er3.5 Derivational and inflectional morphemes(派生词素和屈折词素)Free morphemes Bound morphemesRoot Root Affixdog, cat -ceive Prefix Suffixgrammar -vert Derivational Derivational Inflectional …-mit un-, dis- -ment -s, -ing, -‘s, -er3.6 Morphological rules determine how morphemes combine to form words. E.g. un-accept-able3.8 Another way to form words is compounding. E.g. bittersweetWord Formations: compounding, blending, backformation, shortening4.1 Syntax studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.4.2 Category is a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular languagesuch as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.Syntactic categories—word-level categories:major lexical categories (often assumed as the heads around which phrases are built)---Noun (N) Verb (V) Adjective (A) Preposition (P)minor lexical categories---Determiner (Det) Degree words (Deg) Qualifier (Qual) Auxiliary (Aux) Conjunction (Con)Three criteria(条件) determining a word’s category: meaning, inflection (变形) and distribution (分布)A word’s category can be determined only by all three criteria.Phrase category is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built.noun phrase (NP), verb phrase (VP), adjective phrase (AP), prepositional phrase (PP)phrases that are formed of more than one word usually contain : head, specifier, complement4.3 Phrase structure rule---special type of grammatical mechanism regulating the arrangement of elementsthat make up a phraseNP→(Det) N (PP) an NP consists of a determiner, an N head, and a PP complementVP→(Qual) V (NP) a VP consists of a qualifier, a V head, and an NP complementAP→(Deg) A (PP) ……PP→(Deg) P (NP) ……XP rule: XP→(specifier) X (complement)Coordination rule: coordinate structures (consist a conjunction “and”/”or”)X→X *Con XEither an X or an XP can be coordinated; one or more categories can occur to the left of the Con.4.4 Phrase elements: specifiers, complements, modifiersspecifiers determiner qualifier degree wordheads N V A / Pcomplementizers (Cs)—words introducing the sentence complementcomplement clause—sentence introduced by the complementizer complement phrase(CP)matrix clause—construction in which the CP embeded嵌入As, Ns, Ps can all take CP. Adjectives: (heads) afraid, certain, awareNouns: (heads) fact, claim, belief Prepositions: (heads)over, aboutmodifiers: all lexical categories can have modifiers.AP(+Ns): precedes the head e.g. a very careful girl PP(+Vs): follows the head e.g. open with care AdvP(+Vs): precedes or follows the head e.g. read carefully/carefully readThe Expanded XP rule: XP→(Spec) (Mod) X (Complement*) (Mod)4.5 The S rule: S→NP VP ------ Inflp (=S)→NP Infl VP ------Infl can be taken by an abstract category encodedin a verb indicating tense or an auxiliary(助动词)4.6 Transformation a special rule that can move an element from one position to anotherauxiliary movement(助动词移位) inversion: move Infl to the left of the subject NP.within larger CPs (embedded or not): inversion: move Infl to C. P53 Figure 4-8 do insertion(插入): insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position, than move Infl to C.deep and surface structure: e.g. Will the train arrive?Deep: S Surface:NP VPDet Infl Vthe train will arriveThe XP rule→D structure→transformations→S structurewh movement: move the wh phrase to the beginning of the sentence/the specifier position under CPP57 Figure 4-16 P58 Figure 4-18move αand constraints on transformationsmove α: general rule for all the movement rules α: any element that can be movedlimits: inversion can move an auxiliary from the Infl to the nearest C positionno element may be removed from a coordinate structure5.1 Semantics is the study of meaning (from a linguistic point of view.)5.2 The naming theory: The words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for.The limitations of this theory are obvious. There’s verbs, adjectives, etc. and also abstract nouns.The conceptualist view: Words and things are related through the mediation of concepts in the mind.Contextualism: The meaning of a word is its use in the language.Behaviorism: The meaning of a language form is the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.5.3 Sense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of word meaning, which are relatedbut different aspects of meaning.Sense: e.g. “dog”---a domesticated mammal... refer to any animal that meets the features described Reference: “dog”---A said to B:” The dog’s barking.”refer to a certain dog known to both A&BMajor sense relations:synonymy---words that are close in meaningdialectal syn.(autumn in BE & fall in AE), stylistic syn.(daddy & father),syn. that differ in emotive or evaluative meaning(same meaning, different emotions)collocational syn.(different usage), semantically different syn.(differ slightly in meaning) polysemy(one word may have more than one meaning)homonymy (homophones--- two words same in sound, homographs---same in spelling, complete homonyms---same in both sound and spelling)hyponymy(relation between a general word—superordinate, and a specific word--hyponyms)antonymy(words that are opposite in meaning)gradable ant.---e.g. hot vs. cold complementary ant.---e.g. male vs. femalerelational ant.---e.g. husband vs. wife5.4 Sense relations between sentences:X is synonymous with Y. E.g. He was a bachelor all his life. / He never married….X, True—Y, True; X, False---Y FalseX is inconsistent with Y. E.g. John’s married. / John’s a bachelor. X, T—Y, F; X, F—Y, TX entails Y. E.g. He’s been to France. / He’s been to Europe. X, T—Y, T; X, F—Y, may be T or FX presupposes Y. E.g. John’s bike needs repairing. / John has a bike. X, T—Y, T; X, F—Y, TX is a contradiction. E.g. My unmarried sister married a bachelor. X is always false.X is semantically anomalous. (absurd in the sense)5.5 componential analysis----lexical meaning E.g. man---+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALEpredication(谓项) analysis---sentence meaning E.g. The kids like apples. ---KID, APPLE (LIKE) Tom smokes. ---TOM (SMOKE) It is hot. --- (BE HOT)6.1 Pragmatics studies how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication(meaning in a certain context).Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaningUtterance is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication or context, it is context-dependent.6.2 Speech act theory: aim to answer “What do we do when using language?”----John Austin in late 1950slocutionary act(言内行为—字面意思), illocutionary act(言外行为—目的), perlocutionary act(言后行为—结果) John Searle: classification of illocutionary acts---five general types of things we do with languageSpecific acts that fall into each type share the same illocutionary point1. representatives/assertive: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be trueE.g. The earth is a globe.2. directives: trying to get the hearer to do something E.g. Close the door. / Will you close the door?3. commissives: committing the speaker himself to some future course of actionE.g. I promise to come. / I will bring you the book tomorrow without fail.4. expressive: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing stateE.g. It’s kind of you to ... / I’m sorry for the mess I’ve made.5. declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying somethingE.g. I now declare the meeting open. / I appoint you chairman of the committee.Indirect speech act--primary speech act (goal of communication) + secondary speech act (means by which he achieves the goal) ----Searle6.3 Conventional implicature(暗示) & nonconventional implicature-----GriceCon. imp. E.g. He is rich but he is not greedy. imp. Rich people are usually greedy.The participants must first of all be willing to cooperate to converse with each other. The general principle is called the Cooperative Principle. (CP)Four maxims(准则) under CP: The maxim of quantity (informative but no more than required), quality (don’t say what you believe to be false or what you lack adequate evidence), relation (be relevant), manner (avoid obscurity or ambiguity & be brief and orderly)These maxims can be violated. (when misleading, lying, etc.)Chap. 7 Language change (diachronic 历时的) Historical linguisticsphonological changes: vowels---the most dramatic changemorphological and syntactic change:morphological: Addition of affixes (Fusion 融合word word---base +suffix /prefix +base)Loss of affixes---some are via sound changessyntactic: change of word order Old English: subject-object-verbchange in negation rule Old English: I love thee not.lexical and semantic change:lexical: Addition of new words---takes place obviously and quicklyCoinage (coin for new things and objects), Clipped words (缩略构词),Blending (combine parts of other words, e.g. brunch),Acronyms (首字构词e.g. WTO),Back-formation (subtract affixes from old words, e.g. donate---from “donation”)Functional shift /Conversion (shift without adding affixes, e.g. to knee/cool; a reject)Borrowing (borrow from other languages, e.g. bonus from Latin, cycle from Greek…)Loss of words---takes place gradually over several generationsSome words are short-lived because of the discontinuation of the object they name.semantic: three processes of semantic change---semantic broadening: e.g. holiday = holy day in the past, but any rest day todaysemantic narrowing: e.g. girl = young person of either sex in the pastsemantic shift: e.g. nice = ignorant a thousand years agorecent trends: moving towards greater informality, influence of American English,influence of science and technology (space travel, computer and internet lang. etc.) causes of language change: development of science &tech., social & political changes and needs,the way children acquire language, grammar simplification, elaboration &complication, etc. No single causeChap. 8 Language and societySociolinguistics is the sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of languagelive. (社会语言学) Halliday & HudsonLanguage is used to communicate meaning, and to establish and maintain social relationships.Social background determines the kind of language one uses, and language reflects one’s info.speech community---the social group that is singled out for any special studyVarious social groups exist within a speech community. A social group may distinguish itself fromthe rest of the community by the educational background, the occupation, the gender, the age ,of the ethnic affiliation of its members.speech variety(变体)---any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakersthree types of speech variety of special interest: regional dialects, sociolects, registersTwo approaches to sociolinguistic studies: macro-sociolinguistics & micro-sociolinguisticsThe varieties of language are related to the users and the use to which the language is put.Dialectal varieties: regional dialect (linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region---geographical barrier), sociolect (characteristic of a particular socialclass---different social conditions), language and gender (female speech is less assertive andthus sounds more polite), language and age (old people are more conservative and like usingold words more), idiolect (personal dialect), ethnic dialect (social dialect of a languagecutting across regional differences e.g. Black English)Register: the type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation linguistic repertoire---the totality of linguistic varieties possessed by an individualthree social variables that determine the register(the features appropriate to the situation): field of discourse (语场purpose and subject-matter of communication non-technical or technical, determines the vocabulary used and the phono. & gramm. features), tenor of discourse (语旨who the participants are and the relationship between them determines the formality and the level of technicality),mode of discourse(语式the means of communication)E.g. a lecture on biology in a technical collegeField: scientific (biological) Tenor: teacher—student (formal, polite) Mode: oral (lecturing) Degree of formality: intimate—casual—consultative—formal—frozenStandard dialects (employed by government, used by mass media, taught in edu. institutions, based on a selected variety of lang., usually local speech of political or commercial centers,for official purposes or any formal occasions)Pidgin (a variety that mixes or blends languages) and Creole (a pidgin becoming the primary lang.of a speech community of which the children acquire the pidgin as native lang.)Chap. 9 Language and culture are interdependent on each other and have evolved together.Culture is integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief, & behavior. (material & spiritual cult.) Relationship between lang. &cult. : Language symbolizes cultural reality, plays a major role in perpetuating of a culture, is related to what the culture is and affects a culture’s way ofthinking. Language is to culture what part is to whole.discourse communities--- members of the social group use similar lang. to meet their needsdiscourse accents---unique uses of each group’s language, the ways and the style of their talking Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis (SWH): Language filters people’s perception and the way they categorize their experiences.Language reflects cultural preoccupations and constrains the way people think.Context is important in complementing the meanings encoded in the language.Any linguistic sign has a denotative (指示意义—内含), connotative (暗涵意义—外延), or iconic(图像意义) kind of meaning. All these types of meanings are bound with cultural encodings orassociations.some cultural differences in language use: greeting and terms of address, gratitude and compliments, color words, privacy and taboos(禁忌), rounding off numbers, words andcultural specific connotations, cultural-related idioms, proverbs and metaphors Culture contact--- acculturation(文化移入political conquests and expansions), assimilation (吸收immigration), amalgamation (合并ethnical mix / synthesis rather than the elimination orabsorption)Cultural overlap (文化重叠owe to similarities in natural environ. and human psychology)Cultural diffusion (文化扩展e.g. loan words gradually and unceasingly)cultural imperialism (文化帝国主义)---owe to linguistic imperialismspecial language policy protecting the purity of their languages---linguistic nationalism Chap. 10 Language acquisition---child’s acquisition of his mother tongueThree theories: the behaviorist (行为主义语言习得观), the innatist(语法天生…),the interactionist (互动主义…)Behaviorist: language is a kind of behavior, language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit formation. Children imitate words selectively and according to their ownunderstanding of the sounds or patterns, which is based on what the children have alreadyknown instead of what is “available” in the environment. This theory fails to explain howthey acquire more complex grammatical structures of the languageInnatist: LAD was described as an imaginary “black box” existing somewhere in the human brain.It is said to contain principles that are universal to all human languages.Universal Grammar: innate knowledge of basic grammatical systemChildren ‘s acquisition of grammatical rules is guided by principles of an innate UG.Interactionist: language is a result of the complex interplay between the human characteristics of the child and the environment in which he grows.child directed speech (CDS)(slow rate, high pitch音高, rich intonation抑扬, shorter andsimpler sentence structure)The cognitive development relates to language acquisition mainly in two ways:First, as children’s conceptual development leads to their language development, theirlanguage development also helps in the formation and enhancement of the concept.Second, the cognitive factors determine how the child makes sense of the linguistic systemhimself instead of what meanings the child perceives (理解) and expresses.Two factors remarkably relevant to children’s language developmentLanguage environment is essential in providing input for language acquisition:Behaviorist: language environment plays a major roleInnatist: environment is a stimulus that triggers the pre-equipped LADInteractionist: call for the quality of the language samples available in the ling. environmentAge they start to learn the language:Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH): LAD works successfully only when it’s stimulated at the righttime—a specific and limited time period for language acquisition (Eric Lenneberg)Two versions of CPH: strong one—children must acquire their first language by pubertyweak one—language learning will be more difficult and incomplete after puberty ----consensus: there’s a critical period for first language acquisitionStages in child language development:Phonological development—children must pass one stage before proceeding to the nextVocabulary development—under-extension, over-extensionVocabulary development goes together with the child’s knowledge of the environment.Children may under-extend or overextend it when learning a new word.under-extension: e.g. child gets confused hearing the color of white used for paper when he first thought it as the word for snowover-extension: a child takes a property of an object and generalizes it. likely to occur later Grammatical developmentPragmatic developmentAtypical development (非典型发展)hearing impairment (听力损伤), mental retardation (智力缺陷), autism (孤独症), stuttering(口吃), aphasia (失语症), dyslexia (诵读困难), dysgraphia (书写困难)Chap. 11 Second language acquisition (SLA) is the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language (NL/L1).Whether the target language (TL) to be learnt is called a second language (SL/L2) or a foreignlanguage (FL) depends on its status as a second language or foreign language in the country.Contrastive Analysis (CA)--1960s :positive/negative transfer: the former facilitate target language learning, the latter interfereCA compares the forms and meanings across two languages to locate the mismatches or differences so as to predict the possible learning difficulty.It was soon found problematic: uninformative, inaccurateError Analysis (EA): independently describe the learners’ interlanguage (their version of the target language and the target language itself), and compare the two forms to locate mismatches.It gives less consideration to learner s’ native language than CA. reach heyday in 1970sTwo main sorts of errors: interlingual errors (语际错误result from cross-linguistic interferenceat different levels—phonological, lexical…), intralingual errors (语内错误result from faultyor partial learning of the TL, independent of the NL e.g. learning strategies-based error)Overgeneralization—the use of previously available strategies in new situationsCross-association—interference of two words similar in meaning, spelling and pronunciationEA was criticized for its neglect of learners’ role as active participants in learning. (mid-1970s)Interlanguage: Three important characteristics—systematicity (系统性), permeability (渗透性), fossilization (石化a process occurring from time to time in which incorrect linguistic features become apermanent part of the way a person speaks or writes a language. fossilized pronunciation leads to accent) Input Hypothesis---Krashen: two independent means or routes of second language learning: acquisition: subconscious process learning: conscious effortsLearners advance their language learning gradually by receiving “comprehensible input”. ”i+1”It received criticism later, for he mistook “input” as “intake”.Individual differences: language aptitude (天资), age of acquisition, personalitymotivation----instrumental motivation (for external goal), integrative motivation (for the wish toidentify with the target culture), resultative motivation (for external purposes), intrinsicmotivation (for pleasure),learning strategies (motivation plays an important role in use of learning strategies)----cognitive strategies (认知策略involved in analyzing, synthesizing(合成) and internalizing(内在化) what has been learned), metacognitive strategies (元认知策略the techniques inplanning, monitoring and evaluating one’s learning), affect/social strategies (deal with theways learners interact or communicate with other speakers, native or non-native)Chap. 12 Language and the brainneurolinguistics (神经语言学): study of language disorders and the relationship between the brain and language. lateralization (侧化)—cognitive functions controlled by either side of the brainThe brain is divided into two sections:the lower section—brain stem(脑干shared by all animals to keep the body alive by maintaining the essential functions)the higher section—cerebrum(大脑differs in different species, not essential for life)cerebellum—at the rear of the brain , beneath the cerebrum, behind the brainstemneuron神经元Neurons form the cortex(脑皮层the surface of the brain)The cortex has many wrinkles: a ridge (hills) called sulcus, a deep and prominent sulcus called fissure The cortex is the decision-making organ of the body and “storehouse” of “memory”, it makes human distinctive in the animal world—animals have no cortex.The cortex is separated by the longitudinal fissure into the left and right cerebral hemispheres, the。
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Chapter1Linguistics: the scientific study of language. （定义）General Linguistics:Phonetics:the general study of the characteristics of speech soundsPhonology: sound patterns of languagesMorphology: the form of wordsSyntax: the rules governing the combination of words into sentence.Semantics: the meaning of languagePragmatics:the meaning of language is conducted in the context of languageLangue vs. parole (F. de Saussure)语言和言语（定义）Langue: the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of the speech community. Parole: the realization of langue in actual use.Competence and performance (Chomsky)语言能力和语言应用（定义）Competence:the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his languagePerformance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communicationH ow is Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance?（相似点，不同点）Similar to Saussure, Chomsky thinks what linguists should study is the ideal user’s competence, not his performance is too haphazard to be studied.So the task of the linguists should discover and specify rules.Two linguists idea differ in that Saussure took a sociological view of language, Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.（定义）(语言是一个具有任意性、用于人类交流的语音符号系统。
)The design features of human language (Charles Hockett in 1960)（定义）Arbitrariness(任意性):No logical connection between sounds and meanings.（定义）Productivity/Creativity(能产性/创造性):Peculiar to human languages，users of language can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before.（定义）Duality:Language is organized at two levels or layers simultaneously. （定义）The lower or basic level is a structure of sounds which are meaningless.The higher level is morpheme or word (double articulation)Displacement（定义）Cultural transmissionChapter2Phonetics（语音学）（定义）Phonetics: the study of the phonic medium of language: it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.（是指对语言的语音媒介进行的研究，它关注语言世界中的所有语音）Three branches of phonetics:articulatory phonetics（发音）auditory phonetics（听觉）acoustic phonetics（声学）Orthographic representation of speech sounds：Broad transcription and Narrow transcription A standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). The basic principle of the IPA is using one letter to represent one speech sound.Phonetics & phonology：（定义，区别）Both are concerned with the same aspect of language: the speech sounds. But they differ in their approach and focus.Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; (it aims to answer questions like: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they have, how they can be classified, etc.)Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.Phone（音素）Phoneme（音位）Allophone（音位变体）: （定义）Phone: a phone is a phonetic unit or segment （音素是一个语音单位或者说语音段）The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones.Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, and some don’tPhoneme:a phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value, it is an abstract unit.（音位是一个音位学的单位，而且是一个有区别意义的单位，是一个抽象的单位）Allophones: the different phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.（在不同的语音环境下代表某个音位的音素）Suprasegmental features (超切分特征): stress（重音）tone声调）intonation（语调）The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segmentsChapter3Morphology（形态学）（定义）Morphology: The part of the grammar that is concerned with word formation and word structure Morpheme: the minimal unit of meaning.（定义）Allomorphs:a set of morphs, all of which are versions of one morpheme, a morpheme may have alternate shapes or phonetic forms.Free morpheme & bound morpheme（定义，会用，选择）Free morpheme: is one that may constitute a word (free form) by itself.Bound morpheme:can not normally stand alone, but which are typically attached to another form. (One that may appear with at least one other morpheme. They can not stand by themselves, “al” in “national”.)Derivational morpheme & inflectional morphemeDerivational morphemes:the morphemes which change the category or grammatical class of words, e.g. modern---modernize length---lengthen, fool---foolish, etc.Inflectional morphemes: the morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense, number, case and so on; they never change their syntactic category, never add any lexical meaning, e.g.a) Number: tables apples carsb) Person, finiteness and aspect: talk/talks/talking/talkedc) Case: John/John’sRoot（词根）Stem（词干）Base（根基）（定义，会用，选择）Root: A root is that part of the word left when all the affixes (inflectional & derivational) are removed, e.g. “desire”in “desirable”, “care”in“carefully”.Stem: A stem is part of a word-form which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed, e.g. “undesirable”in undesirables.Base: A base is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added. This means any stem and root can be termed as a base.The difference between root, stem & baseOrder: root (stem) + derivational + inflectional 词根/词干+派生+曲折A base can be added by both inflectional & derivational affixes while a stem can be added only by inflectional affixes;A base is derivationally analyzable (e.g. undesired in undesirable) while a root cannot be further analyzed, e.g. desire in undesirable;Root, stem and base can be the same form, e.g. desire in desired;Undesirable in undesirables is either a stem or a base;Desirable in undesirable is only a base.Chapter4Syntax（句法学）（定义）Syntax: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.（句法学是研究词是如何组成句子以及如何支配句子构成规则的一个语言学分支）Phrase categories and their structuresPhrase categories----the syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase categories, such as noun phrase: NP (N), verb phrase: VP (V), adjective phrase: AP (A), and prepositional: PP (P).The structure: specifier + head + complementHead（中心语）---- the word around which a phrase is formedSpecifier（标志成分）---- the words on the left side of the headsComplement（补足成分）---- the words on the right side of the headsPhrase structure rules:The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule, such as:NP (Det限定词) + N + (PP)……e.g. those people, the fish on the plate, pretty girls.VP (Qual修饰词) + V + (NP)……e.g. always play games, finish assignments.AP (Deg程度词) + A + (PP)……very handsome, very pessimistic, familiar with, very close toPP (Deg) + P + (NP)……o n the shelf, in the boat, quite near the stationS→NP VP(A sentence consists of, or is rewritten as, a noun phrase and a verb phrase)Do insertion: Insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position.Chapter5 Semantics（语义学）（定义）Semantics: the study of meaning from the linguistic point of view （对意义的研究）the naming theory命名论→Platothe conceptualist view概念论:Semantic triangle →Ogden and RichardsThought/reference → concept 思想/指称Symbol/Form (words) 符号/形式Referent →(real object)所指Contextualism语境论→John FirthBehaviorism→ Bloomfield行为主义论based on contextualist viewS: stimulus r: responseJill JackS---------r………s---------R(The small letters r, sàspeech) (The capitalized letter R, Sàpractical events)Sense（意义）and reference（所指/指称）（定义）Sense:is concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, the collection of all its features; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.Reference:means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. Synonymy同义现象: The sameness or close similarity of meaningA. dialectal synonyms方言同义词synonyms used in different regional dialects（美式/英式英语）B. stylistic synonyms文体同义词synonyms differing in style（问题、正式度不同）C. synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning情感或评价意义不同同义词（褒贬义）D. collocational synonyms搭配同义词（词语搭配、用法）E. semantically different synonyms语义不同的同义词（意义上稍有不同）Antonymy反义词: oppositenessSense relations between sentences1)X is synonymous with Y.X: He was a bachelor all his life. Y: He never got married all his life.X: The boy killed the cat. Y: The cat was killed by the boy.If X is true, Y is true; if X is false, Y is false.2) X is inconsistent with Y.X: This is my first visit to Beijing.Y: I have been to Beijing twice.3) X entails Y.X: John married a blond heiress.Y: John married a blond.X: Marry has been to Beijing.Y: Marry has been to China.Entailment is a relation of inclusion. If X entails Y, then the meaning of X is included in Y.If X is true, Y is necessarily true; if X is false, Y may be true or false.4) X presupposes Y. (Y is prerequisite of X.)X: His bike needs repairing.Y: He has a bikeIf X is true, Y must be true; If X is false, Y is still true.5) X is a contradiction*My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.6) X is semantically anomalous*The table has bad intentions.Componential analysis: a way to analyze lexical meaning.Predication analysis: a way to analyze sentence meaning. (British G. Leech).Predication: the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.A predication consists of argument(s)（名词部分）and predicate（谓语部分）.Chapter6Pragmatics（语用学）（问答，辨析，定义）Pragmatics:the study of language in use or language communication; the study of the use of context to make inference about meaning.The study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. (book) Pragmatics vs. semanticsSemantics:is the study of the literal meaning of a sentence (without taking context into consideration).Pragmatics:the study of the intended meaning of a speaker (taking context into consideration), e.g. “Today is Sunday”, semantically, it means that today is the first day of the week; pragmatically, you can mean a lot by saying this, all depending on the context and the intention of the speaker, say, making a suggestion or giving an invit ation…Context:a basic concept in the study of pragmatics. It is generally considered as constituted knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer, such as cultural background, situation(time, place, manner, etc.), the relationship between the speaker and the hearer,etc.Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning句子意义和话语意义Sentence meaning: Abstract and context-independent meaning; literal meaning of a sentence; utterance meaning: concrete and context-dependent meaning; intended meaning of a speaker; For example, “The bag is heavy” can meana bag being heavy (sentence meaning);an indirect, polite request, asking the hearer to help him carry the bag;the speaker is declining someone’s request for help.Note: The meaning of an utterance is based on the sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context; utterance meaning is richer than sentence meaning; it is identical with the purpose for which the speaker utters the sentenceSpeech Act Theory（言语行为理论）J. L. Austin (1962)Constatives (述事话语) statements that either state or describe, and are thus verifiable; Performatives (行事话语) sentences that do not state a fact or describe a state, and are not verifiable.Note: Sometimes they ar e easy to get confused, e.g.“It is raining outside” can be a constative, and also a performative, for by uttering such a sentence, we may not only state a fact, but involve in the act of informing someone about the rain.Austin’s new model of speech actsAccording to Austin’s new model, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking: locutionary act, illocutionary act and perlocutionary act.The locutionary act（言内行为）an act of saying something, i.e. an act of making a meaningful utterance (literal meaning of an utterance);The illocutionary act（言外行为）an act performed in saying something: in saying X, I was doing Y (the intention of the speaker while speaking).The perlocutionary act（言后行为）an act performed as a result of saying something: by saying X and doing Y, I did Z.For example, “It is cold in here.”Its locutionary act is the saying of it with its literal meaning the weather is clod in here;Its illocutionary act can be a request of the hear to shut the window;Its perlocutionary act can be the hearer’s shutting the window or his refusal to comply with the request.----Analyze one more example: “You have left the door wide open.”Note: Of the three acts, what speech act theory is most concerned with is the illocutionary act. It attempts to account for the ways by which speakers can mean more than what they say.Analyze the illocutionary acts of the following conversation between a couple:----(the telephone rings)----H: That’ the phone. (1)----W: I’m in the bathroom. (2)----H: Okay. (3)Searle’s classification of speech acts (1969)Assertives/representatives(阐述类)Directives(指令类)Commissives(承诺类)Expressives(表达类)Declarations(宣布类)Indirect speech act→SearlePrinciple of conversation (Paul Grice) Cooperative principle (CP) 会话原则或合作原则（CP原则）Significance重要性: it explains how it is possible for the speaker to convey more than is literary said.它解释了说话人是如何表达字面意义之外的信息Four maxims of CPThe maxim of quality数量准则（提供足量的信息，不要提供超于所需信息之外的信息）----Do not say what you believe to be false.----Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.The maxim of quantity质量准则（不说假话，不说缺乏足够证据的话）----Make your contribution as informative as required for the current purpose of the exchange.----Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.The maxim of relation关系准则（有相关性）----Be relevant (make your contribution relevant).The maxim of manner方式准则（避免表达艰涩，避免歧义，简洁，避免冗繁，有条理）----Avoid obscurity of expression.----Avoid ambiguity.----Be brief.----Be orderly.Conversational implicatureIn real communication, however, speakers do not always observe these maxims strictly. These maxims can be violated for various reasons. When any of the maxims is blantantly violated, i.e. both the speaker and the hearer are aware of the violation, our language becomes indirect, then conversational implicature arises.Cross-cultural pragmatic failurePragmatic failure: occurs when the speaker fails to use language effectively to achieve a specific communicative purpose, or when the hearer fails to recognize the intention or the illocutionary force of the speaker’s utterance in the context of communication补充：音素、音位、音位变体的定义及关系Explain with examples 3notions of phone, phoneme and allophone, how they are related.⑴A phone is a speech sound, it is a phonetic unit. any sound we hear in the course of communication is a phone, such as [ u:],[ l ];⑵A phoneme is a phonological unit, it’s not a concrete sound but an abstract notion, it’s a collection of features. it can be realized as different phones in different phonetic contexts. Such as ,the phoneme[ l ] can be realized as a clear[ l ] or a dark [ l ],depending on where it occurs in a sound combination.⑶The actually phonetic realization of a phoneme are called its allophones, allophones are the actual phones we hear in linguistic communication.Chapter9Culture:In a broad sense, culture means the total way of life of a people, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language that characterizes the life of the human community.In a narrow sense, culture may refer to local or specific practice, beliefs or customs, which can be mostly found in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture, etc.There are generally two types of culture: material and spiritual.Sapir-Whorf hypothesisSapir and Whorf believe that language filters people’s perception and the way they categorize experiences. This interdependence of language and thought is now known as Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis.Strong version & weak versionStrong version belie ves that the language patterns determine people’s thinking and behavior; Weak version holds that the former influence the latter.The study of the linguistic relativity or SWH has shed two important insights:There is nowadays a recognition that language, as code, reflects cultural preoccupations and constrains the way people think.More than in Whorf’s days, however, we recognize how important context is in complementing the meanings encoded in the language.Chapter 10Language acquisitionLanguage acquisition:refers to the child’s acquisition of his mother tongue, i.e. how the child comes to understand and speak the language of his community.Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH)Eric Lenneberg argues that the LAD, like other biological functions, works successfully only when it is stimulated at the right time: a specific and limited time period for language acquisition.The strong version of CPH suggests that children must acquire their first language by puberty or they will never be able to learn from subsequent exposure.The weak version holds that language learning will be more difficult and incomplete after puberty. (Support in Victor’s and Genie’s cases)Chapter11Second Language AcquisitionSecond Language Acquisition:formally established itself as a discipline around the 1970s, refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language.Connections between first language acquisition and second language acquisition:The first language study has served as a backcloth for perceiving and understanding new facts about second language learning (Littlewood, 1986).SLA is different from first language acquisition.Positive transfer: facilitate target language learningNegative transfer: interfere or hinder target language learningIt is believed that differences between the native language and the target language would pose difficulties in second/foreign language learning and teaching, e.g.*To touch the society .*There are more people come to study in the states.*I wait you at the gate of the school.Errors & mistakesErrors:unintentionally deviant from the target language and not self-corrigible by the learner (failure in competence)；Mistakes:either intentionally or unintentionally deviant forms and self-corrigible (failure in performance).Interlanguage (S. Pit Corder & Larry Selinker)Interlangauge:learners’ independent system of the second language which is of neither the native language nor the second language, but a continuum or approximation from his native language to the target language.What learners produce, correct or wrong, are evidence or the approximation from their first language to the target language.Krashen’s Input HypothesisKrashen make a distinction between acquisition & learning.He put forward that learners advance their language learning gradually by receiving comprehensible input.He defined comprehensible input as “i + 1” :“i” represents learners’ current state of knowledge, the next stage is an “i + 1”.Krashen mistook input and intake, thus receive criticism.名词解释：Linguistic LanguagePhonology Phone Phoneme Allophone MorphemeDerivational morpheme Inflectional morphemeSyntax SemanticsSense and Reference。