英语语言学概论复习考试
英语语言学概论期末复习【通用】.docx
第一章绪论1.1什么是语言1.2语言的性质（1）语言具有系统性（systematic）（2）语言是一个符号系统语言符号是一种象征符号。
（3）语言符号的任意性（arbitrariness）与理据性（motivation）（4）口头性（5）语言是人类特有的（6）语言是用于交际的寒暄交谈（phatic communion）马林诺夫斯基提出的，认为语言除了用于表达思想、交流感情外，还可以用语言营造一种气氛或保持社会接触。
这种不用于表达思想、交流感情的语言使用，叫寒暄交谈。
1.3语言的起源1.4语言的分类1.4.1系属分类（Genetic Classification）历史比较语言学通过比较各种语言在不同时期语音、词性、曲折变化、语法结构上的相同特点来建立语言族系。
将语言分为语系（family）——语族（group）——语支（branch）——语言英语、德语属印欧语系日耳曼语族西日耳曼语支。
法语属印欧语系罗曼语族中罗曼语支。
汉语属汉藏语系汉语族。
1.4.2 类型分类（Typological Classifacation）根据词的结构类型，可分为（1）孤立语（isolating language）又叫词根语，一个词代表一个意思，缺少形态变化，语序和虚词是表达语法意义的主要手段。
汉语是典型的孤立语。
（2）粘着语（agglutinative language）简单词组成复合词，而词性和意义不变。
在词根前、中、后粘贴不同的词缀实现语法功能。
日语、韩语、土耳其语是典型的黏着语。
（3）屈折语（inflectional language）词形变化表语法关系的语言。
英语是不太典型的屈折语。
（4）多式综合语（polysynthesis language）把主、宾和其它语法项结合到动词词干上以构成一个单独的词，但表达一个句子的意思。
因纽特语是典型的多式综合语。
根据句子的语序类型，可分为SVO、SOV、OSV、OVS等1.5语言的功能1.5.1 一般功能1.5.2元功能（metafunction）1.6什么是语言学（linguistics）1.7语言学中的重要区分（1）语言（langue）和言语（parole/langage）索绪尔对语言和言语作出了区分。
英语语言学概论复习资料 (2)
Prescriptive:how things ought to beDo/Don’t say X. (Commands)
Descriptive:how things arePeople do/don’t say X. (Statements)
2. What will you say to a statement like “one culture’s meat is another culture’s poison”?
答案及评分标准
I.Definition.共5题
1.arbitrarinessrefers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bears no natural relationship to their meaning.
(a) cheery (b) funny (c) loony (d) crazy (e) happy
2. Make distinctions between the following pair of terms.
descriptive vs. prescriptive
3. What are the allomorphs of the morpheme ‘plural’ in this set of English words?
2.morpheme: the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship betweenexpression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.
英语语言学概论自考
1. What are the difference between general linguistics and descriptive linguistics and what sis the relationship between them? A: Differences between general and descriptive linguistics:(1) They have different goals:General linguistics deals with language; descriptive linguistics study one particular language;(2) They have different aims:General linguistics aims at developing a theory that describes the rules of human language in general;Descriptive linguistics attempts to establish a model that describes the rules of this particular language.Relationships between general and descriptive linguistics: General and descriptive linguistics depend on each other:(1) General linguistics provides descriptive linguistics with a general framework in which a particular language can be analyzed and described;(2) The resulting descriptions of particular languages supply empirical evidence which may confirm or refute the models put forward by general linguists.2. What is the nature of language? (P7)Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols, which is creative, double-structured and changeable.3. What is the difference between langue and parole? (P2/P24)a. Langue is the system of language. Parole is the speakers’speech.b. Langue refers to the abstract system of a language, while parole refers to the concrete act of speaking in a definite time, place and situation.c. Langue underlies parole and parole, in turn, is a manifestation of langue.4. What is the difference between competence and performance? (P2)a. Competence is the speaker-hearer’s knowledge of his language.b. Performance is the actual use of language in concrete situations.c. Competence is abstract, while performance is concrete.5. Why do linguists maintain that language is primarily speech? (P4) Linguists maintain that language is primarily speech, and not the written form. This view may be justified by the following reasons.a. Biologically speaking, children begin to learn to speak much earlier than to learn to read and write.b. Functionally speaking, the spoken form is used more frequently than the written form in our daily life.c. Historically speaking, all human languages were spoken before they were written and there are still many languages in the worldtoday which have not been written down.The emphasis on the spoken form indicates that linguistic study is primarily based on the data collected from living speech.6. What does it mean by saying that language is arbitrary, creative and double-structured? (P4-5)A. The relationship between the sounds and their meaning is arbitrary.B. Language is creative.a. Every language contains an infinite number of sentences, which, however, are generated by a small set of rules and a finite set of words.b. The length of a sentence has no limit in theory.c. The rules with recursive properly can account for the creative aspect of language.C. Language is double-structured. There are two levels: grammatically-meaningful and sound-meaningless.7. What features of language can differentiate human languages from animal communicative systems? (P7)Human language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols, which is creative, double-structured and changeable. Those unique features like creativity, duality of structure and changeability candifferentiate human languages from animal communicative systems and enable human languages to be the most efficient, flexible and versatile means of communication in the world.8. How many stages does the scientific method have? What are they? (P9)There are four stages of scientific method:a. collecting data,b. forming a hypothesisc. testing the hypothesisd. drawing conclusions9. What are the three linguistic biases? (P9-10, P7)a. One common linguistic bias is that some languages are primitive and some languages are advanced.b. Another deep-rooted bias is that only the standard variety is the pure form of a language.c. Change is not natural for all living languages and such a language is a sign of corruption and decay.10. How is a rule constructed? (P15)a. To construct a rule, the linguist starts with collecting data.b. Based on the data collected, he may construct a very simple ruleas a tentative version.c. Then he examines the tentative rule against further data. If the additional data do not agree with it, he has to modify it.d. He keeps on testing the rule and, accordingly, revising the rule until the rule can account for all the relevant data collected. Thus, the rule formed is open to further modifications.11. Give examples to illustrate the two features of an adequate model of competence: explicitness and generativeness. (P15-16/P6)a. By saying a linguistic model is explicit, we mean that the rules the model contains are clearly and precisely defined. Even a computer can produce all and only the grammatical sentences if the rules are fed to the machine.b. By saying the model is generative, we mean that the model contains only a small set of rules which, however, can generate an indefinitely large number of sentences.c. For example, “so…that” is explicit, but they can generate infinite sentences.eg. He is so fat that he could not ran fast.He was so lazy that he never washed his clothes.…12. What are the four types of linguistic knowledge? (P18-19)The four types of linguistic knowledge are phonological, morphological, syntactic and semantic.a. Phonological knowledge is a native speaker’s intuition about the sounds and sound patterns of his language.b. Morphological knowledge is a native speaker’s intuition about how a word is formed.c. Syntactic knowledge is a native speaker’s intuition about whether a sentence is grammatical or not.c. Semantic knowledge is a native speaker’s intuition about the meaning of language.13. Why is Saussre regarded as the former of modern linguistics? (P21-22)a. The obvious reason is that the book under his name “A Course in General Linguistics”is the first real essay on linguistic theory.b. In this book, quite a few theoretical distinctions introduced have become foundations of linguistic study and exerted great influence on the later development linguistics.c. Chief among them are the distinctions between synchronic and diachronic, syntagmatic and paradigmatic, langue and parole.14. Give examples to illustrate the difference between synchronicand diachronic. (P22)a. If we study the changes in the Chinese language that took place between the 1940’s and the 1960’s, it would be a diachronic study.b. But if we study the Chinese language in the 1940’s, then it would be a synchronic study.c. The major difference between these two approaches is the former is concerned with the historical development of a language and the latter is concerned with the “state”of a language at a particular point of time.15. Give examples to illustrate the difference between syntagmatic and paradigmatic. (P116-118/P22-23)a. A syntagmatic relation refers to the sequential characteristic of speech.b. A paradigmatic relation is a relation between a linguistic element in an utterance and linguistic elements outside that utterance.c. We can go tomorrow syntagmatic relationShe may come soonI will ask nextYou could sleep now……… paradigmatic relation16. What is a consonant and what is a vowel? (P30)a. A consonant is a speech sound where the airstream from the longs is either completely blocked, partially blocked or where the opening is so narrow that the air escapes with audible friction.b. A vowel is a speech sound in which the airstream from the lungs is not blocked in any way in the mouth or throat, and which is usually pronounced with vibrations of the vocal cords.17. Is the spelling of words a reliable means of describing English sounds? Why or Why not? (P30-31)No, it isn’t.a. Sometimes a single letter may represent different sounds.b. Sometimes, different letters or combinations of letters may r4epresent a single sound.c. The advantage of this system is that within the system, one symbol represents one sound and every symbol has a consistent value.18. What is the difference between plosives and affricates? (P37)a. Plosives are suddenly separated and the airstream goes out witha plosion.b. Affricates are brought together to form a complete closure but not followed by a sudden release, rather by a low release with audile friction.19. What is the difference between phonetics and phonology? (P20, P53)a. English phonetics is concerned with all speech sounds that occur in the English language. It studies how those sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived, and how they re described and classified.b. Different from English phonetics, English phonology does not deal with the actual production of English sounds, but with the abstract aspects: the function of sounds and their patterns of combination.20. What are the three conditions of a minimal pair? (P54)a. They are different in meaningb. They differ only in one sound segment.c. The different sounds occur in the same position in strings.21. Give examples to illustrate the differences between phonemes, phones and allophones. (P90)a. Phonemes are said to be minimal distinctive units in the sound system of a language.b. Phones are the realizations of phonemes.c. Allophones are the realizations of a particular phoneme.d. For example,22. Give examples to illustrate the differences between contrastive distribution, complementary distribution and free variation. (P59-60)a. If two or more sounds can occur in the same environment and the substitution of one sound for another brings about a change in meaning, they are in contrastive distribution.b. If two or more sounds never appear in the same environment, they are said to be in complementary distribution.c. If two or more sounds can occur in the same environment and the substitution of one sound for another does not cause a change in meaning, they are said to be in free variation.d. The sounds either in contrastive distribution or in free variation can occur in the same environment. The difference between them lies in the fact that in the former case, the substitution of one sound for another results in a change in meaning, but this does not happen in the latter case. Complementary distribution is clearly different from the previous two types of distribution. The sounds in complementary distribution never occur in the same environment.23 What are the 3 principles of identifying phonemes? (P61)a. The sounds that are in contrastive distribution are different phonemesb. The sounds that are always in free variation are allophones ofthe same phoneme.c. The sounds that are in complementary distribution and also phonetically similar are allophones of the same phoneme.24. What is the difference between segmental features and suprasegmental features? What are the suprasegmental features? (P69)a. The distinctive features, which can only have an effect on one sound segment, are called segmental features.b. The distinctive features, which can affect more than one sound segment and can also contrast meaning, are called suprasegmental features.25. What’s the difference between phonemes and morphemes? (P54, P83)a. Phoneme is defined as a minimal distinctive unit in the sound system of a language.b. A morpheme is defined as a minimal meaningful unit in the grammatical system of a language.26. What are interrelations between semantic and structural classifications of morphemes? (P84, P86)Morphemes can be classified both semantically and structurally.a. Semantically, morphemes are grouped into general categories: root morphemes (roots) and affixational morphemes (affixes).b. Structurally, they fall into two classes: free morphemes and bound morphemes.c. All free morphemes are roots, but not all roots are free morphemes. All affixes are bound morphemes, but not all bound morphemes are affixes..27. Please explain the difference between inflectional and derivational affixes. (P89)28. How do we judge whether two or more minimal meaningful sequences of phonemes are one morph or different morphs? (P92-93)a. If two or more minimal meaningful sequences of phonemes are identical in both form and meaning, then they are regarded as one morph.b. If two or more minimal meaningful sequences of phonemes are the same in form but different in meaning, then there are as many morphs as there are meanings.c. If two or more minimal meaningful sequences of phonemes are the same in meaning but different in form, then there are as many morphs as there are forms.d. If two or more minimal meaningful sequences of phonemes are different both in form and meaning, there are as many morphs as there different forms and meanings.29. How do we group morphs into morphemes? (P94)If two or more morphs are semantically identical and also in complementary distributing, they are then said to allomorphs of the same morpheme; otherwise, they belong to different morphemes.30. What is IC analysis? (P99/P126)a. IC analysis simply means that we divide the morphemes of a word into the two groups and then divide each group into subgroups and so on, until we reach single morphemes.b. Labeled IC simply means that we divide the morphemes of a wordor the words of a sentence into the two groups and then divide each group into subgroups and so on, until we reach single morphemes of a word on a signal word of a sentence..31. What is the difference between an empty morph and a zero morph? (P97-98)a. Empty morph is defined as a morph that has form but no meaning.b. Zero morph is defined as a morph that has no form but has meaning.32. What are two ways of studying sentences? Explain them. (P116)a. We make structural descriptions of sentences to illustrate the parts of a sentence and the relationships among them, this is called static study.b. We examine the process by which sentences are generated by syntactic rules this is called dynamic study.33. What are the three syntactic relations? (P116-118)a. Sequential or syntagmatic relations are refers to the linear ordering of the words and the phrases within a sentence.b. Substitutional (paradigmatic) relation is a kind of relation between linguistic forms in a sentence and linguistic forms outside the sentence.c. Hierarchical relation shows us the inner layering of sentences.34. What are the differences between surface structure and deep structure? (P144)a. A surface structure corresponds to the linear arrangement of words;a deep structure corresponds to the meaningful grouping of words.b. A surface structure is relatively concrete, and a deep structure is abstract.c. A surfaces structure gives the form of a sentence; while the deep structure gives the meaning of a sentence.d. A surface structure is pronounceable, but a deep structure is not pronounceable.35. What are the three kinds of operations performed by T-rules? (P180)a. rearranging the sentence elements;b. adding a new element to the phrase marker;c. deleting an element from the phrase marker.36. What are the differences between PS rules and T-rules? (P139)a. TG grammar has assumed that to generate sentences, we start with deep structures and then transform them into surface structures.b. Deep structures are generated by phrase structure rules (PS rules), and surface structures are derived from their deep structures bytransformational rules (T-rules).Phonetics has three sub-branches:(1) articulatory phonetics that is concerned with how a sound is produced by the vocal organs;(2) acoustic phonetics that deals with how a sound is transmitted from the speaker’s mouth to the listener’s ears;(3) auditory phonetics that investigates how a sound is perceived by the listener.2. Speech organs1-nasal cavity; 2-lips; 3-teeth; 4-aveolar ridge; 5-hard palate 6-velum (soft palate);7-uvula; 8-apex (tip) of tongue; 9-blade (front) of tongue;10-dorsum (back) of tongue; 11-oral cavity;12-pharynx; 13-epiglottis; 14-larynx; 15-vocal cords; 16-trachea; 17-esophagus;。
语言学概论复习考试重点题目(附答案!!)
Linguistics:I.Directions: Read each of the following statements carefully. Decide which one of the four choices best completes the statement and put the letter A, B, C or D in the brackets1. ( ) The study of language as a whole is often called __________ linguistics.A. particularB. generalC. ordinaryD. generative2. ( ) __________ can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language.A. PhonesB. SoundsC. PhonemesD. Speech sounds3. ( ) The two clauses in a __________ sentence are structurally equal parts of the sentence.A. simpleB. completeC. complexD. coordinate4. ( ) The goal of __________ is to explore the nature of language variation and language use among avariety of speech communities and indifferent social situations.A. psycholinguisticsB. sociolinguisticsC. historical linguisticsD. general linguistics5. ( ) A __________ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintaining the highestposition.A. backB. centralC. frontD. middle6. ( ) The open, back and long vowel is __________.A.［ɑ：］B.［ɔ：］C.［ə：］D.［u:］7. ( ) Language change is universal, continuous and, to a considerable extent __________.A. regular but not systematicB. irregular and systematicC. regular and systematicD. irregular but systematic8. ( ) A scientific study of language is based on the __________ investigation of language data.A. symbolicB. systemicC. systematicD. system9. ( ) __________ are sometimes called “semivowels”.A. vowelsB. fricativeC. glidesD. nasals10. ( ) __________ is a typical tone language.A. EnglishB. ChineseC. FrenchD. American English11. ( ) A sentence is considered __________ when it conforms to the grammatical knowledge in the mind ofnative speakers.A. rightB. wrongC. grammaticalD. ungrammatical12. ( ) The number of the lexical items in the minor lexical categories is __________ and no new membersare allowed for.A. largeB. smallC. limitlessD. fixed13. ( ) Human beings are the only species that learns and acquires language__________ explicit instruction.A. withB. withoutC. withinD. through14. ( ) According to F. de Saussure, __________ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all themembers of a speech community.A. paroleB. performanceC. langueD. language15. ( ) Acoustic phoneticians try to describe the __________ properties of the stream of sounds which aspeaker issues.A. oralB. mentalC. physicalD. recorded16. ( ) __________ is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world's languages.A. PhonologyB. PhoneticsC. MorphologyD. Phonemics17. ( ) __________ transcription is really the transcription required and used by the phoneticians in theirstudy of speech sounds.A. BroadB. DetailedC. WideD. Narrow18. ( ) The word “motel”is formed via word formation rule of __________.A. clippingB. blendingC. acronymD. coinage19. ( ) If a linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct”behavior, i.e., to tell people what theyshould say and what they should not say, it is said to be __________.A. productiveB. arbitraryC. prescriptiveD. creative20. ( ) __________, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second elementreceives secondary stress.A. OrthographicallyB. PhoneticallyC. SemanticallyD. Syntactically21. ( ) __________ is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language.A. MorphologyB. SyntaxC. LexicologyD. Coordination22. ( ) __________ is a kind of abbreviation of otherwise longer words or phrases.A. AbbreviationB. AcronymC. ClippingD. Blending23. ( ) Those that affect the syntactic category and the meaning of the root as well are __________.A. stemsB. affixesC. suffixesD. prefixes.24. ( ) __________ refers to the process by which new words are formed by the addition of affixes to theroots, stems, or words.A. DerivationB. CompoundingC. BlendingD. Back formation25. ( ) Since the phonetic contrast between /k/ in the word “kill”and /k/ in the word “coal”is not adistinctive one, the two /k/-s are only __________.A. phonemesB. phonesC. segmentsD. allophones26. ( ) When /p/ and /b/ occur in the same environments and distinguish meaning, they are in __________.A. minimal pairB. minimal setC. phonemic contrastD. complementary distribution27. ( ) __________ at the end of stems can modify the meaning of the original word and in many caseschange its part of speech.A. RootsB. PrefixesC. SuffixesD. Free morphemes28. ( ) As /k/ in the word “came”and /g/ in the word “game”are said to form a distinctive opposition inEnglish, they are __________.A. soundsB. phonemesC. allophonesD. varieties29. ( ) The sounds produced without the vocal cords vibrating are __________ sounds.A. consonantalB. voicedC. vowelD. voiceless30. ( ) __________ are added to an existing form to create a word, which is a very common way to createnew words in English.A. Inflectional affixesB. Free morphemeC. Derivational affixesD. Stems31. ( ) __________ is a process of semantic change in which a word loses its former meaning and acquires anew, sometimes related meaning.A. Semantic narrowingB. Semantic broadeningC. Semantic borrowingD. Semantic shift32. ( ) __________ studies how sounds are put together to convey meaning in communication.A. PhonologyB. MorphologyC. LexicologyD. Phonetics33. ( ) Stress in English is used to __________ semantically important words.A. signalB. stand outC. identifyD. single34. ( ) __________ refers to the physiological effect of one sound on another.A. Sound assimilationB. Internal borrowingC. ElaborationD. Rule simplification35. ( ) A compound word consists of __________.A. two or more than two wordsB. two morphemesC. two root morphemesD. two or more morphemes36. ( ) Of all the speech organs, the ___ is/are the most flexible.A. mouthB. lipsC. tongueD. vocal cords37. ( ) “alive” and “dead” are ______________.A. gradable antonymsB. relational oppositesC. complementary antonymsD. None of the above38. ( )The meaning carried by the inflectional morpheme is _______.A. lexicalB. grammaticalC. morphemicD. semanticII. Directions: Fill in the blanks in each of the following statements with one word, the first letter of which is already given as a clue. Note that you are to fill in ONE word only, and you are not allowed to change the letter given.1. English is an i__________ language.2. The affixes occurring at the beginning of a word are called p__________.3. IPA stands for International Phonetic A__________.4. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called s__________ features.5. C__________ is a process of combining two or more words into one lexical unit.6. P__________ studies language in relation to the mind.7. Human capacity for language has a g______ basis, but the details of language have to be taught and learned.8. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be d__________.9. P__________ is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language.10. F__________ morphemes are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves.11. B__________ is a process of forming a new word by combining parts of other words.12. An English speaker and Chinese speaker are both able to use a language, but they are not mutuallyintelligible. This is a case of c__________ transmission.13. C__________ distribution means that the allophones of the same phoneme always occur in differentphonetic environments.14. Affixes like “im-”, “il-”, “un-”, “-tion”, “-or”, “-hood”, are called d______ affixes.15. The two clauses in a complex sentence hold unequal status, one s__________ the other.16. Modern linguistics gives priority to the s__________ form of language.17. A bound r__________ can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning.18. Language is p_____ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.19. P_________ occur at the beginning of a word and suffixes at the end.20. Historical linguists are concerned with the historical d__________ of languages and the processes involvedin language change.21. Linguistics is generally defined as the s__________ study of language.22. D__________ means that language can be used to refer to things which present or not present, real orimagined matters in the past, present , or future, or in faraway places.23. The sequential order of words in a sentence suggests that the structure of a sentence is l__________.24. Lying across the glottis are the v__________ cords, which are not really cords or strings as the nameindicates, but two membranes.25. S_________ is the sub-discipline of linguistics that studies the social significance of language variation andlanguage use in different speech communities including regional, ethnic and social groups.26 I__________ affixes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number,degree, and case.27. A d__________ study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.28. In terms of morphemic analysis, c__________ can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes morethan two words to create new words.29. An acronym is a word created by combining the i__________ letters of a number of words.30 The description of a language as it changes through time is a d__________ study.31. The study of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society is known as s__________.32. O__________, a compound can be written as one word with or without a hyphen in between, or as twoseparate words.33. When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they arecollectively known as i__________.34. The long vowels are all t__________ vowels and the short vowels are l__________ vowels.35. A s__________ community is a group of people who form a community and share the same language or aparticular variety of language.36. When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in thesame place in the strings, the two words are said to form a m__________ pair.37. Language is a system of a__________ vocal symbols used for human communication.38. Normally a sentence consists of at least a subject and its predicate which contains a f__________ verb or averb phrase.39. Chomsky defines "competence" as the ideal user's k__________ of the rules of his language.40. The four sounds /p/,/b/,/m/ and /w/ have one feature in common, i.e, they are all b______________ .41. M_____________ is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules bywhich words are formed.42. S________ can be defined as the study of meaning.43. The conceptualist view holds that there is no d______ link between a linguistic form and what it refers to.44. R______ means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.45. Words that are close in meaning are called s________.46. When two words are identical in sound, but different in spelling and meaning, they are called h__________.47.R_________ opposites are pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items.48. A s________ sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.49. A s______ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicate.Ⅲ. Directions: Judge whether each of the following statements is true or false. Put a T for true or F for false in the brackets in front of each statement.1. ( ) Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive, but sometimes prescriptive.2. ( ) Distinctive features are the same to any language.3. ( ) One of the clauses in a coordinate sentence is subordinate to the other.4. ( ) In English and many other languages, the subject usually follows the verb and the direct object usuallyprecedes the verb.5. ( ) The most vigorous and on going change in the historical development of a language is the change in itsvocabulary.6. ( ) SLA stands for second language acquisition.7. ( ) The writing system of any language is always a later invention, used to record the speech.8. ( ) Both phonology and phonetics are studies of speech sounds.9. ( ) The root of a word is the smallest meaningful unit of language.10. ( ) Historical linguistics studies language change.11. ( ) Language is a social activity carried out in a certain social environment by human beings.12. ( ) A synchronic study of language is a historical study.13. ( ) The structure of words is not governed by rules.14. ( ) Epenthesis is a change that involves the insertion of a consonant or a vowel sound to the middle of aword.15. ( ) Language is vocal because the primary medium is sound for all languages.16 ( ) Phonology is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all thesounds that occur in the world's languages.17. ( ) Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are two kinds of stress: word stress andsentence stress.18. ( ) WH movement is obligatory in English which changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative.19. ( ) Morphology and syntax study the same aspect of language.20. ( ) Stress is a relative notion; only words with two or more syllables can be said to have word stress, andmonosyllabic words can not be said to have word stress.21. ( ) Free morphemes are the same as bound morphemes.22. ( ) Language change is different from the change in the grammar.23. ( ) An acronym is a shortened form of a word or phrase which represents the complete form.24. ( ) Some languages are more challenging to acquire as a native language.25. ( ) The ultimate objective of language is to create grammatically well formed sentences.26. ( ) Suffixes, in contrast with prefixes, are added to the end of stems.27. ( ) Sound assimilation refers to the physiological effect of one sound on another.28. ( ) It is the property of arbitrariness that provides speakers with an opportunity to talk about a wide rangeof things, free from barriers caused by separation in time and place.29. ( ) When language users use it to convey information, thoughts and feelings from one person to anotheror as an attempt to control each other's behavior, we think that language is now functioning as a means of intrapersonal communication.30. ( ) A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks.31. ( ) The location of one of the suprasegmental features in English —stress does distinguish meaning.32. ( ) Most English words are closed categories because the number of the lexical items in these categoriesis fixed and no new members are allowed for, so they are known as major lexical categories.33. ( ) Language as the most important tool for human communication is both an open system and a closedsystem as well. It is closed because its forms in terms of sentences are regular, stable and context free.It is open because of its being variable, and context sensitive.34. ( ) What any individual speaker says within the same speech community is known as idiolect.35. ( ) A coordinate sentence contains two clauses which hold unequal status, that is, with one subordinatingthe other.36. ( ) It seems that with the help of language people may “think”better, and here it is believed thatlanguage is exerting its function of interpersonal communication.37. ( ) General linguistics studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicablein any linguistic study.38. ( ) Languages vary in the order of the subject, the verb and the object.39. ( ) The distinction between Saussure's langue and Chomsky's competence lies in that the former is amatter of social conventions while the latter emphasizes the property of the mind of each individual.40. ( ) Words are the smallest unit of language that can not be broken down into even smaller components.41. ( ) Blending is a process of combining two or more words into one lexical unit.42. ( ) Phonetics deals with how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning.43. ( ) Linguistic performance is essentially a social phenomenon but not a context dependent behavior.44. ( ) There are actually many other communicative systems rather than human language that are also rulegoverned.45. ( ) Morphology is divided into three sub-branches: inflectional morphology, lexical morphology andderivational morphology.46. ( ) In some sense we may use the term diachronic linguistics instead of historical linguistics.47. ( ) The greatest source of modification of the air stream is found in the oral cavity.48. ( ) Both phonology and phonetics are studies of sound though they have different emphases.49. ( ) Generally speaking, the standard language is more effective in expressing ideas than any other dialectcoexisting with it.50. ( ) Major lexical categories are open categories.51. ( ) The most dramatic morphological loss concerns the loss of gender markings only.52. ( ) In modern linguistic studies, the written form of language is given more emphasis than the spokenform for a number of reasons.53. ( ) Voicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in both Chinese and English.54. ( ) The compound word "bookstore" is the place where books are sold. This indicates that the meaning ofa compound is the sum total of the meanings of its components.55. ( ) Dialectal synonyms can often be found in different regional dialects such as British English andAmerican English but cannot be found within the variety itself, for example, within British English or American English.56. ( ) Sense is concerned with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic worldof experience, while the reference deals with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.57. ( ) Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations.58. ( ) In semantics, meaning of language is considered as the intrinsic and inherent relation to the physicalworld of experience.IV. Explain the following terms briefly:1. Design feature: Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication, such as arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement, cultural transmission, etc.2. Synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present), as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.3. Diachronic: study of a language is carried through the course of its history.4. Prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be, i.e. laying down rules for language use.5. Descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.6. Arbitrariness: one design feature of human language, which refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.7. Duality: The duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meanings.8. Displacement: one design feature of human language, which means human language enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present in time and space, at the moment of communication.9. Creativity(创造性): one design feature of human language ,by creativity we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and its reccursiveness.10.C ompetence: competence means the language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.11. Performance: according to Chomsky, performance means the actual use of language in concrete situations.12. Langue: According to Saussure, langue refers to the linguistic competence of the speaker.13. Parole: According to Saussure, parole refers to the actual phenomena or data of linguistics (utterances).14. Consonant: Consonants are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.15．Articulatory phonetics: the study of production of speech sounds.16．Coarticulation: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved.. Coarticulation can be further divided into anticipatory coarticulation and perseverative coarticulation. 17．Broad and narrow transcription: the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription; while, the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as narrow transcription.18. P hone: the speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. It’s a phonetic unit or segment.19. Phoneme: A sound which is capable of distinguishing one word or one shape of a word from another in a given language is a phoneme. It’s a basic unit in phonological analysis. It is not any particular sound, but an abstract segment. In actual speech, a phoneme is realized phonetically as a certain phone. (the sound type in the mind) The phoneme is the smallest meaning-distinguishing unit.20. Allophone: the phones which are versions of one phoneme are referred to as the allophones of that phoneme.21. Minimal pairs: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment, which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair.22. V owel: are sound segments produced without such obstruction, so no turbulence of a total stopping of the air can be perceived.23. Complementary distribution: the relation between tow speech sounds that never occur in the same environment. Allophones of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution.24. Assimilation: a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound. There are two possibilities of assimilation: if a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation; the converse process, in which a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, is know as progressive assimilation.25. Phonetics: Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world's languages. What it studies includes the organs of speech, transcription, classification of speech sounds etc.26. Intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. Intonation plays an important role in conveying meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English, which has four basic types of intonation known as the four tones: the falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rise tone and the rise-fall tone.27. Suprasegmental: aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principle suprasegmental features are syllable, stress, tone, and intonation.28. Morpheme: The smallest meaningful components at the lowest level of a word are called morphemes, such as “man”, “-ly”, “teach” “-er”, “dark”, and “-en” in “manly”, “teacher” and “darken”. The meaning morphemes convey may be of two kinds: lexical meaning such as “man”, “-ly”, “teach”, “-er” and grammatical meaning such as “-e s”, “-ed”, and “-ing” in “teaches” “ played” and “raining”.29. Grammatical words: words expressing grammatical meanings, such conjunction, prepositions, articles and pronouns.30. Open-class: a word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and many adverbs.31. Affix: the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme(the root or stem).32. Root: the base from of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total lass of identity.33. Compounds: Compounds are compound morphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes, such as classroom, blackboard, snow-white, etc.34. Bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the world it is added to, e.g. the plural morpheme in “dog’s”35. Blending: a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words. 36. Loanword: a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adaptation, in some cases, to the phonological system of the new language that they enter.37. Syntax is the study of how words combine to form sentences and the rules which govern the formation of sentences.38. Constituent: a term used in structural analysis for every linguistic unit, which is a part of a larger linguistic unit.39. Immediate constituent analysis: the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents---word groups(or phrases),which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached.40. Endocentric construction: one construction whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents, which serves as the centre, or head, of the whole. Hence an endocentric construction is also known as a headed construction.41. Eexocentric construction: a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any to any of its constituents.42. Category: parts of speech and function, such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech, the identification of terms of parts of speech, the identification of functions of words in term of subject, predicate, etc.43. Semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language.44. Sense: Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de -contextualised.45. Reference:Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience46. Synonymy : Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.V. Questions:1. What are the major functions of language?Language function means the use of language to communicate, to think, etc. Language functions include informative function, interpersonal function, performative function, interpersonal function, performative function, emotive function, phatic communion, recreational function and metalingual function.2. Describe the four design features of language with examples.3. State briefly how consonants are classified.Three parameters are involved in classifying a consonant/ Consonants are classified according to the following three parameters:①place of articulation: place in the mouth where obstruction occurs: bi-labial, labio-dental, alveolar, etc②manners of articulation: ways in which articulation can be accomplished: plosive, fricative, nasal, etc③state of vocal cords: if the vocal cords vibrate or not: voiced and voiceless consonants.3. How are simple vowels classified?There are four ways to classify simple vowels:① According to the height of tongue raising: high, middle, low②According to the position of the highest part of the tongue: front, central, back③According to the shape of the lips (the degree of lip-rounding): rounded, unrounded。
《语言学概论》复习试卷
6、Speech acts can be divided into a locutionary act, an
illocutionary and a perlocutionary act.
1、Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication and thought .
2、语言中最小的符号是 语素 。最小的音义结合体是 语素 。
3、 对立 和 互补 是语言里音与音之间的两种重要关系，是我们考察一个音素在具体语言中的作用的根据。
5 义素就是对词的语义特征分析以后得到的最小的语义单位
6 述谓结构
述谓结构由一个谓词和若干个变元组成，谓词是处于支配地位的核心部分。一个述谓结构可以有多少变元以及有何种性质的变元，都是由谓词的语义规定的。动词的变元理论是述谓结构分析法的理论基础。
变元：又称题元、项等，是与谓词有直接语义关系并受谓词支配的语义成分，一般都是名词性的词语，在句子中经常充当主语或宾语。
2、简述语言和说话的关系。
按照常人的理解，语言就是说话。但是语言学的定义比较窄：语言不等于说话，只是说话的一个不可缺少的部分。
说话是一种复合现象，其中至少可以分出三个组成部分，即： 张口说话的动作——言语行为/动作； 说话所用的代码（汉语、英语等）——语言；说出来的话——言语（作品）----是对语言的运用
4、A syllable is a unit of speech sounds consisting of a vowel or a vowel with one or more than one consonant. The word is the smallest significant unit of a given language capable of functioning alone.
《英语语言学概论》题与答案
《英语语言学概论》题与答案ExercisesI. Multiple Choice1. _________ studies language change over time in contrast to looking at languageas it is used at a given moment.A. Diachronic linguisticsB. Synchronic linguisticsC. Prescriptive linguisticsD. Comparative linguistics2. Of all the speech organs, the _____ is/are the most flexible.A. mouthB. lipsC. tongueD. vocal cords3. In terms of place of articulation, the following sounds [p],[b], [m] and [w]share the feature of.A. palatalB. alveolarC. bilabialD. dental4. A(n) ____ is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit, a collectionof distinctive phonetic features.A. phoneB. soundC. allophoneD. phoneme5. Which of the following sound description is for [d]?A. voiced labiodental fricativeB. voiced alveolar stopC. voiceless labiodental fricativeD. voiceless alveolar stop6. What is the phonetic feature of the sound [u]?A. close back shortB. semi-close front shortC. semi-open central shortD. open front short7. Which of the following sentences contain a derivational affix?A. The cows escaped.B. It was raining.C. Those socks are inexpensive.D. She closed the book.8. The morpheme “ed” in the word “ worked ” is kno_w_n__a_s_a.(n)A. derivational morphemeB. lexical morphemeC. inflectional morphemeD. functional morpheme9. “-e”n in “ enlarge ” is a(n) ________ .A. derivational affixB. inflectional affixC. free rootD. bound root10. ____ is the smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function.A. SyntaxB. GrammarC. MorphologyD. Morpheme11. Which of the following forms is possible word of English?A. sprokeB. bsarnC. mboodD. coofp12. Which pair of words below shows the relation of antonymy. _____A. flourish —thriveB. intelligent —stupidC. casual—informalD. flog —whip13. We call the relation between “ furniture ob”e”aansd __“__w_a_r.drA. hyponymyB. meronymyC. homophonyD. homonymy14. Most of the violations of the maxims of the CP give rise to ____ .A. breakdown of conversationB. confusion of one ' s intentionC. hostility between speakers and the listenersD. conversational implicatures15. In the phrase structure rule “S——>NP VP”, the arrow can be read as ______A. is equal toB. consists ofC. hasD. generates16. The meaning carried by the inflectional morpheme is ____ .A. lexicalB. morphemeC. grammaticalD. semantic17. The pair of words “ hot ” and “ cold ” are _________ .A. gradable antonymsB. relati onal antonymsC. compleme ntary antonymsD. co-hyp onyms18. Which pair of the followi ng are compleme ntary antony ms?A. alive / deadB. above / belowC. poor / richD. doctor / patie nt19. What is the relatio n betwee n the pair of senten ces:He likes seafood.He likes crabsA. synonymyB. incon siste ncyC. en tailme ntD. presuppositi on20. Which pair of the followi ng are homographs?A. piece n. / peace n.B. tear v. / tear n.C. fast adj. / fast v.D. flower n. / rose n.21. Which pair of the following are dialectal synonyms?A. lorry, truckB. kid, childC. collaborator, accompliceD. amaze, asto und22. “ Lift ” and “ elevator ” form a pairsyfnonyms.A. stylisticB. dialecticalC. collocati onalD. conno tative15. All syllables must have a _____ .A. onsetB. codaD. consonant23. ____ studies language and speech as they are used at a given moment and not in terms of how they have evolved over time.A. Diachronic linguisticsB. Synchronic linguisticsC. Prescriptive linguisticsD. Comparative linguistics24. ____ deals with language application to other fields, particularly education.A. PsycholinguisticsB. SociolinguisticsC. Applied linguisticsD. Comparative linguistics25. Of the following sound combination, only ____ is permissible in English.A. iblkB. ilbkC. ilkbD. blik26. Which pair of words below shows the relation of synonymy. ____A. drunk—soberB. uncle—auntC. young—oldD. casua—l informal27. The senserelationship between “ Hehas been to France ”and “ Heh as been to Europe ” is .A. hyponymyB. antonymyC. presuppositionD. entailment28. In the phrase structure rule “ NP—>(Det) N (PP)…” the arrow can be readA. is equal toB. branches intoC. transformsD. generates29. In terms of the place of articulation, the following sounds [t][r][s][l][z][n] sharethe feature of _____ .A. palatalB. alveolarC. bilabialD. dental30. Y 's utterance in the following convetriosna violates the maxim of ___ .X: When is Susan's farewell party?Y: Sometime next month.A. qualityB. quantityC. relationD. manner31. Of the three speech acts, linguists are most interested in the _____ because this kind of speech act isidentical with the speaker 's intention.A. locutionary actB. constative actC. perlocutionary actD. illocutionary act32. We call the relation between “ vehicle ” and “ car ” as _________ .A. hyponymyB. synonymyC. polysemyD. homonymy33. Which of the following pairs differs from the others in the sense relation? _____A. good, badB. long, shortC. big, smallD. innocent, guilty34. As far as manners of articulation are concerned, which of the following differs from theothers? __________________A. [p]B. [b]C. [t]D. [f]35. Which pair of the following belong to meronymy?A. animal, tigerB. hand, fingerC. livestock, dogD. furniture, dresser36. “-En” in “ blacken ” is__a_(n_)_._A. derivational affixB. inflectional affixC. free rootD. bound root37. Transformational rules do not change the basic ____ of sentences.A. formB. structureC. meaningD. sound pattern38. According to Searle, those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to somefuture course of action are called _________ .A. commissivesB. directivesB.expressivesD. declaratives39. The illocutio nary point of the __ is to express the psychological state specifiedin the uttera nee.。
语言学概论(英)试卷二
1. The distinction between competence and performance was put forward by _____. A. Leonard Bloomfield B. Ferdinand de Saussure C. Noam Chomsky D. M. A. K. Halliday2. The study of language development at a period of time, disregarding whatever changes might be taking place, is generally termed as _______ linguistics. A. applied B. diachronicC. comparativeD. synchronic3. According to de Saus sure, ________ refers to a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules. A. performance B. competence C. parole D. langue4. According to Noam Chomsky, language is the product of_______. A. an innate faculty, unique to humans B. communication201 年 月江苏省高等教育自学考试8801语言学概论（英）一、 选择题（每小题1分，共20分）在下列每小题的四个备选答案中选出一个正确的答 案，并将其字母标号填入题干的括号内。
C. environmental conditioningD. all of the above5. Which one is different from the others according to places of articulation?A. [n]B. [m]C. [b]D. [p]6. Which branch of phonetics concerns the production of speech sounds?A. Acoustic phoneticsB. Articulatory phoneticsC. Auditory phoneticsD. Phonology7. A sound produced with the vocal cords vibrating is said to be a __________ sound.A. resonantB. voicelessC.voicedD. consonant8. __________ are sounds articulated by the back of the tongue against the soft palate.A. VelarsB. LabialsC. PalatalsD. Alveolars9. The Engl ish word “ modernizers” is composed of __________ morphemes.A. 4B.3C. 2D. 510. The phrase “men and women” belongs to the ________ construction.A. predicateB. coordinateC. subordinateD. exocentric11. In the TG grammar, the _______ structure represents the syntactic propertiesof a construction, i.e. the underlying level of structural relations between its different constituents.A. deepB. surfaceC. generativeD. transformational12. The English language has______.A. morphemesB. syntaxC. number agreementD. all of the above13. Hyponyms of the same ______ are co- hyponyms.A. wordB. lexical itemC. superordinateD. hyponymy14. _____ is defined as any regionally or socially definable human group identifiedby shared linguistic system.A. A speech communityB. A raceC. A societyD. A country15. _____ is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effectsuccessful communication.A.SemanticsB. PragmaticsC.SociolinguisticsD. Psycholinguistics16. _____ found that natural language had its own logic and concluded cooperative principle.A. JohnAustinB. John FirthC. Paul GriceD. William Jones17. ____ refers to how we construct an utterance from idea to completed sentence.A. Language comprehensionB. Language productionC. Language acquisitionD. Language listening18. “_____” is often understood as a language system between the target languageand the learner’s native language.A. Input HypothesisB. Sapir-Whorf HypothesisC. InterlanguageD. Contrastive Analysis19. Which one of the following statements about errors in foreign language learningin FALSE? _________.A. Errors can not be avoided in foreign language learning.B. Errors tell the teacher how far towards the goal the learner has progressedand consequently what remains for him to learn.C. Errors are something bad that should not be allowed in foreign language learning.D. Errors provide the researcher with evidence of how language is learned oracquired, what strategies or procedures the learner is employing is his discovery of the language.20. The use of non-standard English persists because_______.A. the working class is incapable of speaking “correctly”B. English is a complicated and therefore difficult language to masterC. subordinate groups use non-standard English to promote solidarityD. teachers do not properly stress the importance of standard English in schools二、填空题（每小题1分，共10分）21. Not all the sounds occur in the same environment. When two sounds never occurin the same environment, they are said to be in the ______ distribution. 22. According to the “semantic triangle” presented by Ogden and Richards, thesymbol or ______ refers to the linguistic elements, and the thought or reference refers to concept.23. A ______ vowel is one produced by holding the tongue towards front of the mouth.24. ______ phonetics studies the human speech organs and the way in which the speechsounds are produced.25. ______ refers to the phenomenon that the same word may have a set of different meanings.26. Linguistics is a branch of science which takes ______ its object of investigation.27. Langue is the ideal language user’s knowled ge of the rules. ______ is the actualrealization of this knowledge in utterances.28. ______ construction refers to two or more words, phrases or clauses having equivalent syntactic status.29. ______ is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.30. ______ meaning is communicated through association with words which tend to occur in the same environment.31. If the context of use is considered, the study of meaning is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.______________________________________________________________ 32. A locutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker's intention. ______________________________________________________________33. Only when a maxim under Cooperative Principle is blatantly violated and the hearer knows that it is being violated do conversational implicatures arise. ______________________________________________________________34. Of the three speech acts, linguists are most interested in the illocutionary act because this kind of speech is identical with the speaker's intention. ______________________________________________________________35. Of the views concerning the study of semantics, the contextual view, which places the study of meaning in the context in which language is used, is often considered as the initial effort to study meaning in a pragmatic sense. ______________________________________________________________36. design features三、 判断说明题（每小题2分，共10分）在题后的括号内，正确的写“T ”，错误的写“F ”，并在题下空处说明理由。
语言学概论考试复习资料.docx
语言学概论考试复习资料.docxLanguage is a system of arbitrary,vocal symbols used for human communication. Impoilant f eatures that are typical of the nature of human language: Language is systematic/symbolic/arbitrary/primarily vocal/human specific/used for communication Linguistics is generally defined as the systematic study of language?General functions refer to the particular individual uses of language?Metafunctions refer to the larger, more general purposes underlying language use. Metafunctions of language: ideational/interpersonal/textual functionSeven general functions of language: physiological/phatic/recording/identifying/reasoning/communi catin/pleasure function Sounds arc units which combine to make words or parts of words.Signs,three major types:Icon(We say a sign is an icon when an object and its sign are related to each other by a physical resemblance. eg. a photo that is taken of a video cassette) Indcx(A sign is called an index when an object and its sign are associated to each other by physical proximity.eg. in the case of thunder and lighting, thunder is an index.)Symbol(If a sign and the object it signifies are associated by social convention, the sign is called a symbol.eg, traffic lights, wedding rings, national flags.)The origin of language: creation, evolution, invention Language families: Genetic Classification, Typological Classification Some important distinctions in linguistics: langue and parole, prescriptive and descriptive, synchronic and diachronic, speech and writing, syntagmatic and paradigmatic,competence and performance, functionalism and formalism The diachronic study refers to the description of the historical development of a language?The synchronic study refers to the description of a particular state of a language at a single point of time.Paradigmatic relation refers to oppositions which produce distinct and alternative tcrms(foot as opposed to feet). Syntagmatic relation refers to the relations between units which combine to form sequences?Competence refers to the knowledge that native speakers have of their language as system of abstract fornial relations. Performance refers to what we do when we speak or listen, that is, the infinite varied individual acts of verbal behavior with their irregularities, inconsistencies, and errors?Phonetics is the study of human speech sounds?Phonology is the study of sound patterning?Semantics is the study of meanin g?use of linguistics: pragmatics, anthropological lingustics, psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, neurolinguistics, applied linguistics, computational linguisticsAll vowels are voiced, as are the following consonants: d，b，g，q,、，six plosives: p,b,t,d,k, g three nasals: m,n, rj eight fricatives: f,v，0, 6，s,z，J, 3Vowels are made by egressive pulmonic airflow through vibrating or constricted vocal folds and through the vocal tract, and the sound is modified in the oral cavity. However, vowels are more difficult than consonants to describe articulatorily? According to Sloat et al (1978:10-11), the primary criteria for the classification of vowels are: (1) the distance between the top of the tongue and the roof of the mouth and (2) the retraction andextension of the tongue. A secondary criterion is the rounding of the lips. 分类：1 分为close/ open / low/ high vowels2 分为vowels with tongue retraction are called back vowels /Vbwels made with the tongue body extended to toward the front of the oral cavity are called front vowels另一种分类：Vowels may be subdivided into monophthongs and diphthongs. 单元音和双元音2.1.3 Characteristics of English Speech Sounds元咅和4甫咅：Like other languages, English has both vowels and consonants. As we have discussed, vowels are produced by shaping the oral cavity through which air from the lungs is allowed to flow more or less freely. Consonants are made by constricting the vocal tract at some point thereby diverting, impeding, or completely shutting off the flow of air in the oral cavity.English has many vowel sounds? According to Roach (1991)，there arc seven short vowels、five long vowels，eight diphthongs and five triphtho ngs.eia, ais, oia, sua, auaConsonants arc usually classified according to their place of articulation and manner of articulation. English is said to have twenty-four consonants?音标2.1.4 The Transcription of Sounds音标字母：A phonetic alphabet can represent speech in the fonn of segments, or individual speech sounds like [p], [s] or [m]. 标音法：A phonetic transcription is an economical means for capturing sounds on pape匚国际音标：The best-known system, the InternationalPhonetic Alphabet (IPA), has been developing since 1888. This system of transcription attempts to represent each sound of human speech with a single symbol.The sounds symbols allow us to represent many nuances of articulation. There are two kinds of transcription: narrow transcription and broad tTanscription .严式音标[]A transcription records as many features of an utterance as can be ascertained by the person doing the recording is called a narrow transcription.宽式音标〃A transcription that omits many of the irrelevant and predictable details of pronunciation is called a broad transcription. Phonology is the study of the sound patterns in human language. Thus, the term phonology is used in two ways, either as the study of the sound patterns in language or as the sound patterns of a language?Phoneme is minimal meaningful linguistic unit.(Phoneme is the minimum phonemic unit that is not further analyzablc into smaller units.In Sloat et al's definition, each lexical entry includes, along with information about the semantic and syntactic nature of the morpheme, an underlying representation. The segments of an underlying representation are called phonemes.)(distinctive sounds) However, a phoneme may have its variants. These phonetic variants of a phoneme arc known as allophones.A pair of phonemes is also known as a minimal pair. In other words, when two different fbnns arc identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string, the two words are called minimal pairs.区别性特征2.2.3 Distinctive FeaturesEvery language has a limited number of phonological oppositions. In order to find out these oppositions, distinctivefeatures can be use to distinguish one phoneme from another or one group of sounds from another group. Distinctive features are often shown in the form of a binary opposition. The features can be shown either present [+] or absent [-].Tongue Body Features ? The Features Rounded ? The Features High and Back in Consonants ? Manner Features We can also use features such as voicedness, tenseness, and place of articulation to describe a number of speech sounds?语音模式：2.3 Sound PatternsSound patterns refer to the set of sounds that occur in a given language, the pennissible arrangements of these sounds in words, and the processes for adding, deleting, or changing sounds?Sequential Constraints:All languages have constraints on the permitted sequences of phonemes, though different languages have different constraints.However, it is not difficult to show that speakers have knowledge of such sequential rules. Another sequential constraint in English pertains to clusters (one or more consonants) of nasal consonants followed by nonnasal (oral) stops within words. There arc restrictions on the order in which sounds can occur in a given language? The permissible orders arc generally quite limited. The simplest and most natural arrangement is the alternation of consonants and vowels in the pattern ^consonant- vowel- consonant- vowel...11. Every syllable begins with a single consonant and ends with a vowel.4 Another common constraint is that every word must contain at least one vowel-like segment?When two or more sounds never occur in an identical phonemic context or environment, they arc said to be in complementary distribution. Complementary distribution refersto the case in which one of two or more sounds occur in a context to the exclusion of other sound(s), i.e. in a context in which the other sound(s) never occur(s)?即是语位变体：According to Wardhaugh (1977:65), phonetically similar sounds in complementary distribution are allophones of a single phoneme?Although the occurrence of sounds in complementary distribution is a prerequisite to these sounds being allophones of one and the same phoneme, this is not the sole condition □ T he other necessary condition to be met is the criterion of phonetic similarity. The sounds in complementary distribution must be phonetically similar to each other for them to be regarded as allophones of one and the same phoneme. This latter condition is not met in the example of [h] and 〔引，which are subsequently considered to belong to separate phonemes. Suprasegmental Features：Syllable /Stress /Pitch/ Intonation and TonePhonetically, the syllable consists of a center which has little or no obstruction to airflow and which sounds comparatively loud; before and after this center there is greater obstruction to airflow and/or less loud sound? According to Roach (1991:67), a minimum syllable is a single vowel in isolation?Stress is generally defined as syllable prominence? In other words, a syllable that is more prominent than the other syllables in a word or phrase is said to be stressed. In many languages, including English, some syllables within a word are relatively more prominent thanothers.Stress is a conventional label for the overall prominence of certain syllables relative to others within a linguistic system? Itrepresents the total effect of factors such as pitch, loudness, and duration.Some words may have a primary stress and one or more than one secondaiy stresses.However, no word has more than one primary stress. English syllables seem to be stressed by a combination of raised pitch and increased loudness and length.When words are combined into phrases and sentences, one of the syllables receives greater stress than all others? Only one of the vowels in a phrase or sentence receives primary stress. All the other stressed vowels are reduced to secondaiy stress. According to Clark and Yallop (1990:287), patterns of stress are highly important in a language such as English.Pitch is a suprasegmental quality which extends over individual segments and longer stretches of speech. Pitch is the perceived frequency of a sound wave. Perceived pitch is largely determined by the frequency of vibration of the vocal folds, and to some extent by the intensity of the sound? The relationship between pitch and fundamental frequency is nonlinear and varies with the frequency involved?In many languages, some syllables or vowels are produced with a change in pitch, more loudly, and longer than other vowels in the word or sentence. They are referred to as stressed. Pitch patterns are essentially either steady, rising or falling .Intonations refer to the pitch differences that extend over phonetic units larger than the syllable. By means of intonation, syllables arc grouped into phrases, and phrases into sentences? In English a phrase usually has one or two different terminations. The most common phrasal intonation ends on a falling pitch; the other ends on a more or less level pitch?分类：As noted by Sloat et al (1978:76?78), intonation serves several functions in verbal communication. Grouping of Words /Emphasizing Words / Differentiating Meanings单词分组.Grouping of WordsFirst, intonation contours may indicate the possible groupings of words in phrases, resulting in different meanings of these phrases. In the following two phrases, the first one means a boys1 school that is small, while the second means a school for small boys?强调单词.EmDhasizing WordsIntonation may also serve to emphasize a certain word within a phrase or sentence. The first of the following sentences has a neutral intonation contour. The second has higher pitch on one word than would normally be expected. That word therefore takes on special importance in the sentence? Thus, the second sentence means John only kissed Mary. He did not do anything else to her意义区分?Differentiating MeaningsFurthemiore, in English, the same sentence may mean quite different things when spoken with different intonations. For the most part declarative sentences terminate with a falling pitch and questions requiring a yes or no answer terminate on a rising pitch. Exclamations are often characterized by a high pitch throughout.音调：Tone refers to pitch variations .In some languages, the same sequence of segments may have different meanings if uttered at different relative pitches? The function of tone is quite different from that of stress. Tones do not mark the beginning and ending of words, nor do they even indicate to the speaker how many words there are in an utterance.声调语占：Languages that use pitch in this way arc called tone languages?语音语调注册：T one languages with the majority of syllables maintaining the same level or register are called register tone languages ?纯音单音：Register tones and falling and rising tones are called simple tones?声调轮廓：T ones that rise, fall or change direction within a syllabic arc called contour tones.The four characteristics of a word: 1A word is a sound or combination of sounds which we produce voluntarily with our vocal equipment.2A word is symbolic.3Words are part of the large communication system we call language.4Words can help human beings interact culturally with one another.How to identify a word:lFirst, to recognize its series of meaningfully separable sound segments or letters in the stream of speech in the written tcxt.2Sccond, to recognize the accumulated experiences with which its sound segments or letters arc associated.3Third, to recognize its fimetion in a sentence or an utterance as it works grammatically with other words.4Lastly, to relate words to the social and cultural context in which they are uttered so as to figure out the speaker's intention or illocutionary force?A preposition is a word used with the prepositional complement(which is characteristically a noun phrase, a pronoun, a nominal wh?clause, or a nominal-ing clause) to show its grammatical connection with another part of the sentence.A pronoun is a word in place of a noun or a noun phrase? A conjunction is a word that connects parts of sentences or phrases? Anoun is the name of an object, a happening and an idea. A full verb is a word that tells what someone or something is，does,or experience.A morpheme is the smallest linguistic unit that carries grammatical and/or semantic meaning. The different variants of a morpheme arc called allomorphs?Morphemes can be divided into free morphemes and bound morphemes according to whether they can be used independently as free forms or not. If a morpheme can constitute a word by itself it is called a free morpheme. If a morpheme has meaning only when connected with at least another morpheme, it is bound?The best known definition of word is given by Bloomfield, who defines a word as “a minimum free fdrnV\ that is9 the smallest form that can occur by itself. English words can be classified into closed class, open class and two lesser categories and words of unique function. Closed class includes: preposition，pronoun, determiner^ conjunction, modal verb，primary verbA determiner refers to an item which determines the references of a noun phrase in the linguistic or contextual context.Modal verbs like can, could, may, might, must, need, dare, will, would, shall, should .etc. cannot function independently as predicate verbs. They should go with the base fomiPrimary verbs like be, have, do cannot function independently as predicate verb in the clause?Open class includes: Nouns, Full verbsAdjectives，AdverbsA full verb is a word that tells what someone or something is, does, or experiences? Full verbs can be further divided transitive (put, give) and intransitive verbs (arrive)?Speak: either transitive or intransitive Regular full verbs: work, have four morphological forms.Irregular full verbs: a verb like undergo has five, cast has only three whereas the primary verb be has as many as eight.The two lesser categories are numerals 数次(cardinal numerals 基数词and ordinal numerals 序数词)and interjections 感叹词. Numerals are words that denote numbers or the order.Interjections are words or phrases used as a sudden remark usually expressing feelings, such as exclamation, sorrow, surprise, regret There are also a number of words of unique function, like the negative particle not and the infinitive marker to.Open class: we can add new words to these classes? E.g. cybernation(n), stonewall(v), clone(v), biodestnictible(adj), weatherwise(adv) and salewise(adv).Closed class: prepositions, relatives 关系词，auxiliary verb 助动词,the linking verb 系动词/o be, pronouns and other pro-verbs.A pro-form 替代形式is a word or expression used as a substitute for another fbrm.A pro?verb is a verb form like do or do so which is used as the substitute of a verb phrase, usually for the sake of avoiding an undesired repetition in the clause?According to their variability, words can also be classified into variable 易变的and invariable 不变的words.Variable words can take inflectional ending and thus have ordered and regular series (called paradigm) of grammatically different word forms.Invariable words do not take inflectional 曲折变化的endings?English has the least variable words. In modern English, only a few lexical categories, including nouns, verbs, gradable 可分类的adjectives and adverbs, have paradigms 范例as follows: N: book books boy's V: work works working worked Adj/Adv fast faster fastestAccording to where they denote lexical or grammatical meanings, words fall into two categories: lexical words 词V匚词and grammatical words 语法词.①Nouns, pronouns, full verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals always denote objects, happenings, ideas, their properties and other lexical meanings and thus are generally labeled as lexical words or content words?②Conversely, conjunctions, prepositions, primary verbs and modal auxiliaries, inteijections and particles denote one grammatical meaning or another and arc thus called grammatical words or functionHowever, lexical words and grammatical words are closely related?The syntactic criteria for assigning words to lexical categories very often rely on specific types of grammatical function words. For example, nouns can be preceded by a definite the or indefinite article a(n), and the function of the article is to indicate what the noun refers to is either more or less specific. Such words present problems of segmentation 分害山different in degree or in kind? These words included 1) the irregular plurals like men, mice, children, oxen, sheep, deer, etc.;(2) the past form and/or -ed participle of certain verbs like went, came, took, cut, etc.; (3) the irregular comparatives and superlatives like better, best, further, furthest.Allomorphs 语素变体:can be phonologically or morphologically conditioned? ed 发咅When the selection of an allomorph is determined by the lexical form of the base word with which it is combined, it is moq?hologically-conditioned. Examples include: irregular plurals: oxen, children, sheep, deer, geese, feet the past form of certain verbs: went,took, bought, cut the -ed participle of certain verbs: gone, taken,bought, cut Morphemes can be divided into free morphemes 自由词素and bound morphemes 黏着词素according to whether they canbe used independently as free forms or not.If a morpheme can constitute a word(free form) by itself, it is called a free morpheme, like room, bottle.standjarge.If a morpheme has meaning only when connected with at least another morpheme, it is bound, like tin- in unlucky and the plural 一s in bags?A bound morpheme is also called an AFFIX in the sense that it is always added to another morpheme.The stem 词干can be a free morpheme?Boy in boys, boyhood,boyish?Affixes can be further divided into prefixes 前缀，suffixes 后缀and infixes 中缀. Prefix可能改变单词意思un?, mono?,mini-,bi?,macro-,也可能只是改变语法意义cn- Most suffixes have two functions: to add some grammatical meanings to the stem -s or change its grammatical categories -ly -fill.一种也不变的：n+ly->n daily, monthlyn+lul->n mouthful, handfulSome affixes Jikc the suffix YC，may denote different lcxical/grammar meanings:Employee; escapee(a person who has escaped);refugee;standeeBound morphemes can be divided into two types according to whether they provide the lexical item to which they are added any further grammatical meaning and/or lexical meaning.①An inflectional morpheme 曲折词素provides further grammatical infbnnation about an existing lexical item. English inflectional morphemes are largely in the form of suffix.② A derivative morpheme 派生词素refers to one that creates an entirely new word? It may take the form of a prefix or a suffix.3.3inflcction and word?fbimationInflection 曲折refers to the process of adding an affix to aword or changing it in some other way according to the rules of the grammar of a language?Compared with other Indo-European languages, Modem English has relatively f^vv inflectional morphemes, including: the plural {s} the third-person singular {s}the -ing participle {ing} the past form and past participle {ed} the comparative {er} the superlative {est}the genetive case {5s} (as in "the girfs doll") the feminine gender {ess} (as in "actress”)CompoundingRefers to the process of conjoining two or more tree morphemes to fomi a new word.Semantic features 语义特征When two or more free morphemes arc combined into a compound, a new meaning arise, which is in most eases no longer a simple combination of the meanings of the component elements.Greenhouse ->not necessarily green in colorOrthographic Matures 平面特征Most compound words are either hyphenated 带有连字符的or completely conjoined 联合的，like ^rass-blacle, grass-plot, grassland and grasshopper.Phonological features 语音特征The stress of compound noun usually falls on the first constituent morpheme?Grammatical features 语法特征Compound words have special internal structures, which are normally unacceptable in free phrases.Normally do not take comparative and superlative fbrms 无比较级牙口最高级?Plural marker always fall on the last component,as in flowerpots, conveyor belts, daughters-in-law and women doctors.Derivation根据词源发展而來3?Conversion转化(词性转化，多半是一个词素的单词)Abbreviation 缩写Clipping (等同于cutting)Blending 组合Back formation 逆构词(onomatopoeia 拟声,象声法)Neolozism 新词(也称new coinage)Borrowing 夕卜来词Analogy and contrast 类比和对比Lexeme 词位：A lexeme is an abstract unit and thus may occur in many different forms in actual spoken or written texts.The verb lexeme speak may take five forms: speak, speaks, speaking, speak, spoken.Homonyms 同形同音异义词：lexical items which sound the same but differ in grammatical and lexical meanings. Collocation 搭配：refers to the acceptable combination between individual lexical items.Four kinds of rules govern or restrict the selection of lexical items allowable to co-occur:Rules of the first kind are logical, which arise from the extra-linguistic world.(break this rule leads to false or contradictoiy utterances) When talk about football, we may expect the occurrence of verbs like garb, rebound, sink and shoot.Rules of the second this kind are semantic, which are generally language-specific.(break this rule produce semantically unacceptable utterances)Dog may take adj. like devoted, intelligent, brave, considerate and lovely.Rules of the third kind are lexical, which apply only to the expressional aspect and so relate to the choice of words or the co-occurrence of lexical items of one category with those of anothe匸We say take a walk instead of make a walk?Rules of the last kind arc grammatical.Abide by,adhere to,remind ...of....restrain fromPhrasal lexemes which have relatively regular lexical meaning and restricted grammatical variation are referred to as IDIOMS. English idioms have two characteristics: (a) semantic unity 语义的统一性and (b) structural stability 结构的稳定性.These two characteristics distinguish an idiom from a free phrase. According to its grammatical functions and internal structure, an idiom may fiinction as a verb、noun、adjective or adverb ?Proverb is often a short sentence that people quote and use to give advice and state some general human life experience and problem?Proverbs can also be one kind of idioms.Constituents arc structural units, i.c. any linguistic form, such as words or word groups.Ultimate constituents are the minimal grammatical elements, of which the sentence is composed?Immediate constituents: After a sentence is cut into constituent elements, the two parts that are yielded are called xx.The advantage of IC analysis(Immediate Constituent Analysis) lies in its function that shows not only linear relationship, but also hierarchical ones?A construction is a relationship between constituents. Constructions arc divided into two types: cndoccntric constructions and exocentric constructions.Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalentto that of one or more of its constituents? A word or a group of words act as a definable center or head. Exocentric construction refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole. There is no definable center or head inside the group?“Definable，' here behaves like an attribute in the construction. Endocentric construction can further be divided into two types: subordination and coordination. If only one immediate constituent is of the same form class as the whole construction, it is the subordinating type. If both constituents are of the same form class as the whole construction, it is the coordinating type.A simple sentence is a group of words which expresses a single independent thought.A coordinate sentence or compound sentence is a group of words which expresses two or more connected and coordinate thoughts ?A complex sentence is a group of words which expresses two or more unified thoughts, one of which is the main or principal thought dependent on it one or more subordinate thoughts?Seven basic clause types of English: SV,SVO,SVC,SVA,SVOO,SVOC,SVOA(subject,verb,object,comple ment,adverbial) Declaratives are sentences in which the subject is present and generally precedes the verb.Interrogatives arc sentences that arc fonnally marked in one of two ways: either yes-no interrogatives with the operator placed before the subject or wh-interrogatives with the interrogative wh-clcmcnt positioned initially.Imperatives are sentences which normally have no overt grammatical subject, and whose verb has the base form. Exclamatives are sentences which have an initial phraseintroduced by what or how, usually with subject-verb order. Four classes of discourse functions: Statements are primarily used to convey infonnation, questions are primarily used to seek information of a specific point, directives arc primarily used to instruct somebody to do something, exclamations arc primarily used for expressing the extent to which the speaker feel about or is impressed by something.Assertion, prediction and apology are pragmatic categories that indicate how sentences are used in actual utterances? Five functional categories of clause constituents: subject,verb,/doc/cb6173657.html plement and adverbial.Subject refers to the noun which serves as the doer or agent of the agent.The grammatical subject in English can govern the predicate in terms of person,number,and tense, and can be checked by a tag?qucstion.Thc predicate is what is said about the subject. Object is the non-subjcct argument of a transitive verb. A transitive verb is a verb that can take a direct object and an intransitive verb is one that does not.Category in syntax usually refers to classes and functions.A syntactic category refers to a word, a phrase or a clause that performs a particular grammatical function, such as subject in a sentence. Primary grammatical categories: Parts of speech Secondary grammatical categories:numbcr, gender, tense, mood, case, person,concord,government.Funcional catrgories: subject, predicate, object. Number is a grammatical category for the analysis of such contrasts as singular and plural of certain word classes?Gender demonstrates such contrasts as masculine, feminine and neuter, animate and inanimate,etc. for the analysis of certain word classes?The case category is often used in the。
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《英语语言学概论》课程复习题集(1-6章)2013-6-1Chapter I Introduction2012I. Decide whether each of the following statements is TRUE or FALSE:T1. Linguistics is the scientific study of language.F2. Competence and performance is distinguished by Saussure.F3. A synchronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history.T4. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.F5. Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general.F6. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks.T7. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and checked against the observed facts.T8. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole.T9. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in anylinguistic study.T10. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies the combinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication.F11. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences. T12. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology.F13. Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences.T14. The study of meaning in language is known as semantics.T15. Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings.T16. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context.T17. Social changes can often bring about language changes.T18. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society.T19. The arbitrary nature of language makes it possible for language to have anunlimited source of expressions.F20. Synchronic linguistic is the study of a language through the course of its history.F21. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive.T22. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar.F23. A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some point in time.T24. Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the written language.F25. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by F. de Saussure.F26. Features that contrast words in meaning are called design features are said to be in complementary distribution.F27. Linguistic symbols are arbitrary.F28. By arbitrariness Saussure means that the forms of linguistic signs bear some natural relationship to their meaning.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:descriptive 1. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be d_______.knowledge2.Chomsky defines “competence”as the ideal user’s k__________ of the rules of his language.abstract3. Langue refers to the a__________ linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules.Duality 43. D_________ is one of the design features of human language which refers to the phenomenon that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units.arbitrary5. Language is a system of a_________ vocal symbols used for human communication.Sociolinguistics 6. S is the study of language in relation to society. syntax7. The discipline that studies the rules governing the formation of words into permissible sentences in languages is called s________.genetic 8. Human capacity for language has a g ____ basis, but the details of language have to be taught and learned.Parole 9. P ____ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.applied10. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practical problems. The study of such applications is generally known as a________ linguistics.productive11. Language is p___________ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard be12 scientifc12. Linguistics is generally defined as the s ____ study of language.social13. To help define and maintain interpersonal relations is the s function of language.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.A1. The description of a language in a fixed instant is a _______ study.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. systematicD2. The application of linguistics principles and theories to language teaching and learning is called _____.A. sociolinguisticsB. PsycholinguisticsC. computational linguisticsD. Applied LinguisticsC3.If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be ______________.A. prescriptiveB. analyticC. descriptiveD. linguisticD4. Which of the following is not a design feature of human language?A. ArbitrarinessB. DisplacementC. DualityD. MeaningfulnessA5. Modern linguistics regards the written language as ____________.A. primaryB. correctC. secondaryD. stableD6. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, because___________.A.in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writingB.speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of informationconveyed.C.speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mothertongueD.All of the aboveC7. Many modern linguists have criticized traditional grammarians for adopting a _____ approach to language study.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. descriptiveB8. A historical study of language is a ____ study of language.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. comparativeC9. According to F. de Saussure, ____ refers to the abstract linguisticsystem shared by all the members of a speech community.A. paroleB. performanceC. langueD. LanguageB10. Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connection between _________ and meanings.A. senseB. soundsC. objectsD. ideasA11. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This feature is called_________,A. displacementB. dualityC. flexibilityD. cultural transmissionB12. The distinction between langue and parole was made by _______ early last century.A. American linguist N. ChomskyB. Swiss linguist F. de SaussureC. American linguist Edward SapirD. British linguist J. R. FirthA13. The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is good proof that human language is .A. arbitraryB. rationalC. logicalD. culturalI V. Answer the following question:1. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?2. What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?Chapter 2：PhonologyI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:T1.Voicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in both Chinese and English.F2.If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning, they are said to be in complementary distribution.F3. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning.F4.English is a tone language while Chinese is not.T5.In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.T6.In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.F7.Articulatory phonetics tries to describe the physical properties of the stream of sounds which a speaker issues with the help of a machine called spectrograph.F8.The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas: the throat, the mouth and the chest.T 9. The sound〔z〕is a voiced alveolar stop.T9. V oicing is a distinctive feature for English consonants.F10. When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string, then the two words are called minimal pairs. Sip and zip are a minimal pair, as are fine and vine, and veal and leaf.T11.Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing.F12.English consonants can be classified in terms of place of articulation and the part of the tongue that is raised the highest.F13.According to the manner of articulation, some of the types into which the consonants can be classified are stops, fricatives, bilabial and alveolar.T12.Vowel sounds can be differentiated by a number of factors: the position of tongue in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and thelength of the vowels.F13.According to the shape of the lips, vowels can be classified into close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels and open vowels.T14. The English consonants can be classified in terms of place and manner of articulation.F15. The qualities of vowels depend on the positions of lips.F16.Any sound produced by a human being is a phoneme.F17.Phones are the sounds that can distinguish meaning.F18.Phonology is concerned with how the sounds can be classified into different categories.T19. A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning.F20.When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a phonemic contrast.T21.The rules governing the phonological patterning are language specific.T22.Distinctive features of sound segments can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments.T23.Articulatory phonetics is the study of the production of speech sounds.T24.The speech sounds in almost every language can be divided into two major natural classes: consonants and vowels.T25. The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream.F26.Suprasegmental features are distinctive features of segmental phonemes.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:aspiration27．A_____ refers to a strong puff of air stream in the production of speech sounds.articulatory28．A___________ phonetics describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ.Bilabial 29．The four sounds /p/,/b/,/m/ and /w/ have one feature in common, i.e, they are all b_______ sounds.Tongue 30．Of all the speech organs, the t ____ is the most flexible, and is responsible for varieties of articulation than any other.place31．English consonants can be classified in terms of manner of articulation or in terms of p_______ of articulation.stop32．When the obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction audibly released and the air passing out again is called a s________.suprasegmental33．S_________ features are the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments. They include stress, tone, intonation, etc.sequential 34．The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular lan-guage are called s ____ rules.narrow35．The transcription of speech sounds with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription while the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called n_________ transcription.intonation36．When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as i_________.phonology37．P___________ is a discipline which studies the system of sounds of a particular language and how sounds are combined into meaningful units to effect linguistic communication.alveolar38. If you say door, new, two, senior, zoo, you will notice that the first sounds in all these words are a_______ sounds. The t and s are voiceless, and d, n and z are voiced. Only n is nasal.oral39．The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important cavities: the pharyngeal cavity, the o_______ cavity and the nasal cavity.tone40．T_______ are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords and which can distinguish meaning just likephonemes.sentence41．Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are two kinds of stress: word stress and s_________ stress.III. There are four choices following each of the statements below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:A1. The study of the physical properties of speech sounds is called ________ phonetics.A. acousticB. articulatoryC. auditoryD. allomorphicD2. The sound /f/ is _________________.A. voiced palatal affricateB. voiced alveolar stopC. voiceless velar fricativeD. voiceless labiodental fricativeC3．Of all the speech organs, the _______ is/ are the most flexible.A. mouthB. lipsC. tongueD. vocal cordsA4．The sounds produced without the vocal cords vibrating are ____ sounds.A. voicelessB. voicedC. vowelD. consonantalB5．__________ is a voiced alveolar stop.A. /z/B. /d/C. /k/D./b/D6．The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying”a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones ____________.A. identicalB. sameC. exactly alikeD. similarA7. Since /p/ and /b/ are phonetically similar, occur in the same environments and they can distinguish meaning, they are said to be ___________.A. in phonemic contrastB. in complementary distributionC. the allophonesD. minimal pairD8．The sound /f/ is _________________.A. voiced palatal affricateB. voiced alveolar stopC. voiceless velar fricativeD. voiceless labiodental fricativeC9.A ____ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintaining the highest position.A. backB. centralC. frontD. middleD10. Palatal semi-vowel refers to the sound .A. [n]B. [h]C. [w]D. [j]D11. A phoneme is a group of phonetically similar sounds called .A. minimal pairsB. allomorphsC. phonesD. allophonesC12.Distinctive features can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of thesegments are called ____________.A. phonetic componentsB. immediate constituentsC. suprasegmental featuresD. semantic featuresD13.A(n) ___________ is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit, a collection of distinctive phonetic features.A. phoneB. soundC. allophoneD. phonemeD14．The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the ____ of that phoneme.A. phonesB. soundsC. phonemesD. allophonesC15. A ____ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintaining the highest position.A. backB. centralC. frontD. middle16. The sounds that begin and end the words church and judge are voiceless and voiced _______, respectively.( C )A. stopsB. fricativesC. affricatesD. plosivesIV. Answer the following question:1. How are the English consonants classified?2. Explain with examples the sequential rule, and the assimilation rule in phonology.Chapter 3：MorphologyI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:T1. Morphology studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.F2. Words are the smallest meaningful units of language.T3. Just as a phoneme is the basic unit in the study of phonology, so is a morpheme the basic unit in the study of morphology.T4. The smallest meaningful units that can be used freely all by themselves are free morphemes.F5. Bound morphemes include two types: roots and affixes.T6. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case.T7. Almost every word in every language is composed of one or more morphemes.F8. The allomorph is an abstract unit.T9. The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem, which can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.F10. Prefixes usually modify the part of speech of the original word, not the meaning of it.F11. There are rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word. Therefore, words formed according to the morphological rules are acceptable words.T12. Phonetically, the stress of a compound often falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.F13. In English, inflectional affixes are mostly prefixes.F14. The meaning of a compound is the combination of the meanings of the words in the compound.II. Fill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given:Root1. R is the part of the word left when all the affixes are removed. Morpheme 2. M ____ is the smallest meaningful unit of language.Bound 3. B___________ morphemes are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word. derivational 4. Affixes are of two types: inflectional affixes and d__________ affixes. suffix5. A s______ is added to the end of stems to modify the meaning of the original word and it may case change its part of speech.Compounding 6. C__________ is the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.compound7. The word snowfall is a word formed by joining two separate words, i.e.“snow” and “fall.” This newly formed word is generally regarded as a c_______. III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:D1.The morpheme “vision”in the common word “television”is a(n) ______.A. bound morphemeB. bound formC. inflectional morphemeD. free morphemeD2.The compound word “bookstore”is the place where books are sold. This indicates that the meaning of a compound __________.A.is the sum total of the meaning of its componentsB.can always be worked out by looking at the meanings of morphemesC.is the same as the meaning of a free phrase.D.None of the above.C3. “-s” in the word “books” is _______.A. a derivative affixB. a stemC. an inflectional affixD. a rootD4. Which of the following is NOT a compound word?A. RainbowB. MilkshakeC. Icy-coldD. UnpleasantB5.The part of speech of the compounds is generally determined by the part of speech of __________.A. the first elementB. the second elementC. either the first or the second elemD. both the first and the second elements. B6. _______ are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.A. Free morphemesB. Bound morphemesC. Bound wordsD. WordsC7._________ is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.A. SyntaxB. GrammarC. MorphologyD. MorphemeC8.The meaning carried by the inflectional morpheme is _______.A. lexicalB. morphemicC. grammaticalD. semanticD9.Bound morphemes are those that ___________.A. have to be used independentlyB.can not be combined with other morphemesC.can either be free or boundD.have to be combined with other morphemes.A10.____ modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.A. PrefixesB. SuffixesC. RootsD. AffixesB11._________ are often thought to be the smallest meaningful units of language by the linguists.A. WordsB. MorphemesC. PhonemesD. SentencesC12.“-s”in the word “books”is _______.A. a derivative affixB. a stemC. an inflectional affixD. a rootC13. Which of the following does NOT belong to “open class words”?A. NounsB. AdjectivesC. ConjunctionsD. AdverbsB14. In the word unreliable, the prefix “un-” is a(n) _______ morpheme.A. freeB. boundC. rootD. inflectionalA15. Morphemes that represent “tense”, “number”, “gender”, “case”, “aspect”, “degree” and so forth are called morphemes.A. inflectionalB. boundC. freeD. derivationalA16. The English word “modernizers” is composed of morphemes.A. fourB. threeC. twoD. fiveC17. Which of the following affix differs from others?A. –lyB. –nessC. –ingD. –fulV. Answer the following question:What is an inflectional morpheme? Locate the inflectional morpheme in each of the following sentences and point out its grammatical meaning.Mr. Smith lives in the Big Apple.The film’s already started.We are preparing for an important test.Chapter 4：SyntaxI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:F1. Syntax is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language, including the combination of morphemes into words.F2. Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.F3. Sentences are composed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order, with one adding onto another following a simple arithmetic logic.T4. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.T5. In a complex sentence, the two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinating the other.T6. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.F7. A sentence can’t have more than one deep structure.T8. The structure that occurs after movement takes place is what we term as surface structure.T9. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb.T10. A noun phrase contains a noun, while other elements are optional.T11. Words in a sentence are organized into groups of lexical categories, commonly known as parts of speech.T12. Chomsky made a distinction between two levels of structures: surface and deep structures.T13. Transformational-generative grammar was first suggested by Noam Chomsky.II. Diagram the constituent structure of the following sentence and name the different constituents. ( IC analysis)The passenger train from Chicago will arrive in Atlanta after midnight.Chapter 5 SemanticsI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:F1. Dialectal synonyms can often be found in different regional dialects such as British English and American English but cannot be found within the variety itself, for example, within British English or American English.F2. Sense is concerned with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience, while the reference deals with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.T3. Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations.F4. In semantics, meaning of language is considered as the intrinsic and inherent relation to the physical world of experience.T5. Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts.T6. Behaviourists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.F7. The meaning of a sentence is the sum total of the meanings of all its components.T8. Most languages have sets of lexical items similar in meaning but ranked differently according to their degree of formality.F9. The predication analysis of a sentence only applies to statements and interrogative forms.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:Semantics1. S________ can be defined as the study of meaning.direct2. The conceptualist view holds that there is no d______ link between a linguistic form and what it refers to.Reference 3. R______ means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and thenon-linguistic world of experience.Synonyms 4. Words that are close in meaning are called s________.homophones5. When two words are identical in sound, but different in spelling and meaning, they are called h__________.relational6. Pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items are called r_______ opposites.referential7. What is communicated by virtue of what language refers to is the r_____ meaning of a word.Reverse 8. R_________ opposites are pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items.Componential 9. C ____ analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components.selectional10. Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called s________ restrictions, which are constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.naming11. According to the n ____ theory of meaning, the words in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:A1. The naming theory is advanced by ________.A. PlatoB. BloomfieldC. Geoffrey LeechD. FirthB2. “We shall know a word by the company it keeps.” This statement represents_______.A. the conceptualist viewB. contexutalismC. the naming theoryD. behaviourismD3. Which of the following is not true?A.Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.B.Sense is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form.C.Sense is abstract and de-contextualized.D.Sense is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are not interested in.D4.“Can I borrow your bike?”_______ “You have a bike.”A. is synonymous withB. is inconsistent withC. entailsD. presupposesB5.___________ is a way in which the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.A. Predication analysisB. Componential analysisC. Phonemic analysisD. Grammatical analysisC6.“alive”and “dead”are ______________.A. gradable antonymsB. relational oppositesC. complementary antonymsD. none of the aboveA7._________ deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.A. ReferenceB. ConceptC. SemanticsD. SenseC8.___________ refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form.A. PolysemyB. SynonymyC. HomonymyD. HyponymyD9. Words that are close in meaning are called ______________.A. homonymsB. polysemyC. hyponymsD. synonymsC10. The kind of antonymy between "married "and "single" is one of __________A converseB relationalC complementaryD gradable D11. According to the componential analysis, the word “girl” and “woman”differ in the feature of _______.A. HUMNANB. ANIMATEC. MALED. ADULTA12.The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by _______.A.grammatical rulesB.selectional restrictionsC.semantic rulesD.semantic features。