英语语言学概论复习
英语语言学概论复习资料 (2)
Prescriptive:how things ought to beDo/Don’t say X. (Commands)
Descriptive:how things arePeople do/don’t say X. (Statements)
2. What will you say to a statement like “one culture’s meat is another culture’s poison”?
答案及评分标准
I.Definition.共5题
1.arbitrarinessrefers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bears no natural relationship to their meaning.
(a) cheery (b) funny (c) loony (d) crazy (e) happy
2. Make distinctions between the following pair of terms.
descriptive vs. prescriptive
3. What are the allomorphs of the morpheme ‘plural’ in this set of English words?
2.morpheme: the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship betweenexpression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.
英语语言学概论自考
1. What are the difference between general linguistics and descriptive linguistics and what sis the relationship between them? A: Differences between general and descriptive linguistics:(1) They have different goals:General linguistics deals with language; descriptive linguistics study one particular language;(2) They have different aims:General linguistics aims at developing a theory that describes the rules of human language in general;Descriptive linguistics attempts to establish a model that describes the rules of this particular language.Relationships between general and descriptive linguistics: General and descriptive linguistics depend on each other:(1) General linguistics provides descriptive linguistics with a general framework in which a particular language can be analyzed and described;(2) The resulting descriptions of particular languages supply empirical evidence which may confirm or refute the models put forward by general linguists.2. What is the nature of language? (P7)Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols, which is creative, double-structured and changeable.3. What is the difference between langue and parole? (P2/P24)a. Langue is the system of language. Parole is the speakers’speech.b. Langue refers to the abstract system of a language, while parole refers to the concrete act of speaking in a definite time, place and situation.c. Langue underlies parole and parole, in turn, is a manifestation of langue.4. What is the difference between competence and performance? (P2)a. Competence is the speaker-hearer’s knowledge of his language.b. Performance is the actual use of language in concrete situations.c. Competence is abstract, while performance is concrete.5. Why do linguists maintain that language is primarily speech? (P4) Linguists maintain that language is primarily speech, and not the written form. This view may be justified by the following reasons.a. Biologically speaking, children begin to learn to speak much earlier than to learn to read and write.b. Functionally speaking, the spoken form is used more frequently than the written form in our daily life.c. Historically speaking, all human languages were spoken before they were written and there are still many languages in the worldtoday which have not been written down.The emphasis on the spoken form indicates that linguistic study is primarily based on the data collected from living speech.6. What does it mean by saying that language is arbitrary, creative and double-structured? (P4-5)A. The relationship between the sounds and their meaning is arbitrary.B. Language is creative.a. Every language contains an infinite number of sentences, which, however, are generated by a small set of rules and a finite set of words.b. The length of a sentence has no limit in theory.c. The rules with recursive properly can account for the creative aspect of language.C. Language is double-structured. There are two levels: grammatically-meaningful and sound-meaningless.7. What features of language can differentiate human languages from animal communicative systems? (P7)Human language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols, which is creative, double-structured and changeable. Those unique features like creativity, duality of structure and changeability candifferentiate human languages from animal communicative systems and enable human languages to be the most efficient, flexible and versatile means of communication in the world.8. How many stages does the scientific method have? What are they? (P9)There are four stages of scientific method:a. collecting data,b. forming a hypothesisc. testing the hypothesisd. drawing conclusions9. What are the three linguistic biases? (P9-10, P7)a. One common linguistic bias is that some languages are primitive and some languages are advanced.b. Another deep-rooted bias is that only the standard variety is the pure form of a language.c. Change is not natural for all living languages and such a language is a sign of corruption and decay.10. How is a rule constructed? (P15)a. To construct a rule, the linguist starts with collecting data.b. Based on the data collected, he may construct a very simple ruleas a tentative version.c. Then he examines the tentative rule against further data. If the additional data do not agree with it, he has to modify it.d. He keeps on testing the rule and, accordingly, revising the rule until the rule can account for all the relevant data collected. Thus, the rule formed is open to further modifications.11. Give examples to illustrate the two features of an adequate model of competence: explicitness and generativeness. (P15-16/P6)a. By saying a linguistic model is explicit, we mean that the rules the model contains are clearly and precisely defined. Even a computer can produce all and only the grammatical sentences if the rules are fed to the machine.b. By saying the model is generative, we mean that the model contains only a small set of rules which, however, can generate an indefinitely large number of sentences.c. For example, “so…that” is explicit, but they can generate infinite sentences.eg. He is so fat that he could not ran fast.He was so lazy that he never washed his clothes.…12. What are the four types of linguistic knowledge? (P18-19)The four types of linguistic knowledge are phonological, morphological, syntactic and semantic.a. Phonological knowledge is a native speaker’s intuition about the sounds and sound patterns of his language.b. Morphological knowledge is a native speaker’s intuition about how a word is formed.c. Syntactic knowledge is a native speaker’s intuition about whether a sentence is grammatical or not.c. Semantic knowledge is a native speaker’s intuition about the meaning of language.13. Why is Saussre regarded as the former of modern linguistics? (P21-22)a. The obvious reason is that the book under his name “A Course in General Linguistics”is the first real essay on linguistic theory.b. In this book, quite a few theoretical distinctions introduced have become foundations of linguistic study and exerted great influence on the later development linguistics.c. Chief among them are the distinctions between synchronic and diachronic, syntagmatic and paradigmatic, langue and parole.14. Give examples to illustrate the difference between synchronicand diachronic. (P22)a. If we study the changes in the Chinese language that took place between the 1940’s and the 1960’s, it would be a diachronic study.b. But if we study the Chinese language in the 1940’s, then it would be a synchronic study.c. The major difference between these two approaches is the former is concerned with the historical development of a language and the latter is concerned with the “state”of a language at a particular point of time.15. Give examples to illustrate the difference between syntagmatic and paradigmatic. (P116-118/P22-23)a. A syntagmatic relation refers to the sequential characteristic of speech.b. A paradigmatic relation is a relation between a linguistic element in an utterance and linguistic elements outside that utterance.c. We can go tomorrow syntagmatic relationShe may come soonI will ask nextYou could sleep now……… paradigmatic relation16. What is a consonant and what is a vowel? (P30)a. A consonant is a speech sound where the airstream from the longs is either completely blocked, partially blocked or where the opening is so narrow that the air escapes with audible friction.b. A vowel is a speech sound in which the airstream from the lungs is not blocked in any way in the mouth or throat, and which is usually pronounced with vibrations of the vocal cords.17. Is the spelling of words a reliable means of describing English sounds? Why or Why not? (P30-31)No, it isn’t.a. Sometimes a single letter may represent different sounds.b. Sometimes, different letters or combinations of letters may r4epresent a single sound.c. The advantage of this system is that within the system, one symbol represents one sound and every symbol has a consistent value.18. What is the difference between plosives and affricates? (P37)a. Plosives are suddenly separated and the airstream goes out witha plosion.b. Affricates are brought together to form a complete closure but not followed by a sudden release, rather by a low release with audile friction.19. What is the difference between phonetics and phonology? (P20, P53)a. English phonetics is concerned with all speech sounds that occur in the English language. It studies how those sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived, and how they re described and classified.b. Different from English phonetics, English phonology does not deal with the actual production of English sounds, but with the abstract aspects: the function of sounds and their patterns of combination.20. What are the three conditions of a minimal pair? (P54)a. They are different in meaningb. They differ only in one sound segment.c. The different sounds occur in the same position in strings.21. Give examples to illustrate the differences between phonemes, phones and allophones. (P90)a. Phonemes are said to be minimal distinctive units in the sound system of a language.b. Phones are the realizations of phonemes.c. Allophones are the realizations of a particular phoneme.d. For example,22. Give examples to illustrate the differences between contrastive distribution, complementary distribution and free variation. (P59-60)a. If two or more sounds can occur in the same environment and the substitution of one sound for another brings about a change in meaning, they are in contrastive distribution.b. If two or more sounds never appear in the same environment, they are said to be in complementary distribution.c. If two or more sounds can occur in the same environment and the substitution of one sound for another does not cause a change in meaning, they are said to be in free variation.d. The sounds either in contrastive distribution or in free variation can occur in the same environment. The difference between them lies in the fact that in the former case, the substitution of one sound for another results in a change in meaning, but this does not happen in the latter case. Complementary distribution is clearly different from the previous two types of distribution. The sounds in complementary distribution never occur in the same environment.23 What are the 3 principles of identifying phonemes? (P61)a. The sounds that are in contrastive distribution are different phonemesb. The sounds that are always in free variation are allophones ofthe same phoneme.c. The sounds that are in complementary distribution and also phonetically similar are allophones of the same phoneme.24. What is the difference between segmental features and suprasegmental features? What are the suprasegmental features? (P69)a. The distinctive features, which can only have an effect on one sound segment, are called segmental features.b. The distinctive features, which can affect more than one sound segment and can also contrast meaning, are called suprasegmental features.25. What’s the difference between phonemes and morphemes? (P54, P83)a. Phoneme is defined as a minimal distinctive unit in the sound system of a language.b. A morpheme is defined as a minimal meaningful unit in the grammatical system of a language.26. What are interrelations between semantic and structural classifications of morphemes? (P84, P86)Morphemes can be classified both semantically and structurally.a. Semantically, morphemes are grouped into general categories: root morphemes (roots) and affixational morphemes (affixes).b. Structurally, they fall into two classes: free morphemes and bound morphemes.c. All free morphemes are roots, but not all roots are free morphemes. All affixes are bound morphemes, but not all bound morphemes are affixes..27. Please explain the difference between inflectional and derivational affixes. (P89)28. How do we judge whether two or more minimal meaningful sequences of phonemes are one morph or different morphs? (P92-93)a. If two or more minimal meaningful sequences of phonemes are identical in both form and meaning, then they are regarded as one morph.b. If two or more minimal meaningful sequences of phonemes are the same in form but different in meaning, then there are as many morphs as there are meanings.c. If two or more minimal meaningful sequences of phonemes are the same in meaning but different in form, then there are as many morphs as there are forms.d. If two or more minimal meaningful sequences of phonemes are different both in form and meaning, there are as many morphs as there different forms and meanings.29. How do we group morphs into morphemes? (P94)If two or more morphs are semantically identical and also in complementary distributing, they are then said to allomorphs of the same morpheme; otherwise, they belong to different morphemes.30. What is IC analysis? (P99/P126)a. IC analysis simply means that we divide the morphemes of a word into the two groups and then divide each group into subgroups and so on, until we reach single morphemes.b. Labeled IC simply means that we divide the morphemes of a wordor the words of a sentence into the two groups and then divide each group into subgroups and so on, until we reach single morphemes of a word on a signal word of a sentence..31. What is the difference between an empty morph and a zero morph? (P97-98)a. Empty morph is defined as a morph that has form but no meaning.b. Zero morph is defined as a morph that has no form but has meaning.32. What are two ways of studying sentences? Explain them. (P116)a. We make structural descriptions of sentences to illustrate the parts of a sentence and the relationships among them, this is called static study.b. We examine the process by which sentences are generated by syntactic rules this is called dynamic study.33. What are the three syntactic relations? (P116-118)a. Sequential or syntagmatic relations are refers to the linear ordering of the words and the phrases within a sentence.b. Substitutional (paradigmatic) relation is a kind of relation between linguistic forms in a sentence and linguistic forms outside the sentence.c. Hierarchical relation shows us the inner layering of sentences.34. What are the differences between surface structure and deep structure? (P144)a. A surface structure corresponds to the linear arrangement of words;a deep structure corresponds to the meaningful grouping of words.b. A surface structure is relatively concrete, and a deep structure is abstract.c. A surfaces structure gives the form of a sentence; while the deep structure gives the meaning of a sentence.d. A surface structure is pronounceable, but a deep structure is not pronounceable.35. What are the three kinds of operations performed by T-rules? (P180)a. rearranging the sentence elements;b. adding a new element to the phrase marker;c. deleting an element from the phrase marker.36. What are the differences between PS rules and T-rules? (P139)a. TG grammar has assumed that to generate sentences, we start with deep structures and then transform them into surface structures.b. Deep structures are generated by phrase structure rules (PS rules), and surface structures are derived from their deep structures bytransformational rules (T-rules).Phonetics has three sub-branches:(1) articulatory phonetics that is concerned with how a sound is produced by the vocal organs;(2) acoustic phonetics that deals with how a sound is transmitted from the speaker’s mouth to the listener’s ears;(3) auditory phonetics that investigates how a sound is perceived by the listener.2. Speech organs1-nasal cavity; 2-lips; 3-teeth; 4-aveolar ridge; 5-hard palate 6-velum (soft palate);7-uvula; 8-apex (tip) of tongue; 9-blade (front) of tongue;10-dorsum (back) of tongue; 11-oral cavity;12-pharynx; 13-epiglottis; 14-larynx; 15-vocal cords; 16-trachea; 17-esophagus;。
语言学概论名词解释及论述题部分
语言学概论复习资料一、填空（15题，每题1分，共15分）1、主要分布：第一、二、三、四、六章。
2、注意：以下几点可能考到，注意浏览教材相关内容①记忆国际音标。
可能会给字让填国际音标。
②语言的结构类型（课本P20-23）a.词法类型：词根语、屈折语、粘着语、编插语b.句法类型：SVO型语言、SOV型语言、VSO型语言③语流音变（课本P87）定义：连续的语流中某些语音成分受前后语音环境的影响而发生变化的现象。
类型：同化、异化、弱化、脱落、增音④信息结构（课本P221-228）已知信息和未知信息（两者的区分与语境密切相关）、预设信息、指示信息⑤义素分析原则（课本P103-104）对等性原则、系统性原则、简明性原则二、名词解释（4题，每题5分，共20分）【屈折语】屈折语的特点是通过各种屈折方式来表示语法意义。
屈折可以分为内部屈折和外部屈折两种。
内部屈折指通过词的语音交替（改变部分语音）来构成不同的语法形式，表示不同的语法意义。
如英语的foot（脚，单数），feet（脚，复数）。
外部屈折指通过附加词缀的方式表示不同的语法意义。
如英语的book（书，单数）后面加上词缀-s即表示复数意义books（书，复数）。
【词根语】词根语又称孤立语，其特点是缺乏形态变化，语法意义主要靠词序和虚词来表示。
汉语就是一种比较典型的词根语，如“我喜欢他”中“我”是主语，“他”是宾语，主要取决于词序；“买菜”是述宾结构，“买的菜”是偏正结构，主要取决于虚词。
除汉语外，数词根语的还有越南语、彝语、苗语、缅甸语等。
【语言的模糊性】所谓模糊性，是指类与类之间没有明确的界限，而是逐渐过渡的。
如“少年、青年、中年、老年”之间没有明确的界限，从少年到青年，从青年到中年、从中年到老年，都是逐渐过渡的。
日常语言中的语音、语义和语法，都普遍存在着模糊性。
其优点在于其灵活性。
假如不使用模糊词语，只使用明确词语，语言交际肯定难以顺利进行。
【语言的生成性】所谓语言的生成性是指人们可以根据有限的语言符号和组合规则生成无限的句子。
《新编简明英语语言学教程》1-6章复习题集.pdf
《英语语言学概论》课程复习题集(1-6章)2012-5-16更新Chapter I Introduction2012II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:1. If a linguistic study describes a nd analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be d__escriptive_____.(prescriptive /lay down rules)2.Chomsky defines “competence”(语言能力) as the ideal user’sknowledge__________ of the r ules of his language.3. Langue(语言) refers to the a__bstract________ linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions（惯例）and application of the rules.43. D____uality_____ is one of the design features of human language which refers to the phenomenon that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units.5. Language is a system of a__rbitrary_______ vocal symbols used for human communication.6. S ocialinguistics is the study of language in relation to society.7. The discipline that studies the rules governing the formation of words into permissible sentences in languages is called s_yntax_______.8. Human capacity for language has a g enetic___ basis, but the details of language have to be taught and learned.9. Performance __(语言能力)__ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.10. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practical problems. The study of such applications is generally known asa__pplied______ linguistics.11. Language is p___________ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard be12. Linguistics is generally defined as the s cientific____ study of language.13. To help define and maintain interpersonal relations is the s ocialfunction of language.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.1. The description of a language in a fixed instant (时刻)is a _______ study.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. systematic2. The application of linguistics principles and theories to language teaching and learning is called _____.A. sociolinguisticsB. PsycholinguisticsC. computational linguisticsD. Applied Linguistics3.If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it issaid to be ______________.A. prescriptiveB. analyticC. descriptiveD. linguistic4. Which of the following is not a design feature of human language?A. ArbitrarinessB. DisplacementC. DualityD. Meaningfulness5. Modern linguistics regards the written language as ____________.A. primaryB. correctC. secondaryD. stable6. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, because___________.A.in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writingB.speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of informationconveyed.C.speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mothertongueD.All of the above7. Many modern linguists have criticized traditional grammarians for adopting a _____ approach to language study.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. descriptive8. A historical study of language is a ____ study of language.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. comparative9. According to F. de Saussure, ____ refers to the abstract linguistic systemshared by all the members of a speech community.A. paroleB. performanceC. langueD. Language10. Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connection between_________ and meanings.A. senseB. soundsC. objectsD. ideas11. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate （当前）situations of the speaker. This feature is called_________,A. displacementB. dualityC. flexibilityD. cultural transmission12. The distinction between langue and parole was made by _______ early last century.A. American linguist N. ChomskyB. Swiss linguist F. de SaussureC. American linguist Edward SapirD. British linguist J. R. Firth13. The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is goodproof that human language is .A. arbitraryB. rationalC. logicalD. cultural2. What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?Chapter 2：PhonologyII. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:27．Affricate_(破差音)_____ refers to a strong puff of air stream in the production of speech sounds.28．A_rticulatory_（发音）________ phonetics describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ.29．The four sounds /p/,/b/,/m/ and /w/ have one feature in common, i.e, they are all b_ilabial_ sounds.30．Of all the speech organs, the t _ongue___ is the most flexible, and is responsible for varieties of articulation than any other.31．English consonants can be classified in terms of manner of articulation or in terms of p__lace_____ of articulation(发音部位).32．When the obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction audibly （可听见的）released and the air passing out again is called a s__top______.33．S_uprasegmental_(超音段)_______ features are the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments. They include stress, tone（音调）, intonation（语调）, etc.34．The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential (序列) ____ rules.35．The transcription （标音）of speech sounds with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription （宽式）while the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics (变音符)is called narrow____ transcription. （严式）36．When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation_(语调)________.37．P_honology__________ is a discipline which studies the system of sounds of a particular language and how sounds are combined into meaningful units to effect linguistic communication.38. If you say door, new, two, senior, zoo, you will notice that the first sounds in allthese words are a_lveolar(齿龈音)______ sounds. The t and s are voiceless, and d, n and z are voiced. Only n is nasal.39．The articulatory apparatus（器官）of a human being are contained in three important cavities: the pharyngeal （咽腔）cavity, the oral(口腔)_______ cavity and the nasal cavity.40．T__one（音调）_____ are pitch （音调）variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration（震动）of the vocal cords （声带）and which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes（音位）.41．Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are two kinds of stress: word stress and s__entence_______ stress.III. There are four choices following each of the statements below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:1. The study of the p hysical properties of speech sounds is called ________ phonetics.A. acoustic(声学)B. articulatoryC. Auditory（听觉）D. allomorphic2. The sound /f/ is _________________.A. voiced palatal affricateB. voiced alveolar stopC. voiceless velar fricativeD. voiceless labiodental fricative（齿音，摩茶）3．Of all the speech organs, the _______ is/ are the most flexible.A. mouthB. lipsC. tongueD. vocal cords4．The sounds produced without the vocal cords vibrating are ____ sounds.A. voicelessB. voicedC. vowelD. consonantal5．__________ is a voiced alveolar（齿龈）stop.A. /z/B. /d/C. /k/D./b/6．The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying”a feature ofa sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones ____________.A. identicalB. sameC. exactly alikeD. similar7. Since /p/ and /b/ are phonetically similar, occur in the same environments andthey can distinguish meaning, they are said to be ___________.A. in phonemic contrast （音位对立）B. in complementary distribution （同一音位的不同变体）C. the allophones（音位变体）D. minimal pair （对小对立体）9.A ____ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintainingthe highest position.A. backB. centralC. frontD. middle10. Palatal （鄂音）semi-vowel refers to the sound .A. [n]B. [h]C. [w]D. [j]11. A phoneme is a group of phonetically similar sounds called .A. minimal pairsB. allomorphsC. phonesD. allophones12.Distinctive features can be found running over a sequence of two or morephonemic segments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called ____________.A. phonetic componentsB. immediate constituentsC. suprasegmental featuresD. semantic features13.A(n) ___________ is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit, acollection of distinctive phonetic features.A. phoneB. soundC. allophoneD. phoneme14．The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the ____ of that phoneme.A. phonesB. soundsC. phonemesD. allophones15. A ____ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintainingthe highest position.A. backB. centralC. frontD. middle16. The sounds that begin and end the words church and judge are voiceless andvoiced _______, respectively.( C )A. stopsB. fricativesC. affricatesD. plosivesIV. Answer the following question:1. How are the English consonants classified?2. Explain with examples the sequential rule, and the assimilation rule in phonology.Chapter 3：MorphologyII. Fill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given:1. Root is the part of the word left when all the affixes(词缀) are removed.2. Morpheme (词素)____ is the smallest meaningful unit of language.3. Bound_ morphemes are those that cannot be used independently but have to becombined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.4. Affixes are of two types: inflectional affixes and d_erivational_________ affixes.5. A s______ is added to the end of stems to modify the meaning of the original wordand it may case change its part of speech.6. C_ompound_________ is the combination of two or sometimes more than twowords to create new words.7. The word snowfall is a word formed by joining two separate words, i.e. “snow” an“fall.” This newly formed word is generally regarded as acompound_______.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that canbest complete the statement:1.The morpheme “vision”in the common word “television”is a(n) ______.A. bound morphemeB. bound formC. inflectional morphemeD. free morpheme2.The compound word “bookstore”is the place where books are sold. This indicatesthat the meaning of a compound __________.A.is the sum total of the meaning of its componentsB.can always be worked out by looking at the meanings of morphemesC.is the same as the meaning of a free phrase.D.None of the above.3. “-s” in the word “books” is _______.A. a derivative affixB. a stemC. an inflectional affixD. a root4. Which of the following is NOT a compound word?A. RainbowB. MilkshakeC. Icy-coldD. Unpleasant5.The part of speech of the compounds is generally determined by the part of speechof __________.A. the first elementB. the second elementC. either the first or the second elemD. both the first and the second elements.6. _______ are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.A. Free morphemesB. Bound morphemesC. Bound wordsD. Words7._________ is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.A. SyntaxB. GrammarC. MorphologyD. Morpheme8.The meaning carried by the inflectional morpheme is _______.A. lexicalB. morphemicC. grammaticalD. semantic9.Bound morphemes are those that ___________.A. have to be used independentlyB.can not be combined with other morphemesC.can either be free or boundD.have to be combined with other morphemes.10.____ modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.A. PrefixesB. Suffixes(后缀)C. RootsD. Affixes11._________ are often thought to be the smallest meaningful units of language by the linguists.A. WordsB. MorphemesC. PhonemesD. Sentences12.“-s”in the word “books”is _______.A. a derivative affixB. a stemC. an inflectional affixD. a root13. Which of the following does NOT belong to “open class words”?A. NounsB. AdjectivesC. ConjunctionsD. Adverbsun-” is a(n) _______ morpheme.14. In the word unreliable, the prefix “A. freeB. boundC. rootD. inflectional, “aspect”,“case”“number”, “gender”,15. Morphemes that represent “tense”,“degree” and so forth are called morphemes.A. inflectionalB. boundC. freeD. derivational16. The English word “modernizers” is composed of morphemes.A. fourB. threeC. twoD. five17. Which of the following affix differs from others?A. –lyB. –nessC. –ingD. –fulV. Think of a morpheme suffix and a morpheme prefix, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they may be suffixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Suffix: Meaning:Stem type: Examples:Prefix: Meaning:Stem type: Examples:Chapter 4：SyntaxII. Diagram the constituent structure of the following sentence and name the different constituents. ( IC analysis)The passenger train from Chicago will arrive in Atlanta after midnight. Chapter 5 SemanticsII. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:1. Semantics________ can be defined as the study of meaning.2. The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct______ link between a linguistic form and what it refers to.3. R_eference____ means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.4. Words that are close in meaning are called s_ynonyms_______.5. When two words are identical in sound, but different in spelling and meaning, they are called h_omophones____(同音异型异义)_____.6. Pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship （关系）between the twoitems are called relational_______ opposites.(关系反义)7. What is communicated by virtue of what language refers to is the r__________ meaning of a word.8. Relational_________ opposites are pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items.9. C omponential(成分分析)____ analysis is based upon the belief that the meaningof a word can be divided into meaning components.10. Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules calleds________ restrictions, which are constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.11. According to the n ____ theory of meaning, the words in a language are taken tobe labels of the objects they stand for.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that canbest complete the statement:1. The naming theory is advanced by ________.A. PlatoB. BloomfieldC. Geoffrey LeechD. Firth2. “We shall know a word by the company it keeps.” This statement represents _______.A. the conceptualist viewB. contexutalismC. the naming theoryD. behaviourism4.“Can I borrow your bike?”_______ “You have a bike.”A. is synonymous withB. is inconsistent withC. entailsD. presupposes5.___________ is a way in which the meaning of a word can be dissected intomeaning components, called semantic features.A. Predication analysisB. Componential analysisC. Phonemic analysisD. Grammatical analysis6.“alive”and “dead”are ______________.A. gradable antonymsB. relational oppositesC. complementary antonymsD. none of the above7._________ deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and thenon-linguistic world of experience.A. ReferenceB. ConceptC. SemanticsD. Sense8.___________ refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings havethe same form.A. PolysemyB. SynonymyC. HomonymyD. Hyponymy9. Words that are close in meaning are called ______________.A. homonymsB. polysemyC. hyponymsD. synonyms10. The kind of antonymy between "married "and "single" is one of __________A converseB relationalC complementaryD gradable11. According to the componential analysis, the word “girl” and “woman” differ in the feature of _______.A. HUMNANB. ANIMATEC. MALED. ADULT12.The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by _______.A.grammatical rulesB.selectional restrictionsC.semantic rulesD.semantic features13. The words stationary and stationery are identical in sound, but different inspelling and meaning. They are _______.A. complete homonymsB. homographsC. hyponymsD. homophones14. In the following pairs of words, are a pair of complementary antonyms.A. old and youngB. male and femaleC. hot and coldD. buy and selltulip” is ________.violet” and “15. The relationship between “A. co-hyponymsB. superordinateC. hyponymsD. antonyms16. “Can I borrow your bike?”_______ “You have a bike.”A. is synonymous withB. is inconsistent withC. entailsD. presupposesIV. Answer the following questions.1. How can words opposite in meaning be classified? To which category does each ofthe following pairs of antonyms belong?deep/shallow（gradable antonyms）married/single (complementary antonyms)sour/sweet(gradable antonyms) teacher/student(r elational opposites)asleep/awake(c omplementary antonyms)2. What are the major types of synonyms in English?(dialectal synonyms;stylistic synonyms;synonyms in emotive and evaluative meaning; collocational synonyms;semantically different synonyms)3.What might make a grammatically meaningful sentence semantically meaningless?Chapter 6：PragmaticsII.Fill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given:1.P__ragmatics_______ is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences toeffect successful communication.2.The notion of context_________ is essential to the pragmatic study of language.3. All the speech acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose or thesame illocutionary(言外之力)_______ point,but they differ in their strength or force.4.If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course ofcommunication, it becomes an u___________.5.The meaning of a sentence is a_bstract______, and decontextualized.6.C_onstatives_______ were statements that either state or describe, and were thusverifiable.7.P_erformatives_______ were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state,and were not verifiable.8. A locutionary(言内)_________ act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. Itis the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology. 9.An illocutionary___（言外）_______ act is the act of expressing the speaker’sintention; it is the act performed in saying something.10.An e_xpressives___(表达类)____ is to express feelings or attitude towards anexisting state.11.There are four maxims under the cooperative principle(合作原则): the maxim ofquantity_______, the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation and the maxim ofmanner.III.There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that canbest complete the statement:1. _________ does not study meaning in isolation, but in context.A. PragmaticsB. SemanticsC. Sense relationD. Concept2. The meaning of language was considered as something _______ in traditional semantics.A. contextualB. behaviouristicC. Intrinsic（内在的）D. logical3. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning _________ is considered.A. referenceB. speech actC. practical usageD. context4. A sentence is a_________concept, and the meaning of a sentence is often studied in isolation.A. pragmaticB. grammaticalC. mentalD. conceptual5. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes a(n) _________.A. constativeB. directiveC. utteranceD. expressive8. __________ is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.A. A locutionary actB. An illocutionary actC. A perlocutionary act（言后行为）D. A performative act9. According to Searle, the illocutionary point of the representative is ______.A. to get the hearer to do something （directives命令）B. to commit the speaker to something’s being the caseC. to commit the speaker to some future course of action（commissives承诺）D. to express the feelings or attitude towards an existing state of affairs.（expressives）10. __________ is advanced by Paul GriceA. Cooperative PrincipleB. Politeness PrincipleC. The General Principle of Universal GrammarD. Adjacency Principle11. When any of the maxims under the cooperative principle is flouted(嘲笑),_______ might arise.A. impolitenessB. contradictionsC. mutual understandingD. conversational implicature (含义)12. The illocutionary point of _______ is to express the psychological state specifiedin the utterance.A. directivesB. expressives （feeling attitude）C. commissivesD. representatives13. found that natural language had its own logic and thus concluded thefamous Cooperative Principle.A. John AustinB. John FirthC. Paul GriceD. William Jones14. As far as the sentence “My bag is heavy” is concerned, linguists of pragmatics aremore interested in its ______ meaning.A. literalB. logicalC. utterenceD. sentence15. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether, in the studyof meaning, _________ is considered.A. referenceB. speech actC. practical usageD. contextIV. Answer the following questions.1. According to Austin, what are the three acts a person is possibly performing whilemaking an utterance. Give an example.2. What are the four maxims of the CP? Try to give your own examples to show howflouting these maxims gives rise to conversational implicature?3. What is pragmatic failure? Try to find instances of pragmatic failure in the Englishused by Chinese learners of English.。
英语语言学概论知识点总结
英语语言学概论知识点总结English linguistics is a fascinating field that delves into the structure, variation, and evolution of the English language. It encompasses phonetics, which studies the sounds of speech, and phonology, the system of sounds in a language.Morphology, the study of word formation, and syntax, which examines sentence structure, are crucial components of linguistics. They reveal how words are constructed and how they combine to form meaningful sentences.Semantics, the study of meaning in language, and pragmatics, which looks at language in use and the context in which it is spoken, help us understand how language conveys information and intention.Sociolinguistics explores the relationship between language and society, including how dialects and accents vary across different social groups and regions.Psycholinguistics, on the other hand, investigates the cognitive processes involved in language acquisition and use, shedding light on how we learn and understand language.Historical linguistics traces the development of the English language over time, from its roots in Old English through to the modern language we speak today.Finally, applied linguistics takes the theoretical knowledge from these areas and applies it to real-world problems, such as language teaching, translation, and language policy development.In summary, English linguistics offers a comprehensive view of the language, from its smallest units to its role in society, and from its past to its present and future forms.。
(完整版)英语语言学概论--整理
Chapter 1 Language语言1. Design feature (识别特征) refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.2. Productivity(能产性) refers to the ability that people have in making and comprehending indefinitely large quantities of sentences in theirnative language.3. arbitrariness (任意性) Arbitrariness refers to the phenomenon that there is no motivated relationship between a linguistic form and itsmeaning.4. symbol (符号) Symbol refers to something such as an object, word, or sound that represents something else by association or convention.5. discreteness (离散性) Discreteness refers to the phenomenon that the sounds in a language are meaningfully distinct.6. displacement (不受时空限制的特性) Displacement refers to the fact that human language can be used to talk about things that are not in theimmediate situations of its users.7. duality of structure (结构二重性) The organization of language into two levels, one of sounds, the other of meaning, is known as duality ofstructure.8. culture transmission (文化传播) Culture transmission refers to the fact that language is passed on from one generation to the next throughteaching and learning, rather than by inheritance.9. interchangeability (互换性) Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages.1. ★What is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. This definition has captured the main features of language.First, language is a system.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense.The third feature of language is symbolic nature.2. ★What are the design features of language?Language has seven design features as following:1) Productivity.2) Discreteness.3) Displacement4) Arbitrariness.5) Cultural transmission6) Duality of structure.7) Interchangeability.3. Why do we say language is a system?Because elements of language are combined according to rules, and every language contains a set of rules. By system, the recurring patterns or arrangements or the particular ways or designs in which a language operates. And the sounds, the words and the sentences are used in fixed patterns that speaker of a language can understand each other.4. ★ (Function of language.) According to Halliday, what are the initial functions of children’s language? And what are the threefunctional components of adult language?I. Halliday uses the following terms to refer to the initial functions of children’s language:1) Instrumental function. 工具功能2) Regulatory function. 调节功能3) Representational function. 表现功能4) Interactional function. 互动功能5) Personal function. 自指性功能6) Heuristic function. 启发功能[osbQtq`kf`h]7) Imaginative function. 想象功能II. Adult language has three functional components as following:1) Interpersonal components. 人际2) Ideational components.概念3) Textual components.语篇1. general linguistics and descriptive linguistics (普通语言学与描写语言学) The former deals with language in general whereas the latter isconcerned with one particular language.2. synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics (共时语言学与历时语言学) Diachronic linguistics traces the historical development of thelanguage and records the changes that have taken place in it between successive points in time. And synchronic linguistics presents an account of language as it is at some particular point in time.3. theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics (理论语言学与应用语言学) The former copes with languages with a view to establishing atheory of their structures and functions whereas the latter is concerned with the application of the concepts and findings of linguistics to all sorts of practical tasks.4. microlinguistics and macrolinguistics(微观语言学与宏观语言学) The former studies only the structure of language system whereas thelatter deals with everything that is related to languages.5. langue and parole (语言与言语) The former refers to the abstract linguistics system shared by all the members of a speech communitywhereas the latter refers to the concrete act of speaking in actual situation by an individual speaker.6. competence and performance (语言能力与语言运用) The former is one’s knowledge of all the linguistic regulation systems whereas the latteris the use of language in concrete situation.7. speech and writing (口头语与书面语) Speech is the spoken form of language whereas writing is written codes, gives language new scope.8. linguistics behavior potential and actual linguistic behavior (语言行为潜势与实际语言行为) People actually says on a certain occasion to acertain person is actual linguistics behavior. And each of possible linguistic items that he could have said is linguistic behavior potential.9. syntagmatic relation and paradigmatic relation(横组合关系与纵聚合关系) The former describes the horizontal dimension of a languagewhile the latter describes the vertical dimension of a language.10. verbal communication and non-verbal communication(言语交际与非言语交际) Usual use of language as a means of transmittinginformation is called verbal communication. The ways we convey meaning without using language is called non-verbal communication.1. ★How does John Lyons classify linguistics?According to John Lyons, the field of linguistics as a whole can be divided into several subfields as following:1) General linguistics and descriptive linguistics.2) Synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics.3) Theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics.4) Microlinguistics and macrolinguistics.2. Explain the three principles by which the linguist is guided: consistency, adequacy and simplicity.1) Consistency means that there should be no contradictions between different parts of the theory and the description.2) Adequacy means that the theory must be broad enough in scope to offer significant generalizations.3) Simplicity requires us to be as brief and economic as possible.3. ★What are the sub-branches of linguistics within the language system?Within the language system there are six sub-branches as following:1) Phonetics. 语音学is a study of speech sounds of all human languages.2) Phonology. 音位学studies about the sounds and sound patterns of a speaker’s native language.3) Morphology. 形态学studies about how a word is formed.4) Syntax. 句法学studies about whether a sentence is grammatical or not.5) Semantics. 语义学studies about the meaning of language, including meaning of words and meaning of sentences.6) Pragmatics. 语用学★The scope of language: Linguistics is referred to as a scientific study of language.★The scientific process of linguistic study: It involves four stages: collecting data, forming a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis and drawing conclusions.1. articulatory phonetics(发音语音学) The study of how speech organs produce the sounds is called articulatory phonetics.2. acoustic phonetics (声学语音学) The study of the physical properties and of the transmission of speech sounds is called acoustic phonetics.3. auditory phonetics (听觉语音学) The study of the way hearers perceive speech sounds is called auditory phonetics.4. consonant (辅音) Consonant is a speech sound where the air form the language is either completely blocked, or partially blocked, or where theopening between the speech organs is so narrow that the air escapes with audible friction.5. vowel (元音) is defined as a speech sound in which the air from the lungs is not blocked in any way and is pronounced with vocal-cord vibration.6. bilabials (双唇音) Bilabials means that consonants for which the flow of air is stopped or restricted by the two lips. [p][b] [m] [w]7. affricates (塞擦音) The sound produced by stopping the airstream and then immediately releasing it slowly is called affricates. [t X] [d Y] [tr] [dr]8. glottis (声门) Glottis is the space between the vocal cords.9. rounded vowel (圆唇元音) Rounded vowel is defined as the vowel sound pronounced by the lips forming a circular opening. [u:] [u] [OB] [O]10. diphthongs (双元音) Diphthongs are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions.[ei][ai][O i] [Q u][au]11. triphthongs(三合元音) Triphthongs are those which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another and then rapidly andcontinuously to a third one. [ei Q][ai Q][O i Q] [Q u Q][au Q]12. lax vowels (松元音) According to distinction of long and short vowels, vowels are classified tense vowels and lax vowels. All the long vowelsare tense vowels but of the short vowels,[e] is a tense vowel as well, and the rest short vowels are lax vowels.1. ★How are consonants classified in terms of different criteria?The consonants in English can be described in terms of four dimensions.1) The position of the soft palate.2) The presence or the absence of vocal-cord vibration.3) The place of articulation.4) The manner of articulation.2. ★How are vowels classified in terms of different criteria?Vowel sounds are differentiated by a number of factors.1) The state of the velum2) The position of the tongue.3) The openness of the mouth.4) The shape of the lips.5) The length of the vowels.6) The tension of the muscles at pharynx.3. ★What are the three sub-branches of phonetics? How do they differ from each other?Phonetics has three sub-branches as following:1) Articulatory phonetics is the study of how speech organs produce the sounds is called articulatory phonetics.2) Acoustic phonetics is the study of the physical properties and of the transmission of speech sounds is called acoustic phonetics.3) Auditory phonetics is the study of the way hearers perceive speech sounds is called auditory phonetics.4. ★What are the commonly used phonetic features for consonants and vowels respectively?I. The frequently used phonetic features for consonants include the following:1) Voiced.2) Nasal.3) Consonantal.4) Vocalic.5) Continuant.6) Anterior.7) Coronal.8) Aspirated.II. The most common phonetic features for vowels include the following:1) High.2) Low.3) Front.4) Back.5) Rounded.6) Tense.1. phonemes (音位) Phonemes are minimal distinctive units in the sound system of a language.2. allophones (音位变体) Allophones are the phonetic variants and realizations of a particular phoneme.3. phones (单音) The smallest identifiable phonetic unit found in a stream of speech is called a phone.4. minimal pair (最小对立体) Minimal pair means words which differ from each other only by one sound.5. contrastive distribution (对比分布) If two or more sounds can occur in the same environment and the substitution of one sound for anotherbrings about a change of meaning, they are said to be in contrastive distribution.6. complementary distribution(互补分布) If two or more sounds never appear in the same environment ,then they are said to be incomplementary distribution.7. free variation (自由变异) When two sounds can appear in the same environment and the substitution of one for the other does not cause anychange in meaning, then they are said to be in free variation.8. distinctive features (区别性特征) A distinctive feature is a feature which distinguishes one phoneme from another.9. suprasegmental features (超切分特征) The distinctive (phonological) features which apply to groups larger than the single segment are knownas suprasegmental features.10. tone languages (声调语言) Tone languages are those which use pitch to contrast meaning at word level.11. intonation languages (语调语言) Intonation languages are those which use pitch to distinguish meaning at phrase level or sentence level.12. juncture (连音) Juncture refers to the phonetic boundary features which may demarcate grammatical units.1. ★What are the differences between English phonetics and English phonology?1) Phonetics is the study of the production, perception, and physical properties of speech sounds, while phonology attempts to account forhow they are combined, organized, and convey meaning in particular languages.2) Phonetics is the study of the actual sounds while phonology is concerned with a more abstract description of speech sounds and tries todescribe the regularities of sound patterns.2. Give examples to illustrate the relationship between phonemes, phones and allophones.When we hear [pit],[tip],[spit],etc, the similar phones we have heard are /p/. And /p/ and /b/ are separate phonemes in English, while [ph] and [p] are allophones.3. How can we decide a minimal pair or a minimal set?A minimal pair should meet three conditions:1) The two forms are different in meaning.2) The two forms are different in one sound segment.3) The different sounds occur in the same position of the two strings.4. ★Use examples to explain the three types of distribution.1) Contrastive distribution. Sounds [m] in met and [n] in net are in contrastive distribution because substituting [m] for [n] will result in achange of meaning.2) Complementary distribution. The aspirated plosive [ph] and the unaspirated plosive [p] are in complementary distribution because theformer occurs either initially in a word or initially in a stressed syllable while the latter never occurs in such environments.3) Free variation. In English, the word “direct” may be pronounce in two ways: /di’rekt/ and /dia’rekt/, and the two different sounds /i/ and /ai/can be said to be in free variation.5. What’s the difference between segmental features and suprasegmental features? What are the suprasegmental features in English?I. 1) Distinctive features, which are used to distinguish one phoneme from another and thus have effect on one sound segment, are referred toas segmental features.2) The distinctive (phonological) features which apply to groups larger than the single segment are known as suprasegmental features.3) Suprasegmental features may have effect on more than one sound segment. They may apply to a string of several sounds.II.The main suprasegmental features include stress, tone, intonation and juncture.6. What’s the difference between tone languages and intonation language?Tone languages are those which use pitch to contrast meaning at word level while intonation languages are those which use pitch to distinguish meaning at phrase level or sentence level7. ★What’s the difference between phonetic transcriptions and phonemic transcriptions?The former was meant to symbolize all possible speech sounds, including even the most minute shades of pronunciation, while the latter was intended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.1. morphemes (语素) Morphemes are the minimal meaningful units in the grammatical system of a language.allomorphs (语素变体) Allomorphs are the realizations of a particular morpheme.morphs (形素) Morphs are the realizations of morphemes in general and are the actual forms used to realize morphemes.2. roots (词根) Roots is defined as the most important part of a word that carries the principal meaning.affixes (词缀) Affixes are morphemes that lexically depend on roots and do not convey the fundamental meaning of words.free morphemes (自由语素) Free morphemes are those which can exist as individual words.bound morphemes (粘着语素) Bound morphemes are those which cannot occur on their own as separate words.3. inflectional affixes (屈折词缀) refer to affixes that serve to indicate grammatical relations, but do not change its part of speech.derivational affixes (派生词缀) refer to affixes that are added to words in order to change its grammatical category or its meaning.4. empty morph (空语子) Empty morph means a morph which has form but no meaning.zero morph (零语子) Zero morph refers to a morph which has meaning but no form.5. IC Analysis (直接成分分析) IC analysis is the analysis to analyze a linguistic expression (both a word and a sentence) into a hierarchicallydefined series of constituents.6. immediate constituents(直接成分) A immediate constituent is any one of the largest grammatical units that constitute a construction.Immediate constituents are often further reducible.ultimate constituents (最后成分) Ultimate constituents are those grammatically irreducible units that constitute constructions.7. morphological rules (形态学规则) The principles that determine how morphemes are combined into new words are said to be morphologicalrules.8. word-formation process (构词法) Word-formation process mean the rule-governed processes of forming new words on the basis of alreadyexisting linguistic resources.1. ★What is IC Analysis?IC analysis is the analysis to analyze a linguistic expression (both a word and a sentence) into a hierarchically defined series of constituents.2. How are morphemes classified?1) Semantically speaking, morphemes are grouped into two categories: root morphemes and affixational morphemes.2) Structurally speaking, they are divided into two types: free morphemes and bound morphemes.3. ★Explain the interrelations between semantic and structural classifications of morphemes.a) All free morphemes are roots but not all roots are free morphemes.b) All affixes are bound morphemes, but not all bound morphemes are affixes.4. What’s the difference between an empty morph and a zero mor ph?a) Empty morph means a morph that has form but no meaning.b) Zero morph refers to a morph that has meaning but no form.5. Explain the differences between inflectional and derivational affixes in term of both function and position.a) Functionally:i.Inflectional affixes sever to mark grammatical relations and never create new words while derivational affixes can create new words.ii.Inflectional affixes do not cause a change in grammatical class while derivational affixes very often but not always cause a change in grammatical class.b) In term of position:i.Inflectional affixes are suffixes while derivational affixes can be suffixes or prefixes.ii.Inflectional affixes are always after derivational affixes if both are present. And derivational affixes are always before inflectional suffixes if both are present.6. What are morphological rules? Give at least four rules with examples.The principles that determine how morphemes are combined into new words are said to be morphological rules.For example:a) un- + adj. ->adj.b) Adj./n. + -ify ->v.c) V. + -able -> adj.d) Adj. + -ly -> adv.1. syntagmatic relations (横组关系) refer to the relationships between constituents in a construction.paradigmatic relations (纵聚合关系) refer to the relations between the linguistic elements within a sentence and those outside the sentence.hierarchical relations (等级关系) refer to relationships between any classification of linguistic units which recognizes a series of successively subordinate levels.2. IC Analysis (直接成分分析) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level within a syntactic construction.labeled IC Analysis(标记法直接成分分析) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level within a syntactic construction and label each constituent.phrase markers (短语标记法) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which make major divisions at any level within a syntactic construction, and label each constituent while remove all the linguistic forms.labeled bracketing (方括号标记法) is a kind of grammatical analysis, which is applied in representing the hierarchical structure of sentences by using brackets.3. constituency (成分关系)dependency (依存关系)4. surface structures (表层结构)refers to the mental representation of a linguistic expression, derived from deep structure by transformationalrules.deep structures (深层结构) deep structure of a linguistic expression is a theoretical construct that seeks to unify several related structures. 5. phrase structure rules (短语结构规则)are a way to describe a given language's syntax. They are used to break a natural language sentencedown into its constituent parts.6. transformational rules (转换规则)7. structural ambiguity (结构歧义)1. What are the differences between surface structure and deep structure?They are different from each other in four aspects:1) Surface structures correspond directly to the linear arrangements of sentences while deep structures correspond to the meaningful groupingof sentences.2) Surface structures are more concrete while deep structures are more abstract.3) Surface structures give the forms of sentences whereas deep structures give the meanings of sentences.4) Surface structures are pronounceable but deep structures are not.2. Illustrate the differences between PS rules and T-rules.1) PS rules frequently applied in generating deep structures.2) T-rules are used to transform deep structure into surface structures.3. What’s the order of generating sentences? Do we st art with surface structures or with deep structures? How differently are theygenerated?To generate a sentence, we always start with its deep structure, and then transform it into its corresponding surface structure.Deep structures are generated by phrase structure rules (PS rules) while surface structures are derived from their deep structures by transformational rules (T-rules).4. What’s the difference between a compulsory constituent and an optional one?Optional constituents may be present or absent while compulsory constituents must be present.5. What are the three syntactic relations? Illustrate them with examples.1) Syntagmatic relations2) Paradigmatic relations.3) Hierarchical relations.1. Lexical semantics (词汇语义学) is defined as the study of word meaning in language.2. Sense (意义) refers to the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.3. Reference (所指) means what a linguistic form refers to in the real world.4. Concept (概念) is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind.5. Denotation (外延) is defined as the constant ,abstract, and basic meaning of a linguistic expression independent of context and situation.6. Connotation (内涵) refers to the emotional associations which are suggested by, or are part of the meaning of, a linguistic unit.7. Componential analysis (成分分析法) is the way to decompose the meaning of a word into its components.8. Semantic field (语义场) The vocabulary of a language is not simply a listing of independent items, but is organized into areas, within whichwords interrelate and define each other in various ways. The areas are semantic fields.9. Hyponymy (上下义关系) refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.10. Synonymy (同义关系) refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.11. Antonymy (反义关系) refers to the oppositeness of meaning.12. Lexical ambiguity (词汇歧义)13. Polysemy (多义性) refers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning.14. Homonymy (同音(同形)异义关系) refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form.15. Sentence semantics (句子语义学) refers to the study of sentence meaning in language.1. What’s the criterion of John Lyons in classifying semantics into its sub-branches? And how does he classify semantics?In terms of whether it falls within the scope of linguistics, John Lyons distinguishes between linguistic semantics and non-linguistic semantics.According John Lyons, semantics is one of the sub-branches of linguistics; it is generally defined as the study of meaning.2. What are the essential factors for determining sentence meaning?1) Object, 2) concept, 3) symbol, 4) user, 5) context.3. What is the difference between the theory of componential analysis and the theory of semantic theory in defining meaning of words?4. What are the sense relations between sentences?1) S1 is synonymous with S2.2) S1 entails S2.3) S1 contradicts S2.4) S1 presupposes S2.5) S1 is a tautology, and therefore invariably true.6) S1 is a contradiction, and therefore invariably false.7) S1 is semantically anomalous.1. Speech act theory (言语行为理论)2. Cooperative principle and its maxims (合作原则及其准则)3. Politeness principle and its maxims (礼貌原则及其准则)4. Conversational implicature (会话含义)5. Indirect speech act (间接言语行为)6. Pragmatic presupposition (语用学预设)7. Relevance theory (关联理论)8. Illocutionary act (言外行为)9. (Horn’s) Q-Principle and R-Principle10. Perfrmative verbs (施为句动词)1. Make comments on the different definitions of pragmatics.2. What are the main types of deixis?3. Explain the statement: context is so indispen sable in fully understanding interpreting the speaker’s meaning.4. How are Austin’s and Searle’s speech act theories related to each other?5. What’s the relationship between CP and PP?6. What do you know about presupposition triggers in English? Explain them briefly with examples.7. What is ostensive-referential communication?8. Explain the obvious presupposition of speaker who say each of the following:1) When did you stop beating your wife?2) Where did Tom buy the watch?3) Your car is broken.9. What do you think of the fol lowing statement? “Tom participated in spreading rumors” entails “Tom engaged in spreading rumors”.Chapter 9 话语分析1. text(语篇) = discourse 语篇是指实际使用的语言单位，是一次交际过程中的一系列连续的话段或句子所构成的语言整体。
英语语言学概论
《英语语言学概论》重、难点提示第一章语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。
第二章语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。
第三章语音学发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。
第四章音位学音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。
第五章词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。
第六章词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。
第七章句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。
第八章语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。
第九章语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；第十章语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。
第十一章语用学语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。
《语言学概论》复习
C．家牙打哈抓 D．盖反外丹抬
3．分析句子"我们天天看见从东方的山峰后面升起来的太阳"，能得到的词组成分是（D）。
A． 天天看见从东方的山峰后面。
B． 我们天天看见。
C． 升起来的太阳。
D．东方的山峰后面 。
4．下列各种说法只有（C）是正确的。
8．汉字的发展趋势是（由繁趋简）。
9．语言在不同行业、不同阶层等社会因素方面发生变化，由此产生了（社会方言）。
10．词义会不断地发生变化，例如英语单词deer，过去泛指动物，现在只表示鹿，这种意义变化的方式叫做（缩小）。
三、选择题（每小题2分，共10分）
说明：每题只有一个正确答案，请将正确答案的字母序号填到题中横线上。
①语言从本质上说是社会的，具有社会性。一个社会是一定的经济基础和上层建筑构成的整体。语言就是一定社会的产物，是社会特有的一种现象，社会以外无所谓语言，没有社会，也就没有语言。语言是在劳动过程中因为交际的需要而产生的，是与人类社会、人的抽象思维同时产生的。语言的发展受社会制约，语言随着社会的产生而产生，随着社会的发展而发展，随着社会的死亡而死亡。总之，语言的一切自始至终都与人类社会紧密地联系在一起，社会的任何风吹草动，都会给语言带来影响，都会在语言中反映出来。社会性可以说是语言的本质特性。
5. 变换下面具有语法多义的句子，使其变成单义结构。（3分）
我们负责给这个公司培养四个实验室技术员。
A． 我们负责给这个公司的四个实验室培养技术员。
B． 我们负责给这个公司培养四个实验室的四个技术员。
五、问答题（共40分）
1． 语言是社会现象还是自然现象？说说你的看法。（6分）
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《英语语言学概论》复习纲要
1.复习的基本原则：第一，理解和吃透各章的重点内容。
第二，以
各章的题目为统领，理解各章节下的具体内容。
第三，动手书写
和记忆重要内容，部分语言学理论会应用到实际中。
2.各章节复习要点如下
Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics
1)Definitions of the following terms: language, linguistics,
arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement, descriptive VS
prescriptive, synchronic VS diachronic, langue VS parole, competence VS performance
2)Study of the origin of language
3)What are the functions of language?
4)Which subjects are included in macrolinguistics?
Chapter 2 Speech Sounds
1)Definitions of the following terms: articulatory phonetics, acoustic
phonetics, auditory phonetics, phonetics, phonology, consonants, vowels, allophones, broad transcription VS narrow transcription
2)Analyze the complementary distribution, free variation with
examples
3)The classification of English consonants and English vowels and
the features involved in the classification
4)Understand some processes of phonology: nasalization,
dentalization, velarization
5)Differences between intonation and tone
Chapter 3 From morpheme to phrase
1)Definitions of the following terms: morpheme, morphology,
backformation, blending, class shift
2)Differences between root and stem, inflectional VS derivational
affix
3)Analyze the morphemes contained in English words, such as
internationalization, distempered, moonwalk, frienships
4)What are the characteristics of a word?
5)Understand the classification of English words: variable VS
invariable, grammatical VS lexical, closed-class VS open-class, particles, auxiliaries, determiners
6)Understand the processes of word formation with examples:
blending, abbreviation, acronym, backformation, class-shift Chapter 4 From word to Text
1)Definitions of the following terms: syntax, endocentric
VS exocentric construction, coordination VS subordination
2)Syntactic functions of English sentences: s ubject (agent
VS patient, grammatical VS logical), predicate, object
3)Categories in English: number, gender, agreement
Chapter 5 Meaning
1)Definitions of the following terms: semantics, the
referential theory, semantic triangle, synonymy, antonymy,
hyponymy
2)Understand synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy with
examples
3)Subclassification of antonymy
4)Componential analysis in practice: such as boy, girl,
woman, man, mother, father (entailment and polysemous) Chapter 6 Language and cognition
1)Definition of the following terms: psycholinguistics,
cognitive linguistics
2)Understand the three issues of psycholinguistics:
language acquisition, language comprehension, language production
3)Understand examples concerning construal
operations
4)Understand examples concerning categorization
(basic level, superordinate and subordinate levels)
5)Understand examples concerning metaphor (target
domain, source domain)
6)Understand examples concerning metonymy
Chapter 7 Language, Culture, and Society
1)Definition of the following terms: Sapir-Whorf
Hypothesis, the theory of context of situation
2)Understand the two examples (Hopi language and
study of color words) concerning Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis Chapter 8 Language in Use
1)Differences between pragmatics and semantics
2)Understand the theory of Illocutionary Act (three
senses)
3)Understand the theory of Conversational Implicature,
the four principles of Cooperative Principle (Maxims of
quantity, quality, relation and manner), and the examples
indicating the violation of Cooperative Principle
4)Understand the characteristics of implicature。