difference between phonology and phonetics
What is the difference between Phonetics and Phonology
Does someone still remember what phonetics is? Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages. It stresses the speech sound itself. While phonology is also called phonemics音韵学，it is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. It stresses a particular language and its specific meaning.The second difference is their unit. Phonetic unit is phone. It means the speech sound we hear and produce during linguistic communication.The sign of a phone is phonetic symbol. One phonetic symbol represents one phone. For example, a monophthong(单元音) is made up of one phone, while a diphthong（双元音）is made up of two phones. Phones vary in different languages, even dialects in one language. Phonological unit is phoneme. Phoneme is of distinctive value. It is not any particular sound, but rather represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.In English, [p h] and [p] can not be distinguished from their meanings, so they are phones. While /l/ in light and /t/ in tight can be distinguished from meaning, so they are phonemes.Phones express the natural quality of speech sounds, while phonemes express the social attribute.Generally, phones are placed in square brackets and phonemes in slashes. The third difference is their branches. Phonetics has four branches. (1)Articulatory phonetics发音语音学: the study of how speech sounds are made, or articulated.(2)Acoustic phonetics声学语音学: deals with the physical properties of speech as sound waves in the air. Transmission of speech sounds(3)Auditory (or perceptual) phonetics听觉语音学: deals with the perception, via the ear, of speech sounds.(4)Forensic phonetics论辩语音学: has an application in legal cases involving speaker identification and the analysis of recorded utterances. Phonology has two branches.Diachronic (historical) phonology历史性音系学examines and constructs theories about the changes and modifications in speech sounds and sound systems over a period of time.Synchronic (descriptive) phonology共时性音系学investigates sounds at a single stage in the development of a language, to discover the sound patterns that can occur.The last difference is their characteristics. Phonetics is characterized of physical, description; while phonology is characterized of meaning, function.Because phonetics includes production, transmission, and perception of speech sounds, it emphasizes on the physical analysis. And it isconnected to acoustics and auditory, so it is concerned with the accurate description.From the definition of phonology, we know that phonology studies how the speech sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. It expresses meanings and is used for communication, so it is characterized of meaning, function.。
英语语言学复习资料 简答题
1.1. What is language?“Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrins ic connection between a work (like “book”) and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different “books”: “book” in English, “livre” in French, in Japanese, in Chinese, “check” in Korean. It is symb olic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human l anguages, developed or “new”. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than writt en. The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.1.2. What are design features of language?“Design features” here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability1.3. What is arbitrariness?By “arbitrariness”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds (see I .1). A dog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pig. Language is therefore largely arbitrary. But language is not absolutely seem to be some sound-meaning association, if we think of echo words, like “bang”, “crash”, “roar”, which are motivated in a certain sense. Secondly, some compounds (words compounded to be one word) are not entirely arbitrary either. “Type” and “write” are opaque or unmotivated words, while “type-writer” is less so, or more transparent or motivated than the words that make it. So we can say “arbitrariness” is a matter of degree.1.4.What is duality?Linguists refer “duality” (of structure) to the fact that in all languages so far investigated, one finds two levels of structure or patterning. At the first, higher level, language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words etc.); at the second, lower level, it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to form units of meaning. According to Hu Zhanglin et al. (p.6), language is a system of two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meaning. This is important for the workings of language. A small number of semantic units (words), and these units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences (note that we have dictionaries of words, but no dictionary of sentences!). Duality makes it possible for a person to talk about anything within his knowledge. No animal communication system enjoys this duality, or even approaches this honor.1.5.What is productivity?Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one’s native langua ge, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. No one has ever said or heard “A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the small hotel bed with an African gibbon”, but he can say it when necessary, and he can understand it in right register. Different from artistic creativity, though, productivity never goes outside the language, thus alsocalled “rule-bound creativity” (by N.Chomsky).1.6.What is displacement?“Displacement”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. When a man, for example, is crying to a woman, about something, it might be something that had occurred, or something that is occurring, or something that is to occur. When a dog is barking, however, you can decide it is barking for s omething or at someone that exists now and there. It couldn’t be bow wowing sorrowfully for dome lost love or a bone to be lost. The bee’s system, nonetheless, has a small share of “displacement”, but it is an unspeakable tiny share.1.7.What is cultural transmission?This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. It is true that the capacity for language in human beings (N. Chomsky called it “language acquisition device”, or LAD) has a genetic basis, but the particular language a person learns to speak is a cultural one other than a genetic one like the dog’s barking system. If a human being is brought up in isolation he cannot acqui re language. The Wolf Child reared by the pack of wolves turned out to speak the wolf’s roaring “tongue” when he was saved. He learned thereafter, with no small difficulty, the ABC of a certain human language.1.8.What is interchangeability?(1) Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. We can say, and on other occasions can receive and understand, for example, “Please do something to make me happy.” Though some people (including me) suggest tha t there is sex differentiation in the actual language use, in other words, men and women may say different things, yet in principle there is no sound, or word or sentence that a man can utter and a woman cannot, or vice versa. On the other hand, a person can be the speaker while the other person is the listener and as the turn moves on to the listener, he can be the speaker and the first speaker is to listen. It is turn-taking that makes social communication possible and acceptable.(2) Some male birds, however, utter some calls, which females do not (or cannot?), and certain kinds of fish have similar haps mentionable. When a dog barks, all the neighboring dogs bark. Then people around can hardly tell which dog (dogs) is (are0 “speaking” and which li stening.1.9.Why do linguists say language is human specific?First of all, human language has six “design features” which animal communication systems do not have, at least not in the true sense of them (see I .2-8). Let’s borrow C. F. Hocket’s Chart tha t compares human language with some animals’ systems, from Wang Gang (1998,p.8).Secondly, linguists have done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanzees to speak a human language but have achieved nothing inspiring. Beatnice and Alan Gardner brought up Washoe, a female chimpanzee, like a human child. She was taught “American sign Language”, and learned a little that made the teachers happy but did mot make the linguistics circle happy, for few believed in teaching chimpanzees.Thirdly, a human child reared among animals cannot speak a human language, not even when he istaken back and taught to lo to so (see the “Wolf Child”in I.7)1.10.What functions does language have?Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and per formative. According to Wang Gang (1988,p.11), language has three main functions: a tool of communication, a tool whereby people learn about the world, and a tool by which people learn about the world, and a tool by which people create art. M .A. K.Halliday, representative of the London school, recognizes three “Macro-Functions”: ideational, interpersonal and textual (see! 11-17;see HU Zhuanglin et al., pp10-13, pp394-396).1. 11What is the phatic function?The “phatic function” refers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts (rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. Much of the phatic language (e.g. “How are you?” “Fine, thanks.”) Is insincere if taken literally, but it is important. If you don't say “Hello” to a friend you meet, or if you don’t answer his “Hi”, you ruin your friendship.1.12. What is the directive function?The “directive function” means that language may be used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences perform this function, e.g., “Tell me the result when you finish.” Other syntactic structures or sen tences of other sorts can, according to J.Austin and J.Searle’s “indirect speech act theory”(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp271-278) at least, serve the purpose of direction too, e.g., “If I were you, I would have blushed to the bottom of my ears!”1.13.What is the informative function?Language serves an “informational function” when used to tell something, characterized by the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labeled as true (truth) or false (falsehood). According to P.Grice’s “Cooperative Principle”(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp282-283), one ought not to violate the “Maxim of Quality”, when he is informing at all.1.14.What is the interrogative function?When language is used to obtain information, it serves an “interrogative function”. This includes all questions that expect replies, statements, imperatives etc., according to the “indirect speech act theory”, may have this function as well, e.g., “I’d like to know you better.” This may bring forth a lot of personal information. Note that rhetorical questions make an exception, since they demand no answer, at least not the reader’s/listener’s answer.1.15.What is the expressive function?The “expressive function” is the use of language to reveal something about the feelings or att itudes of the speaker. Subconscious emotional ejaculations are good examples, like “Good heavens!” “My God!” Sentences like “I’m sorry about the delay” can serve as good examples too, though in a subtle way. While language is used for the informative function to pass judgment on the truth or falsehood of statements, language used for the expressive function evaluates, appraises or asserts the speaker’s own attitudes.1.16.What is the evocative function?The “evocative function” is the use of language to cr eate certain feelings in the hearer. Its aim is, for example, to amuse, startle, antagonize, soothe, worry or please. Jokes (not practical jokes, though) are supposed to amuse or entertain the listener; advertising to urge customers to purchase certain commodities; propaganda to influence public opinion. Obviously, the expressive and the evocative functions often go together, i.e., you may express, for example, your personal feelings about a political issue but end up by evoking the same feeling in, or impo sing it on, your listener. That’s also the case with the other way round.1.17.What is the per formative function?This means people speak to “do things” or perform actions. On certain occasions the utterance itself as an action is more important than what words or sounds constitute the uttered sentence. When asked if a third Yangtze Bridge ought to be built in Wuhan, the mayor may say, “OK”, which means more than speech, and more than an average social individual may do for the construction. The judge’si mprisonment sentence, the president’s war or independence declaration, etc., are per formatives as well (see J.Austin’s speech Act Theory, Hu Zhuanglin, ecal.pp271-278).1.18.What is linguistics?“Linguistics” is the scientific study of language. It studi es not just one language of any one society, but also the language of all human beings. A linguist, though, does not have to know and use a large number of languages, but to investigate how each language is constructed. He is also concerned with how a language varies from dialect to dialect, from class to class, how it changes from century to century, how children acquire their mother tongue, and perhaps how a person learns or should learn a foreign language. In short, linguistics studies the general principles whereupon all human languages are constructed and operate as systems of communication in their societies or communities (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp20-22)1.19.What makes linguistics a science?Since linguistics is the scientific study of language, it ought to base itself upon the systematic, investigation of language data, which aims at discovering the true nature of language and its underlying system. To make sense of the data, a linguist usually has conceived some hypotheses about the language structure, to be checked against the observed or observable facts. In order to make his analysis scientific, a linguist is usually guided by four principles: exhaustiveness, consistency, and objectivity. Exhaustiveness means he should gather all the materials relevant to the study and give them an adequate explanation, in spite of the complicatedness. He is to leave no linguistic “stone” unturned. Consistency means there should be no contradiction between different parts of the total statement. Economy means a linguist should pursue brevity in the analysis when it is possible. Objectivity implies that since some people may be subjective in the study, a linguist should be (or sound at least) objective, matter-of-face, faithful to reality, so that his work constitutes part of the linguistics research.1.20.What are the major branches of linguistics?The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics (e.g.Hu Zhuanglin et al., 1988;Wang Gang, 1988). But a linguist sometimes is able to deal with only one aspect of language at a time, thus the arise of various branches: phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, sociolinguistics,applied linguistics, pragmatics, psycholinguistics, lexicology, lexicography, etymology, etc.1.21.What are synchronic and diachronic studies?The description of a language at some point of time (as if it stopped developing) is a synchrony study (synchrony). The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study (diachronic). An essay entitle d “On the Use of THE”, for example, may be synchronic, if the author does not recall the past of THE, and it may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alteration (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp25-27).1.22.What is speech and what is writing?(1) No one needs the repetition of the general principle of linguistic analysis, namely, the primacy of speech over writing. Speech is primary; because it existed long long before writing systems came into being. Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write. Secondly, written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds: individual sounds, as in English and French as in Japanese. (2) In contrast to speech, spoken form of language, writing as written codes, gives language new scope and use that speech does not have. Firstly, messages can be carried through space so that people can write to each other. Secondly, messages can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can read Beowulf, Samuel Johnson, and Edgar A. Poe. Thirdly, oral messages are readily subject to distortion, either intentional or unintentional (causing misunderstanding or malentendu), while written messages allow and encourage repeated unalterable reading.(3) Most modern linguistic analysis is focused on speech, different from grammarians of the last century and theretofore.1.23.What are the differences between the descriptive and the prescriptive approaches?A linguistic study is “descriptive” if it only describes and analyses the facts of language, and “prescriptive” if it tries to lay down rules for “correct” language behavior. Linguistic studies before t his century were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were based on “high” (literary or religious) written records. Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive, however. It (the latter) believes that whatever occurs in natural speech (hesitation, incomplete utterance, misunderstanding, etc.) should be described in the analysis, and not be marked as incorrect, abnormal, corrupt, or lousy. These, with changes in vocabulary and structures, need to be explained also.1.24.What is the difference between langue and parole?F. De Saussure refers “langue”to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and refers “parole” to the actual or actualized language, or the real ization of langue. Langue is abstract, parole specific to the speaking situation; langue not actually spoken by an individual, parole always a naturally occurring event; langue relatively stable and systematic, parole is a mass of confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole, I. e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make than the subject of linguistics. The langue-parole distinction is of great importance, which casts great influence on later linguists.1.25.What is the difference between competence and performance?(1) According to N. Chomsky, “competence” is the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and “performance” is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances. The former enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence.(2) Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his native language.(3) Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to,F. de Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product, and a set of conventions for a community, while competence is deemed as a property of the mind of each individual. Sussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than N. Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.1.26.What is linguistic potential? What is actual linguistic behavior?M. A. K. Halliday made these two terms, or the potential-behavior distinction, in the 1960s, from a functional point of view. There is a wide range of things a speaker can do in his culture, and similarly there are many things he can say, for example, to many people, on many topics. What he actually says (i.e. his “actual linguistic behavior”) on a certain occasion to a certain person is what he has chosen from many possible injustice items, each of which he could have said (linguistic potential).1.27.In what way do language, competence and linguistic potential agree? In what way do they differ? And their counterparts?Langue, competence and linguistic potential have some similar features, but they are innately different (see 1.25). Langue is a social product, and a set of speaking conventions; competence is a property or attribute of each ideal speaker’s mind; linguis tic potential is all the linguistic corpus or repertoire available from which the speaker chooses items for the actual utterance situation. In other words, langue is invisible but reliable abstract system. Competence means “knowing”, and linguistic potenti al a set of possibilities for “doing” or “performing actions”. They are similar in that they all refer to the constant underlying the utterances that constitute what Saussure, Chomsky and Halliday respectively called parole, performance and actual linguistic behavior. Paole, performance and actual linguistic behavior enjoy more similarities than differences.1.28.What is phonetics?“Phonetics” is the science which studies the characteristics of human sound-making, especially those sounds used in speech, and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp39-40), speech sounds may be studied in different ways, thus by three different branches of phonetics. (1) Articulatory phonetics; the branch of phonetics that examines the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate in the process. (2) Auditory phonetics, the branch of phonetic research from the hearer’s point of view, looking into the impression which a speech sound makes on the hearer as mediated by the ear, the auditory nerve and the brain. (3) Acoustic phonetics: the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted between mouth and ear.Most phoneticians, however, are interested in articulator phonetics.1.29.How are the vocal organs formed?The vocal organs (see Figure1, Hu Zhuanglin et al., p41), or speech organs, are organs of the human body whose secondary use is in the production of speech sounds. The vocal organs can be considered as consisting of three parts; the initiator of the air-stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.1.30.What is place of articulation?It refers to the place in the mouth where, for example, the obstruction occurs, resulting in the utterance of a consonant. Whatever sound is pronounced, at least some vocal organs will get involved. g. Lips, hard palate etc., so a consonant may be one of the following (1) bilabial: [p, b, m]; (2) labiodental: [f, v]; (3) dental: [,]; (4) alveolar: [t, d, l, n.s, z]; (5) retroflex; (6) palato-alveolar: [,]; (7) palatal: [j]; (8) velar [k, g,]; (9) uvular; (10) glottal: [h].Some sounds involve the simultaneous use of two places of articulation. For example, the English [w] has both an approximation of the two lips and those two lips and that of the tongue and the soft palate, and may be termed “labial-velar”.1.31.What is the manner of articulation?The “manner of articulation” literally means the way a sound is articulated. At a given place of articulation, the airstreams may be obstructed in various ways, resulting in various manners of articulation, are the following: (1) plosive: [p, b, t, d, k, g]; (2) nasal: [m, n,]; (3) trill; (4) tap or flap; (5) lateral: [l]; (6) fricative: [f, v, s, z]; (7) approximant: [w, j]; (8) affricate: [].1.32.How do phoneticians classify vowels?Phoneticians, in spite of the difficulty, group vowels in 5 types: (1) long and short vowels, e.g.,[i:,]; (4) rounded and unround vowels,e.g.[,i]; (5) pure and gliding vowels, e.g.[I,].1.33.What is IPA? When did it come into being ?The IPA, abbreviation of “International Phonetic Alphabet”, is a compromise system making use of symbols of all sources, including diacritics indicating length, stress and intonation, indicating phonetic variation. Ever since it was developed in 1888, IPA has undergone a number of revisions.1.34.What is narrow transcription and what is broad transcription?In handbook of phonetics, Henry Sweet made a distinction between “narrow” and “broad” transcriptions, which he called “Narrow Romic”. The former was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the most minute shades of pronunciation while Broad Romic or transcription was intended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.1.35.What is phonology? What is difference between phonetics and phonology?(1) “Phonology” is the study of sound systems- the invention of distinctive speech sounds that occur in a language and the patterns wherein they fall. Minimal pair, phonemes, allophones, free variation, complementary distribution, etc., are all to be investigated by a phonologist.(2) Phonetics, as discussed in I.28, is the branch of linguistics studying the characteristics ofspeech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. A phonetist is mainly interested in the physical properties of the speech sounds, whereas a phonologist studies what he believes are meaningful sounds related with their semantic features, morphological features, and the way they are conceived and printed in the depth of the mind phonological knowledge permits a speaker to produce sounds which from meaningful utterances, to recognize a foreign “accent”, to make up new words, to add the appropriate phonetic segments to from plurals and past tenses, to know what is and what is not a sound in one’s language.1.36.What is a phone? What is a phoneme? What is an allophone?(1) A “phone” is a p honetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. When we hear the following words pronounced:[pit], [tip], [spit], etc., the similar phones we have heard are [p] for one thing, and three differe nt[p]’s, readily making possible the “narrow transcription or diacritics”. Phones may and may not distinguish meaning. A “phoneme” is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. As an abstract unit, a phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. For example, the phoneme[p] is represented differently in [pit], [tip] and [spit].(2) The phones representing a phoneme are called its “allophones”, i. e., the different (i.e., phones) but do not make one word so phonetically different as to create a new word or a new meaning thereof. So the different[p]’s in the above words are the allophones of the same phoneme[p]. How a phoneme is represented by a phone, or which allophone is to be used, is determined by the phonetic context in which it occurs. But the choice of an allophone is not random. In most cases it is rule-governed; these rules are to be found out by a phonologist.1.37.What are minimal pairs?When two different phonetic forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the string , the two forms(i. e., word) are supposed to form a “minimal pair”, e.g., “pill” and “bill”, “pill” and “till”, “till” and “dill”, “till” and “kill”, etc. All these words together constitute a minimal set. They are identical in form except for the initial consonants. There are many minimal pairs in English, which makes it relatively easy to know what are English phonemes. It is of great importance to find the minimal pairs when a phonologist is dealing with the sound system of an unknown language(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp65-66).1.38.What is free variation?If two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast; namely, if the substitution of one for the other does not generate a new word form but merely a different pronunciation of the same word, the two sounds then are said to be in “free variation”. The plosives, for example, may not be exploded when they occur before another plosive or a nasal (e. g., act, apt, good morning). The minute distinctions may, if necessary, be transcribed in diacritics. These unexploded and exploded plosives are in free variation. Sounds in free variation should be assigned to the same phoneme.1.39.What is complementary distribution?When two sounds never occur in the same environment, they are in “complementary distribution”. For example, the aspirated English plosives never occur after[s], and the unsaturated ones never occur initially. Sounds in complementary distribution may be assigned to the same phoneme. The allophones。
differencebetweenphonologyandphonetics
differencebetweenphonologyandphoneticsThe Difference Between Phonetics and Phonology It is generally agreed that both phonetics and phonology are the main branches of linguistics, studying speech sounds and sound structure. Phonetics studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech. While phonology focuses on the rules governing the structure, distribution, sequencing of speech sounds and the shapes of syllables. Overall, the difference between them is that phonetics studies the nature of the sound itself, related to human language, and the process of the production of the sound, while phonology deals with the sound patterns and the meanings within and across the language.Both phonology and phonetics are concerned with the same aspect of language—the speech sounds ,but they differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all human language: how they are produced and how they differ form each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified. etc. Phonology ,on the other hand, aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistics communication. The difference between [ l] and [ ] is what the phoneticians are interested in .Because form the phonological view , these two sounds in each pair are fundamentally the same ,since they have one and the same function in communication ,in distinguishing between words and meanings despite their difference in pronunciation.Phonetics deals with the articulatory and acoustic properties of speech sounds, how they are produced, and how they are perceived. As part of this investigation, phoneticians may concern themselves with the physical properties of meaningful sound contrasts or the social meaning encoded in the speech signal (While it is widely agreed that phonology is grounded in phonetics, phonology is concerned with sounds and gestures as abstract units).Phonology is both meaningful and physical which expores that how the diffierence of sound totally changes the meaning of a word or ,more precise, an utterance. For example. The word “bid ” is very similar to the word “bit” in terms of the physical property of sounds. The mere and little difference is the ending letter. The vocal chords stops vibrating so that sound is the result only of the replacement of the tongues behind the teeth and the flow of air. Physically ,these two words are not related in meaning in the very least. While, phonetics focus on how the word are sounded and how to make sounds with our vocal cords , mouth, throat, and nasal cavaties. For example ,the initial sound in bad involves both lips and its final segment involves the blade of the tongue and the alveolar ridge.Also ,if a nasal consonant such as[m] procedes an oral vowel(such as [m ]in map), some of the nasality will carry forward so that the vowel will begin with a somewhat nasal quality .This is because in producing a nasal the soft palate is lowered to allow airflow through the nasal tract. To produce the following vowel, the soft palate must move back to is normal position. All of which are explored in the field of phonetics.As a branch of linguistics and an emering and gradually prospering course , phonetics asks for persons with perfect listening mechanism and the pronounciation organs to be the source of datas.which definitely has no deep and intimate connection with peculiar language background. The same conclusion can be reached ,no matter which group of people are investigated ,Germans,English, or Indian. But the univeral method to study phonology is from theindividual languae ,so as to define which phoetic unit are used and their formation. Then, make a clear comparison of the features of different phonology ,which could lead to the basic rules used by phones in a specified group ,then in the whole scope of languages. People’s vocal cords can produce many sounds in a wide scope,in which a small fration of sounds form the words and sentences. Phonetics explores the all possible sounds while phonology studies the way the speaker of one specific language to choose those sounds to express meanings.Phonetics is the study of speech sounds that the human voice is capable of creating whereas phonology is the study of a subset of those sounds that constitute language and meaning, The first focuses on chaos while the second focuses on order.The basic unit in phonetics is phone, just like [p h]and [p] which could not be distinguished by meaning ,while the phoneme is a phonological unit ,such as [b]in biteand [t] in tite can be distinguished from meaning ,so phoneme is a unit that is of distinctive value.Phonetics can be categoried into 3 parts, each dealing with one part of the process.(1)Articulatory phonetics is the study of the production of speech sounds. In otherwords ,how sounds are made or articulated.(2)Acoustic phonetics is the study of physical properties of speech sounds whichexplores the physical properties of sound waves.(3)Auditory phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.Phonology has two branches:(1)Diachronic phonology: the study of sounds in a single stage through the courseof its history to discover the sound patterns that is capable to occur.(2)Synchronic phonology takes a fixed instant(usually ,but not necessarily present)as the point of observation,that is to say ,it examines the current changes andmodifications in speech sounds and sound systemn over a period of time.Accoding to what I have explained and illustrated , here is the conclusion,that is phonetics is more general, descriptive and classificatory; while phonology is featured by particular and functional traits. Secondly. Phonetics is the actual physical articulations of speech sounds ,while phonology is the abstract aspect of the sounds in a language .Thirdly. Phonetics studies the means for describing speech sounds, and phonology explores the way in which speech sounds are combined, organized, and convey meaning in particular languages.。
胡壮麟语言学讲义第三章（复习）ChapterThreePhonology
胡壮麟语言学讲义第三章（复习）ChapterThreePhonologyChapter Three PhonologyTeaching aims: let the students have the general idea about phonology Focal points: phoneme; phonological rules Teaching difficulties: phoneme; allophone; minimal pairTeaching procedure:Outline of this chapter:1 Phonology1.1 Definition of phonology1.1.1 Phonology (at p24)1.1.2 Phonetics1.2 the difference between phonetics and phonology2 Terms in phonology2.1 Minimal pairs (最小对立体)2.1.1 concept2.1.2 arguments and examples2.1.3Three requirements for a minimal pair:2.2 phonemes2.2.1 phones2.2.2 phoneme2.2.3 Phonemic transcription2.3 allophones2.3.1Allophones (P40, Para.2)2.3.2 Complementary distribution(P40,para.2) and free variation2.4 Difference between phonemes and allophones3 Phonological process3.1 assimilation (P42,para.1)3.1.1 regressive(P42,Para.2)3.1.2 progressive3.1.3 Examples (P42, para.3)3.2 Phonological rules(P42)3.2.1 devoicing,3.2.2 nasalization,3.2.3 dentalization,3.2.4 velarization3.2.5 the deletion rule4 Suprasegmental phonemes4.1 concept4.2 kinds of suprasegmental phonemes4.2.1 stress4.2.2Intonation4.2.3 Linking5 Some principle of phonology5.1The sequential rules5.2 the deletion rule1 Phonology1.1 Definition of phonology1.1.1 Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages.It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur. (at p24) 1.1.2 Phonetics studies how speech sounds are made, transmitted and received.1.2 the difference between phonetics and phonology1) Phonetics and phonology are the two disciplines dealing with speech sounds. Both are related to the study of sounds.They differ in their approach and focus.2) Phonology is concerned with the abstract and mentalaspect of the sounds in language while phonetics deals with the actual physical articulation of speech sounds.3) definition4) P 16, Para 2: Phonetics is the study of speech sounds that the human voice is capable of creating whereas phonology is the study of a subset of those sounds that constitute of language and meaning.5)Phonetics focuses on chaos while phonology focuses on order.2 Terms in phonology2.1 Minimal pairs (最小对立体)2.1.1 conceptWhen two words are identical in form in every way except for a contrast in one phoneme, occurring in the same position, the two words are described as a minimal pair. P392.1.2 arguments and examples1)When two different phonetic forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the string , the two forms(i. e., word) are supposed to form a “minimal pair”, e.g., “pill” and “bill”, “pill” and “till”, “till” and “dill”, “till” and “kill”, etc.2)All these words together constitute a minimal set. They are identicalin form except for the initial consonants.3) Minimal pairs are established on the basis of sound and not spelling.2.1.3Three requirements for a minimal pair:1) the same number of segment2) one phonetic difference in the same place3) different meaninge.g. a minimal pair : lit-lip; phone-tone; pill-billa minimal set: beat, bit, bet, boot, but, biteThe minimal pair test helps establish which sounds contrast in a language.2.2 phonemes2.2.1 phones: the speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. It’s a phonetic unit or segment. (in the mouth)Conventionally, phones are placed within square brackets “[]”(phonetic transcription)Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning. Usually phones of different phonemes distinguish meaning.2.2.2 phoneme:(P16, Para.1) A phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning.( Or a phoneme is the smallest meaning-distinguishing unit.)2.2.3 Phonemic transcription: Phonemes are placed in slashes “// ” (cf.phonetic transcription)e.g. Neither the sound [p] in pit or the sound [b] in bit is a phoneme. They are phones; they are the phonetic realization of the phoneme /p/ and /b/. 2.3 allophones2.3.1Allophones are the variants of the same phoneme.2.3.2 Complementary distribution and free variationPhonetically similar sounds might be related in two ways. If they are two distinctive phoneme, they might form a contrast; e.g. /p/and /b/ in [pit] and [bit]; If they are allophones of the same phoneme, then they don’t distinguish meaning, but complement each other in distribution, i.e. they occur in different phonetic context.Strictly speaking, every sound is different from every othersounds. But in phonology some of the difference may be ignored.A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another result in a change of meaning.(1)Complementary distributionE.g 1 / p /→[ p ] / [ s ] _______/ p /→[ p ?] / elsewhereE.g 2 / l /→ [ l ] / _______ V/ l /→[ l?] / V _______Not all speech sounds occur in the same environment, when the two sounds never occur in the same environment they are said to be in complementary distribution.Not all phones in complementary distribution are considered to be allophones of the same phoneme. They must be phonetically similar and in complementary distribution.(2)Free variationA phone may sometimes has free variants.If two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast, that is, the substitution of one for the other does not produce a different word form, but merely a different pronunciation of the same word which maybe caused by dialect or personal habit, then the two sounds are in free variation.2.4 Difference between phonemes and allophones1）concept2)transcription3)abstract vs, concrete4)possibility of production3 Phonological process3.1 assimilation (P42,para.1)Assimilation is a process by which one sound takes on some or the characteristics of a neighboring sound.3.1.1 regressive(P42,Para.2)A following sound influencing a proceeding sound is called regressive assimilation3.1.2 progressiveA proceeding sound influencing a following sound is known as progressive assimilation3.1.3 Examples (P42, para.3)1) assimilation occurring within a wordcan tan tenth sink2) assimilation occurring beyond a wordYou can keep them.You can go now3.2 Phonological rules(P42)3.2.1 devoicing3.2.2 nasalization3.2.3 dentalization3.2.4 velarization3.2.5 the deletion ruleThe “deletion rule”tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. While the letter is mute in “sign”,“design”and “paradigm”, it is pronoun ced in their corresponding derivatives: “signature”, “designation”, and “paradigmatic”. The rule then can be stated as : delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. This accounts for some of the seeming irregularities of the English spelling.Sign, design, there is no {g} soundSignature, designation the {g} is pronounced.Delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal constant.4 Suprasegmental phonemess4.1 conceptT he phonemic phonemes that occur above the level of the phonemic segments are called suprasegmental phonemes.“Suprasegmental phonology”refers to the study of phonological properties of linguistic units larger than the segment called phoneme. Suprasegmental features: includes stress, length, and pitch as what they suppose to be principal suprasegmental features.4.2 kinds of suprasegmental phonemes4.2.1 stressStress, including both word and sentence stress, distinguishes meaning in English形容词词义动词词义′abstract 抽象的ab′stract 摘要；提炼′frequent 时常发生的fre′quent 常去（地点）′perfect 完美的；完全的p er′fect 使完美′present 出席的；现在的pre′sent 给；赠；呈递复合词词义名词短语词义′heavy weight 重量级拳击手heavy ′weight 特别重的人或物′red cap 宪兵red ′cap 红色的帽子′small fry 不重要的人或者物small ′fry 小鱼苗′tall boy（卧室用的）高衣柜tall ′boy 高个子的男孩4.2.2 IntonationIntonation plays an important role in almost all languages: rising, falling, rise-fall, fall-rise intonation.4.2.3 Linking5 Some principle of phonology5.1The sequential rulesThere are principles that govern the combination of soundsin a particular language. These principles are called sequential rules.If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules: 1）The first phoneme must be /s/; 2）The second phoneme must be /p/ or /t/ or /k/; 3）The third phoneme must be /l/ or /r/ or /w/ or /j/.***Sequential rules are language specific.5.2 the deletion ruleThe deletion rule tells us when a sound is deleted although it is orthographically represented. For example: desi g n, k nife.。
“英语语言学”考试题型、课堂练习与答案（1）
“英语语言学”考试题型、课堂练习与答案（1）各位好！请大家注意以下几点：1. 英语语言学期末考试及其补考的复习范围和题型一致；2. 收到此邮件，请在同学之间传阅；3. 本邮件内容有三：考试题型、参考问答题、课堂练习及其答案。
祝大家学习快乐！考试顺利！Examination Items考试题型上海外国语大学继续教育学院2014年第1学期英语本科五年级和专升本科三年级“语言学”期末试卷考试时间：60分钟班级____________ 学号____________ 姓名____________I. Fill in the blanks with suitable terms. (30%)II. Judge if the following statements are true or false. (30%)III. Choose any two of the following questions to answer. (40%)Questions for Reference参考问答题1. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar? (P6)2. Please differentiate the following pairs of terms.voicing and voiceless (P16)vowels and consonants (P18) aspirated and unaspirated (P18)phones and phonemes (P23)3. Give a brief account of the kinds of morphemes in English language with examples. (P33-36)4. Why is English rich in synonyms? And how can we classify them? (P66-68)Exercises and Key 课堂练习及其答案Practice 1 Introduction1.Linguistics is the scientific study of __________.2.__________ linguistics studies language change over various periods of time andat various historical stages while __________ linguistics studies language at one particular point of time.3.The __________ study of language studies the historical development of languageover a period of time, and it is a historical study.4.__________ and __________ are the two major media of linguisticcommunication.5.The distinction between __________ and parole was made by the Swiss linguist F.de Saussure in the early 20th century while the distinction between competence and _________ was proposed by the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950s.6.Chomsky uses the term __________ to refer to the actual realization of a languageuser’s knowledge of the rules of his language in linguistic communication.7.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several different ways.Firstly, linguistics is __________ while traditional grammar is __________;Secondly, modern linguistics regards the spoken language as __________, not the written; Thirdly, modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages intoa _________-based framework.8.As modern linguistics aims to describe and analyze the language people actuallyuse, and not to lay down rules for “correct” linguisticbehavior, it is said to be __________.9.The defining properties of human language are: creativity, __________,__________, __________, __________.10.The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is goodproof that human language is __________.11.Generally speaking, three main functions are often recognized of language: thedescriptive functions, the expressive function, and the __________ function. 12.According to the British linguist Halliday’s simpler system of language functions,the ideational function is to organize the speaker or writer’s experience of the real or imaginary world, and the __________ function is to indicate, establish, or maintain social relationship between people while the __________ function is to organize written or spoken texts in such a manner that they are coherent within themselves and fit the particular situation in which they are used.Practice 2 Introduction1.Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the spoken.2.Speech and writing are the two major media of language. All languages in theworld today can be both spoken and written.3.The writing system of a language is always a later invention used to record speech;thus there are still many languages in today’s world that can only be spoken, but not written.4.Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimesdescriptive.5.With their respective distinction between langue and parole, and competence andperformance, both Saussure and Chomsky present the view that only the abstract structure of language can be studied systematically, but not its use.6.The distinction between langue and parole was proposed by the Swiss linguist F.de Saussure. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while parole refers to the concrete use of conventions and rules, thus varying from person to person.7.An important difference between traditional grammarians and modern linguists intheir study of language is that the former tended to over-emphasize the written form of language and encourage people to imitate the “best authors” for language usage./doc/c23223740.html,nguage can be studied both synchronically and diachronically. The two approaches are equally favored by modern linguists./doc/c23223740.html,nguage is entirely arbitrary.10.Human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e. we are all born with theability to acquire language and the details of a language system are genetically transmitted.1.Phonetics is the study of the phonic medium of language. It has three branches:__________, __________ and auditory phonetics.2.The study of how people use their speech organs toproduce speech sounds is ofgreat interest to those working in __________ phonetics.3.The articulatory apparatus of a human being contains three important areas(cavities): __________, __________ and nasal cavity.4.Of all the speech organs, the __________ is the most flexible.5.V oicing as a quality of speech sounds is caused by the vibration of __________ .6. A sound is __________ when its production is accompanied by a puff of breath.This is characteristic of the English voiceless stops in initial position, e.g. [pi:l]. 7.__________ transcription is the one required and used by the phoneticians in theirstudy of speech sounds.8.In terms of the place of articulation, the following sounds [t] [d] [s] [z] [n] sharethe feature __________.9.All the back vowels in English are pronounced with rounded lips except__________.10.__________ are produced by moving from one vowel position to another throughintervening positions.11.The orthographic representation of speech sounds with diacritics is normally notused in dictionaries and teaching textbooks.12.V oicing is a feature of all consonants and some vowels.13.In producing a vowel the air stream coming from the lungs meets with noobstruction whatsoever while in the production of aconsonant it is obstructed in one way or another.14.The English stops include [p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g] [f] [v].15.All the English nasal consonants are voiced.16.With no exception all the front vowels in English are unrounded.17.With no exception all the back vowels in English are rounded.18.In English, long vowels are also tense vowels because when we pronounce a longvowel such as /i:/, the larynx is in a state of tension.19.Although the [l] sound is represented by the same symbol in the two combinationsof [li:f] and [fi:l], it is actually pronounced differently.20.If a Chinese speaker pronounces the /l/ sound in /fi:l/ not as a dark [], but as aclear [l], he will be misunderstood by a native speaker as saying something else.1.[p], and [p] are the __________ of the same phoneme /p/.2.The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segment are calledsuprasegmental features. They include __________, __________ and intonation.3.The tone, defined as pitch variation, is an important suprasegmental feature oftone languages such as __________.4.The negative prefix “in-” in English, when added to the adjective “possible”, isactually pronounced /im/, and spelt as “im-”. This is the result of the __________ rule at work.5.To form the present tense, 3rd person singular, of the verb“teach”, we have to add“-es”, instead of just “-s” to it. This is required by the __________rule of English.6. A general difference between phonetics and phonology is that phonetics is focusedon the production of speech sounds while phonology is more concerned with how speech sounds distinguish meaning.7. A phone is a phonetic segment while a phoneme is a phonological unit.8.Clear [l] and dark [] form the relation of complementary distribution for theyoccur in the same position in sound combinations and also distinguish meaning.9./p/ and /b/ in [ pit ] and [ bit ] are in contrastive distribution.10.Phonological rules are not language specific, i.e. once proved to be valid, they canbe applied to all languages.11.In English, if a word begins with a [l] or a [r], the next must be a vowel.12.The three voiceless stops /p/, /t/, /k/ are aspirated when preceded by /s/ andfollowed by a vowel./doc/c23223740.html,ually in the two-syllable words, the noun has the stress on the first syllable and the corresponding verb has the stress on the second syllable.14.Stress is a suprasegmental feature that is exclusively used with words, not withsentences.15.Chinese is often cited as examples of typical tone language because tone plays animportant role in distinguishing meaning.1.is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of wordsand the rules by which words are formed.2.The morpheme “-vision” in the common word “television” is a(n)________morpheme.3.There are different types of morphemes. “-ed” in the word "lea rned" is known asa(n)__________ morpheme.4.The words that contain only one morpheme can be called ________ morphemes.5.The morphemes that cannot be used by themselves, but must be combined withother morphemes to form words are called morphemes.6.In English, nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and conjunctions make up the largestpart of the vocabulary. They are open classes.7.Such endings as “-ed”and “-ing” are called derivational morphemes because newgrammatical forms are derived by adding them to existing words.8.The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts.9. A compound is the combination of only two words.10.The word “carelessness”is a three-morpheme word formed by a free morpheme“care” + affix “-less” + affix “-ness”.11.The meaning of a compound is often idiomatic, not always being the sum total ofthe meanings of its components.12.The compound word “bookstore” is the place whe re books are sold. This indicatesthat the meaning of a compound is the sum total of the meanings of its components.13.Only words of the same parts of speech can be combined to form compounds.14.The part of speech of the compound is always determined by the part of speech ofthe second element, without exception.15.A compound can be written as one word with or withouta hyphen between itscomponents, or as two separate words. It is simply a matter of convention.1.Historically, different views have been suggested concerning the study of meaning.In our textbook, some views on semantics have been exemplified. They are naming things, __________, __________, __________ and mentalism.2.The naming theory was proposed by __________.3.Of the views concerning the study of meaning, the one in which meaning isexplained in terms of observable stimuli and responses made by participants in specific situations is referred to as __________.4.__________ is concerned with the inherent meaning if the linguistic form. It is thecollection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and decontextualized. __________ means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.5.Synonyms that are mutually substitutable under all circumstances are called__________ synonyms.6.C omplete Synonyms are classified into several kinds. The kind to which “girl”and “lass” belong is called __________ synonym.7.Antonyms are divided into several kinds. They are gradable antonyms,__________ antonyms and __________ opposites.8.“Cold” and “hot” are called __________ antonyms.9.__________ refers to a paradigmatic relation between a more specific, orsubordinate, lexeme and a more general, or superordinate, lexeme. This can be exemplified by such pairs as cow: animal; rose: flower.10.__________ refers to the phenomenon that the same word may have a set ofdifferent meanings. For example, “mouth” means “organ of b ody”, “entrance of cave” etc.11.“Lead” (metal) and “lead” (dog’s lead) are spelt in the same way, but pronounceddifferently. This is called __________.12.“Can I borrow your bike?”__________ “You have a bike.”13.__________ is an approach adopted by structural semanticists in describing themeaning of words.14.Predication analysis is a way to analyze __________ meaning.15.In terms of predication analysis, the utterance “Is it going to snow this afternoon?”is a __________ -place predication.1.Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning.2.The conceptualist view of meaning holds that there is no direct link between asymbol and reference, i.e. between language and thought.3.Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in differentsituations while linguistic forms with the same reference always have the same sense.4.“Site” and “sight”, “meat”and “meet”, “sow” and “sew” are in relationship ofhomography.5.English is rich in synonyms for historical reasons but complete synonyms, i.e.synonyms that are mutually substitutable under all circumstances, are rare.6.Dialectal synonyms can often be found in different regional dialects such asBritish English and American English, but cannot be found within the variety itself, for example, within British English or American English.7.There are different kinds of antonyms because words opposite in meaning do notcontrast each other only on a single dimension.8.The important criteria to distinguish polysemy from homonymy are the etymologyof the words in question and the closeness of the relationship between the meanings in question.9.An important difference between presupposition and entailment is thatpresupposition, unlike entailment, is not vulnerable to negation. That is to say, if a sentence is negated, the original presupposition is still true.10.A grammatically well-formed sentence is always semantically well-formed.Key to Exercises Practice 1 Introduction1. language or languages in general2. Diachronic, synchronic3. diachronic4. Speech, writing5. langue, performance6. performance7. descriptive, prescriptive; primary; Latin8. descriptive9. arbitrariness, duality; displacement, cultural transmission10. arbitrary11. social12. interpersonal, textualPractice 2 Introduction1. F;2. F;3. T;4. F;5. T6. T;7. T;8. F;9. F; 10. FPractice 3 Phonetics1. articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics2. articulatory3. pharyngeal cavity, oral cavity4. tongue5. vocal cords6. aspirated7. Narrow8. alveolar9. []10. Diphthongs11. T; 12. F; 13. T; 14. F; 15. T 16.T; 17. F; 18. T; 19. T; 20. F Practice 4 Phonology1. allophones2. stress, tone3. Chinese4. assimilation5. sequential6. T;7. T;8. F;9. T; 10. F11. T; 12. F; 13.T; 14. F. 15. T Practice 5 Morphology1. Morphology2. free3. inflectional4. free or root5. derivational;6. F;7. F;8. T;9. F; 10. T11. T; 12. F; 13. F; 14. F; 15. TPractice 6 Semantics1. conceptualism, contextualism, behaviorism2. Plato3. behaviorism4. Sense, Reference5. complete6. dialectal7. complementary, relational8. gradable9. Hyponymy10. Polysemy11. homonymy or homography12. presupposes13. Componential analysis14. sentence15. noPractice 7 Semantics1. T;2. F;3. F;4. F;5. T6. F;7. T;8. T;9. T; 10. F。
《语言学导论》重点整理
♦Applied linguistics: the study of applications of linguistics.
5. Some distinctions in linguistics
6. Phonology : the sound patterns of language
Difference Phone, phoneme, allophone
Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, minimal pair
7. Phones, phonemes, and allophones
Narrow transcription窄式标音: transcription with letter-symbols and the diacritics
4. Classification of English consonants
5. Classification of English vowels
1 .An Introduction to Linguistics and language
1. What is Linguistics?
Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It endeavors to answer the question--what is language and how is represented in the mind? Linguists focus on describing and explaining language and are not concerned with the prescriptive rules of the language.
语音学和音系学考试资料
Phonetics1.The differences between consonants and vowelsConsonants are produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert, impede, or completely shut off the airflow in the cavity. However, a vowel is produced without such obstruction so no turbulence or a total stopping of the air can be perceived. The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream.2.Manners of articulationIt refers to the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain part of vocal tracts. There are several basic ways in which articulation can be accomplished: the articulators may close off the oral tract for an instant or a relatively long period; they may narrow the space considerably; or they may simply modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other.(1). Stop: complete closure of the articulators involved so that the airstream cannot escape through the mouth. It is essential to separate three phrases in the production of a stop: (a) the closing phase, in which the articulators come together; (b)the compression phrase, during which air is compressed behind the closure; (c)the release phrase, during which the articulatorsforming the obstruction come rapidly apart and the air is suddenly released. In English, [p, b, t, d, k, g]are stops and [m, n,ŋ] are nasals.(2) Fricative: close approximation of two articulators so that the airstream is partially obstructed and turbulent airflow is produced. In English, [f, v, θ, ð, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, h]are fricatives.(3)Approximant: an articulation in which one articulator is close to another, but without the vocal tract being narrowed to such an extent that a turbulent airstream is produced. The gap between the articulators is therefore larger than for a fricative and no turbulence is generated. In English, this class of sounds includes [w, r, j].(4)Lateral: obstruction of the airstream at a pint along the center of the oral tract, with incomplete closure between one or both sides of the tongue and the roof of the mouth. [l] is the only lateral in English.(5)Trill: produced when an articulator is set vibrating by the airstream. A major trill sound is [r], as in red.(6)Affricates: involving more than one of these manners of articulation in that they consist of a stop followed immediately afterwards by a fricative at the same place of articulation. In English, the “ch [ tʃ ]” of cheese and the “j [dʒ]”of jetare both affricates.3. Places of articulationIt refers to the point where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing or the abstraction of air. Practically, consonants may be produced at any place between the tips and the vocal folds.(1)Bilabial: made with the two lips. In English, bilabial sounds include [p, b, m, w], as in pet, bet, met and wet.(2)Labiodental: made with the lower lip and the upper front teeth. Labiodental sounds include [f, v], as in fire and five.(3)Dental: made by the tongue tip and the upper front teeth. Only frictives[θ, ð] are dental sounds.(4)Alveolar: made with the tongue tip and the alveolar ridge. Sounds include [t, d, n, s, z, r, l] for English.(5)Postalveolar: made with the tongue tip and the back of the alveolar ridge. Such sounds include [ʃ, ʒ,], as in ship and pleasure.(6)Patatal: made with the front to the tongue and the hard palate. The only English sound made here is [j], as in yes and yet. (7)Velar: made with the black of the tongue and the soft palate. Examples in English are velar stops [k, g], as in cat and get, and velar nasal [ŋ], as in sing.(8)Glottal: made with the two pieces of vocal folds pushed towards each other. The only glottal is [h] in hat and head.4.Description of the consonants (必考)[p] voiceless bilabial stop [b] voiced bilabial stop[s] voiceless alveolar fricative [z] voiced alveolar fricative [m] bilabial nasal; [j] palatal approximant[h] glottal fricative [l] alveolar lateral5. Cardinal VowelsThe cardinal vowels are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.6. Three types of vowelsAccording to the quality of production, there are 3 types of vowels. The first one is monophthong, whose quality of production is unchangeable movement; the second one is diphthong, whose quality of production is a single change movement; and the last one is triphthong, whose quality of production is 2 change movements, such as tower /ˈtaʊə(r)/.7. 短元音发音是会受到清辅音和浊辅音的影响，后面是浊辅音是元音长；后面是清辅音时，元音短。
语言学Chapter3Phonology
语言学Chapter3PhonologyChapter 3 PhonologyAims:1) To have an understanding of the differences between phonology and phonetics;2) To let the students know some terms in phonology, such as phoneme, allophone, phonemiccontrast, complementary distribution and so on;3) To be familiar with the distinctive features and some phonological rules;4) To understand what suprasegmental features are.1. Phonology and phoneticsPhonology is the study of sound systems—the inventory of distinctive sounds that occur in a language and the patterns into which they fall, how the sound system of a language functions.Both phonology and phonetics are studies of speech sounds．The two words contain the same root phono-，meaning sounds．But while both are related to the study of sounds，they differ in their approach and focus. As we have seen in the last chapter，phonetics is of a general nature；it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages：how they are produced，how they differ from each other，what phonetic features they possess，how they can be classified，etc. Phonology，on the other hand，is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language；it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication．Thus these two are at once related and distinct branches of linguistic studies.Phonology, therefore, different from phonetics, is language specific. It deals with speech sounds within the context of a particular language.2. Phoneme and allophonePhonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. So the subtle difference between clear [l] and dark [l] and that between alveolar [n] and dental [n] are not really the concern of phonology, but the difference between [p] and [b] and that between [l] and [m] are because [pi:] (pea) and [bi:] (bee), and [leik] and [meik] are entirely different in meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. But is an abstract unit. To be exact, a phoneme is not a sound; it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features. In actual speech, a phoneme is realized phonetically as a certain phone. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.3. Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution and minimal pairPhonetically similar sounds might be related in two ways. They might form a contrast if they aretwo distinctive phonemes，or they do not form a contrast in meaning if they are allophones of the same phoneme. Study the pronunciation of the following words:Rope[r[Up]，robe［r[Ub］，pin［phin］，bin [bin]，pot ［phCt］spot［spCt］We can see that [ph] and［b］contras each other in initial position，as in pin and bin. Then we find that they also contrast in final position，as in rope and robe. So we come to the conclusion that /p/ and /b/ can occur in the same environmentsand they distinguish meaning：therefore they are in phonemic contrast. On the other hand，［p］and [ph]never contrast each other. They are two allophones of the same phoneme /p/. They occur in different environmentsThese two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution.When confronted with an unfamiliar language，a linguist has，first of all，to find out what are the sounds that convey meaning in that language，namely，the phonemes that form the sound system of that particular language．A basic way to determine the phonemes of language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning. If it does, the two sounds then represent different phonemes. An easy way to do this is to find the minimal pairs. When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.4. Phonological rules4.1 Sequential rulesThere are rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language. These rules are called sequential rules. There are many such sequential rules in English. For example, if a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel. That is why [ibik] and [ikbi] are impossible combinations in English.If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules:1) the first phoneme must be /s/;2) the second phoneme must be /p/ or /t/ or /k/;3) the third phoneme must be /l/ or /r/ or /w/.This is why all words beginning with a combination of threeconsonants in English are words like spring, strict, square, splendid, scream.4.2 Assimilation rulesThe assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential pho neme, thus making the two phones similar.For example, [i:] sound is non-nasalized in such words as tea, peep, flee, it is nasalized in words like bean, green, team and scream. This is because in al these sound combination the [i:] sound is followed by a nasal [n] or [m]. While we are pronouncing the [i:] sound, we are already getting ready to pronounce the subsequent nasal sound. Nasalize a vowel when it is followed bya nasal sound.4.3 Deletion ruleIt tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.4.4 Distinctive featuresAs we have seen from the discussion of IPA symbols in the last chapter; speech sounds are divided up into classes according to a number of properties. One important property is “voicing”, which plays an important part in distinguish obstruents（阻塞音）in English. Because voicing can distinguish one phoneme from another, it is a distinctive feature for English obstruents. There are other features too and many of them are binary features. eg, [+voiced] [+nasal] [+round].5. Suprasegmental features (refer to Poole, 2000: 66)5.1 SyllableSyllable is a unit in speech which is often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word. The syllable consists of three parts: onset, the peak, coda. Every syllable has a nucleus,its power source. This is usually a vowel but it can also be a liquid or nasal consonant as in the second syllable of the word “people” [5pi:pl]. A syllable may consist of nothing but the nucleus, as in the word “owe”, but the nucleus is usua lly accompanied by at least one consonant.A preceding consonant or consonant cluster is called an onset and a following.5.2 StressThe pronunciation of a word or syllable with more force than the surrounding words or syllables.A stressed word or syllable is produced by using more air from the lungs.Stress has two main semantic functions:a. It may distinguish between two wordsb. The speaker wishes to emphasize the syllable or word.Pitch: different rates of vibration of vocal cord caused different pitch. Pitch variations may be distinctive like phonemes.5.3 IntonationWhen pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence rather than to the word, they are collectively known as Intonation. Intonation has four grammatical functions: First, it may indicate different sentence types by pitch direction.Second, sometimes the different pitch direction may indicate connotative meanings.Third, it may impose different structure on the sentence by dividing it into different intonation units.Fourth, intonation may bring part of a sentence into prominence by placing the nucleus (the major pitch change) on the syllable concerned. Stress, intonation and length can all makea word more prominent than the quality of its component sounds allows. But of the three, intonation is the most effective means while stress is the least, in spite of the erroneous assumption that the sole function of stress is to give emphasis to a word.Intonation also has attitudinal functions. It may indicate the emotional state of the speaker---whether he is calm or exited, happy or sad.Exercise:1. What criteria are used to classify the English consonants and vowels?2. Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound description:1) voiced palatal affricate 2) voiceless labiodental fricative 3) voiced alveolar stop 4) front, close, short 5) back, semi-open, long 6) voiceless bilabial stop3. Give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds:[d] [l] [tF] [w] [U] [A ]4. How do phonetics phonology differ in their focus of study? Who do you think will be more interested in the difference between, say [l] and [l], [] and [ph], a phonetician or a phonologist? Why?5. Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule and the deletion rule.6. What is the test used for determining phonemes in a language?。
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The Difference Between Phonetics and Phonology It is generally agreed that both phonetics and phonology are the main branches of linguistics, studying speech sounds and sound structure. Phonetics studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech. While phonology focuses on the rules governing the structure, distribution, sequencing of speech sounds and the shapes of syllables. Overall, the difference between them is that phonetics studies the nature of the sound itself, related to human language, and the process of the production of the sound, while phonology deals with the sound patterns and the meanings within and across the language.Both phonology and phonetics are concerned with the same aspect of language—the speech sounds ,but they differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all human language: how they are produced and how they differ form each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified. etc. Phonology ,on the other hand, aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistics communication. The difference between [ l] and [ ] is what the phoneticians are interested in .Because form the phonological view , these two sounds in each pair are fundamentally the same ,since they have one and the same function in communication ,in distinguishing between words and meanings despite their difference in pronunciation.Phonetics deals with the articulatory and acoustic properties of speech sounds, how they are produced, and how they are perceived. As part of this investigation, phoneticians may concern themselves with the physical properties of meaningful sound contrasts or the social meaning encoded in the speech signal (While it is widely agreed that phonology is grounded in phonetics, phonology is concerned with sounds and gestures as abstract units).Phonology is both meaningful and physical which expores that how the diffierence of sound totally changes the meaning of a word or ,more precise, an utterance. For example. The word “bid ” is very similar to the word “bit” in terms of the physical property of sounds. The mere and little difference is the ending letter. The vocal chords stops vibrating so that sound is the result only of the replacement of the tongues behind the teeth and the flow of air. Physically ,these two words are not related in meaning in the very least. While, phonetics focus on how the word are sounded and how to make sounds with our vocal cords , mouth, throat, and nasal cavaties. For example ,the initial sound in bad involves both lips and its final segment involves the blade of the tongue and the alveolar ridge.Also ,if a nasal consonant such as[m] procedes an oral vowel(such as [m ]in map), some of the nasality will carry forward so that the vowel will begin with a somewhat nasal quality .This is because in producing a nasal the soft palate is lowered to allow airflow through the nasal tract. To produce the following vowel, the soft palate must move back to is normal position. All of which are explored in the field of phonetics.As a branch of linguistics and an emering and gradually prospering course , phonetics asks for persons with perfect listening mechanism and the pronounciation organs to be the source of datas.which definitely has no deep and intimate connection with peculiar language background. The same conclusion can be reached ,no matter which group of people are investigated ,Germans,English, or Indian. But the univeral method to study phonology is from theindividual languae ,so as to define which phoetic unit are used and their formation. Then, make a clear comparison of the features of different phonology ,which could lead to the basic rules used by phones in a specified group ,then in the whole scope of languages. People’s vocal cords can produce many sounds in a wide scope,in which a small fration of sounds form the words and sentences. Phonetics explores the all possible sounds while phonology studies the way the speaker of one specific language to choose those sounds to express meanings.Phonetics is the study of speech sounds that the human voice is capable of creating whereas phonology is the study of a subset of those sounds that constitute language and meaning, The first focuses on chaos while the second focuses on order.The basic unit in phonetics is phone, just like [p h]and [p] which could not be distinguished by meaning ,while the phoneme is a phonological unit ,such as [b]in biteand [t] in tite can be distinguished from meaning ,so phoneme is a unit that is of distinctive value.Phonetics can be categoried into 3 parts, each dealing with one part of the process.(1)Articulatory phonetics is the study of the production of speech sounds. In otherwords ,how sounds are made or articulated.(2)Acoustic phonetics is the study of physical properties of speech sounds whichexplores the physical properties of sound waves.(3)Auditory phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.Phonology has two branches:(1)Diachronic phonology: the study of sounds in a single stage through the courseof its history to discover the sound patterns that is capable to occur.(2)Synchronic phonology takes a fixed instant(usually ,but not necessarily present)as the point of observation,that is to say ,it examines the current changes andmodifications in speech sounds and sound systemn over a period of time.Accoding to what I have explained and illustrated , here is the conclusion,that is phonetics is more general, descriptive and classificatory; while phonology is featured by particular and functional traits. Secondly. Phonetics is the actual physical articulations of speech sounds ,while phonology is the abstract aspect of the sounds in a language .Thirdly. Phonetics studies the means for describing speech sounds, and phonology explores the way in which speech sounds are combined, organized, and convey meaning in particular languages.。