情绪调节效应的发展_一个V型发展趋势_英文_邓欣媚

Up- and Down-regulation from Early Adolescence to Early Adulthood:A V-shape Developmental Trajectory*Deng Xinmei 1 Sang Biao **2,3(1 Department of Psychology, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, 518060)(2 School of Psychology and Cognitive Science, East China Normal University, Shanghai, 200062)（3 School of Preschool and Special Education, East China Normal University, Shanghai, 2000620）Abstract Adolescence is considered as a time full of “storm and stress”. Numerous studies suggested that emotion regulation improves with age. While previous studies typically examined the developmental change of negative emotion regulation within a specific period, few studies considered regulation effect of both positive and negative emotions in a transitional period. To address this issue, one hundred and seven participants (35 young adolescents, range=13~15 years old; 37 old adolescents, range=16~18 years old; 35 young adults, range=20~29 years old) were examined for their up- and down-regulation of positive, neutral, and negative emotional stimuli. Results showed that considering the differences of emotion regulation effect among three age groups, a drop-down phenomenon was found in the old adolescents group. Specifically, old adolescents’ emotion regulation effect was the worst, while young adults’ was the best.Key words emotion regulation development, regulatory strategy, regulation effect, V-shape developmental trajectory, adolescents*This study was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China [No.31371043].** Corresponding Author: Sang Biao. E-mail: bsang@1 IntroductionFrom early adolescence to early adulthood, adolescents encounter various challenges leading to relatively extreme emotional experiences （Deng, Sang, & Luan, 2013）, therefore, they have a relatively high requirement for emotion regulation (Larson, Moneta, Richards, & Wilson, 2002). Figuring out how emotional regulatory processes develop during this important transitional period will facilitate the understanding of emotional development and potential applications in the field of education.Recent studies have suggested that emotion regulation improves with age (Hay & Diehl, 2011; Larcom & Isaacowitz, 2009; Sang, Deng, & Luan, 2014). Previous study found that adolescents showed more and more effective in emotion regulation according to theinstruction cues in the laboratory setting. When instructed to reappraising negative emotions in another way, adolescents reported significantly decrease in negative experience (Silvers et al., 2012). Usage of different regulatory strategies increases spontaneously during adolescence (Garnefski & Kraajj, 2006). Adolescents become much more flexible in their choice and usage of adaptive strategies to regulate emotions. They also become more socially competent (Griffith, Dubow, & Ippolito, 2000).However, previous studies mainly focused on changes of individuals within a specific period (such as childhood, adolescence or adulthood). For example, life-span studies indicate that older adults move out of highly negative states more readily than younger adults (Hay & Diehl, 2011). Due to the increasing stress of academicDOI:10.16719/ki.1671-6981.2015.03.014595 Deng Xinmei et al. :Up- and Down-regulation from Early Adolescence to Early Adulthood: A V-shape Developmental Trajectoryand interpersonal challenges, adolescents use more problem-focused coping strategies in response to stress as they age (Griffith, Dubow, & Ippolito, 2000). However, few studies have explored the transitional period from adolescence to adulthood.Given the significant changes that emerge during the transition from adolescence to adulthood, the present study extended the age range of participants to capture the whole picture of emotion regulation development from early adolescence to early adulthood. Also, the present study addresses the developmental improvement by investigating the effect of emotion regulation -- when adolescents were instructed to use certain emotional regulatory strategies, how much did their emotion experience change? The magnitude of emotion regulation effects was measured as the difference between regulation and non-regulation (Langeslag & V an Strien, 2010).2 Method2.1 ParticipantsThe experiment was administered in Shanghai, China. Participants were 35 junior high school students (22 male, 13 female; M=14.06, SD=.42, range=13~15 years old), 37 high school students (13 male, 24 female; M=16.56, SD=.56, range=16~18 years old), and 35 adults (9 male, 26 female; M=23.60, SD=1.96, range=20~29 years old). Before participating in the study, parents of the participants and participants themselves were thoroughly introduced to the experiment and all of them gave written informed consents.2.2 ProcedureThe experiment employed a 3 (Age: Young Adolescents vs. Older Adolescents vs. Young Adults, between subject) × 3 (Emotional Stimulus: Positive vs. Negative vs. Neutral, within subject) × 3 (Emotional Regulatory Strategy: Up-regulation vs. Down-regulation vs. Non-regulation, within subject) mixed design.The present study utilized the Reactivity and Regulation-Image Task (REAR-I Task) to explore the development of emotion regulation effect. This task has been shown to successfully examine emotion regulation in a broad age range in numerous prior studies (Langeslag et al., 2012; Silvers et al., 2012). One hundred thirty five pictures (45 positive, 45 negative, and 45 neutral) were obtained from the Chinese Affective Picture System and appropriate for adolescents (Bai, Ma, Huang, & Luo, 2005).During orientation, participants were trained on task procedures. They were told that in the coming experiment, they would watch several pictures that may arouse different emotions, and they needed to regulate their emotions according to the instruction on screen. Then participants received training on the usage of up- and down-regulation. Specifically, they were introduced to the definition of two types of emotional regulatory strategy. Secondly, the examiner gave each participant a list of samples of the two types of regulation, and thoroughly explained the usage of up- and down- regulation to ensure that these were properly understood. After ensuring participants had learned the usage of up-regulation and down-regulation, the experiment began. Examiners were postgraduate students, all trained for consistency of instruction prior to the study.Participants practiced 9 trials before taking part in the actual experimental task. During each of the 135 main trials, participants used the strategy indicated by the instruction (up-regulation, down-regulation, and non-regulation) while viewing a unique picture. Each trial comprised four slides (see Figure 1): first shown on screen for two seconds was the instruction of which emotional regulatory strategy to be used in response to the picture to follow (“↑Up-Regulation↑”/ “↓Down-Regulation↓”/ “Look”). Next, one positive, negative, or neutral picture was shown for four seconds. The participant was told to regulate his/ her emotion during these 4 seconds using the required strategy. Third, the participant was asked to rate his/her current intensity of emotion on a 4-point scale (1=have very weak emotion, 4=have very strong emotion). Finally there was a two-second interval.3 Results3.1 Manipulation CheckWe analyzed the validity of the emotional stimuli by examining differences among positive emotional stimuli non-regulation, neutral emotional stimuli non-regulation, and negative emotional596心 理 科 学Figure 1. Procedure of Each Trialstimuli non-regulation. In addition, validity of the emotion regulation instruction was analyzed by examining differences among negative emotional stimuli up-regulation, negative emotional stimuli non-regulation, and negative emotional stimuli down-regulation. To confirm that participants responded differently to emotional stimuli and neutral stimuli, t tests were performed to compare self-reported emotion experience in positive emotional stimuli non-regulation, neutral emotional stimuli non-regulation, and negative emotional stimuli non-regulation trials. As expected, participants reported greater levels of emotion experience to emotional stimuli (positive and negative) versus neutral stimuli, both p values < .001. To ensure that three types of emotional regulatory strategies have a consistent and valid effect across different emotional conditions, t tests were performed to compare self-reported emotion experience in negative emotional stimuli up-regulation, negative emotional stimuli non-regulation, and negative emotional stimuli down-regulation trials. As expected, compared with non-regulation, participants reported stronger emotion intensities when they used up-regulation and weaker emotion intensities when they used down-regulation, both p values < .001.3.2 Effect Sizes of Different Regulatory StrategiesWe investigated this question using ANOV A to test emotion regulation effect with the factors Age group (Young Adolescents vs. Older Adolescents vs. Young Adults) × Emotional Stimulus (Positive vs. Negative vs. Neutral) × Emotional Regulatory Strategy (Up-regulation vs. Down-regulation vs. Non-regulation). In addition, we computed effect sizes (Cohen' s d) of the regulatory strategies so as to compare the magnitude of emotion regulation effects in different age groups. The magnitude of emotion regulation effects was calculated as the difference between regulation (up- and down-regulation) and non-regulation.There was a significant main effect of Emotional Regulatory Strategy, F(2, 26) = 722.32, p < .001. Compared with non-regulation, participants reported stronger emotions when they used up-regulation and weaker emotions when they used down-regulation, both p values < .001. There was also a significant Emotional Stimulus × Emotional Regulatory Strategy interaction, F(4, 26) = 36.64, p < .001. The differences between up-regulation and non-regulation were significant in all conditions, p < .001. The differences between down-regulation and non-regulation were only significant in the positive and negative stimulus condition, p < .001, but not597Deng Xinmei et al. :Up- and Down-regulation from Early Adolescence to Early Adulthood: A V-shape Developmental TrajectoryTable 1. Emotion Regulation Effects Among Different Age Groups.Note. Cohen’d is computed as (M ER - M No-ER )/√(SD ER + SD No-ER )/2. For example, effect size of positive emotion up-regulation = (M Positive Emotion Up-ER - M PositiveEmotion No-ER )/√(SD Positive Emotion Up-ER + SD Positive Emotion No-ER ）/2.significant in the neutral stimulus condition.As expected, a significant Emotional Stimulus × Emotional Regulatory Strategy × Age interaction was also found, F (8, 26) = 3.53, p < .001. A V-shaped developmental trajectory was observed in the emotion regulation effect across the three age groups, with a dipappearing in the old adolescents group (see Figure 2 and Table 1). That is, compared with young adolescents and young adults, old adolescents ’ effect sizes of up- and down-regulation were the smallest (around .2, in both emotional conditions). Overall, effect sizes of youngadults were the largest among the three age groups.Figure 2. Different Regulatory Strategies under Different Emotional Stimulus among Age Groups.Note. Error bar indicates ±2 standard error of the mean. * indicates a significant age difference of emotional regulatory strategy at .05 level.4 DiscussionUnderstanding emotion regulation development from early adolescence to early adulthood gives important insights into the nature of social development during adolescence, with implications for later life (Gao, Liu, Ding, & Guo, 2010; Luo, Wang, Zhang, & Shen, 2010). The present study aims to enrich the literature of emotion regulation by extending the age range under research to a transitional period. The results of this study are consistent with previous research finding that adults ’ emotion regulation is better than adolescents ’ (Deng et al., 2013). However, our results offer the intriguingfinding that emotion regulation appears to develop not via a linear trajectory, but via a V-shaped trajectory from early adolescent to early adulthood, with old adolescents showing the worst emotion regulation effects and young adults the best.Our finding accords with Robert Kegan ’s argument that development is a spiral rather than linear process, rebalancing between two sides (communion and agency) continuously while evolving into a bigger framework (Kegan, 1982). During development, adolescents rebalance between communion with others and self-agency. Also, Liu (2007) found that implicit positive regulation attitude drops significantly and2222598心 理 科 学implicit negative regulation attitude increases from early adolescence to early adulthood. This means that Chinese adolescents increasingly hold the implicit idea that emotion should NOT be regulated, while old adolescents’ stronger implicit attitude influences their automatic emotion regulation. Taken together, old adolescents hold more implicit negative attitudes toward emotion regulation and have higher motivation to explore alternatives. So they are willing to take the chance of experiencing their immediate and “true”feelings in order to venture a fuller exploration of the self, which may influence their automatic emotion regulation. However, when entering adulthood, with higher emotion regulatory ability, decreased impulses toward “rebellion”and deepened socialization, adults show a relatively high level of self-commitment but a relatively low level of emotional exploration, as compared to adolescents (Meeus, 2012).Furthermore, there are many important factors which influence the developmental trajectory of emotion regulation and make it a spiral development process (Zhao, Zhang, & Zhou, 2014). For example, the development of emotional ability is not a linear process. Older adolescents might represent another period of change in the ability of down-regulation. Prior research suggested that the regulatory ability of adolescents increased with age significantly between 10 and 16. However, the increased tendency was not significant any more after 16 (Silvers et al., 2012). With this, the V-shape development of adolescents’ emotion regulation might arise from the spiral development of emotional ability.Taken together, our results suggest the importance of understanding emotion regulation development not only from the linear perspective, but also having a more complex development trajectory.5 Limitations and Future DirectionThe present study utilized a cross-sectional design to examine the development of different emotional regulatory strategies in young adolescents, old adolescents, and early adults. This study cannot account for the within-individual changes of emotion regulation. Intriguing prospects for future research will be examining within-individual changes of emotion regulation -- the real developmental trajectories. Additional age groups and implement methods that allow measuring individual changes during each phases of adolescence might be a promising direction for future research. Furthermore, longitudinal design is necessary and a promising way to determine whether the V-shape development trajectory of emotion regulation in this study correspond to intra-individual changes as people grow older. It would extend our findings and explore the developmental mechanism of emotion regulation processes, especially for the V-shaped developmental trajectory of emotion regulation in the transitional period.ReferencesBai, L., Ma, H., Huang, Y. X, & Luo, Y. J. (2005). The development of native Chinese affective picture system-a pretest in 46 college students. Chinese Mental Health Journal, 19, 719-722.Cohen, J. (1998). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Deng, X. M., Sang, B., & Luan, Z. Y. (2013). The up- and down-regulation of daily emotion: An experience sampling study of adolescents' regulatory tendency and effectiveness. Psychological Reports, 113, 552-565.Gao, P. X., Liu, H. J., Ding, N., & Guo, D. J. (2010). 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