A+Study+of+History+by+Arnold+Joseph+Toynbee
20世纪百部经典英文非小说作品(100 Classical Non-fiction English Works of 20th Century)
1.《亨利.亚当斯的教育》（The Education of Henry Adams）美国历史学家亚当斯（1838－1918）的自传2.《宗教经验种种》（The Varieties of Religious Experience）美国心理学家、哲学家詹姆士（William James,1842-1910）的作品3.《超越奴役》（Up from Slavery）美国黑人教育学家、社会改革者华盛顿（Booker T.Washington,1856-1915）的作品4.《自己的房间》（A Room of One's Own）英国文学家吴尔芙（Virgina Woolf,1882-1914）的长篇论文5.《寂静的春天》（Silent Spring）美国生态学家卡逊女士（Rachel Carson,1907-1964）的作品6.《1917－1932年论文选集》（Selected Essays,1917-1932）英国诗人艾略特（T.S.Eliot,1888-1965）的作品7.《双螺旋》（The Double Helix）美国遗传生物学家华特生（JamesD.Waston,1928-）的作品8.《说吧！记忆》（Speak,Memory）俄裔美籍作家纳巴科夫（Vladimir Nabokov,1899-1977）的作品9.《美国语言》（American Language）美国语言学家、新闻记者孟肯（H.L.Mencken,1880-1956）的作品10.《就业、利息和货币通论》（The General Theory of Employment,Interest and Money）英国经济学家凯恩斯（John M.Keynes,1883-1946）的作品11. 《一个细胞的生命》（The Live of a Cell）美国医师、研究学者汤玛斯（Lewis Thomas,1913-1993）的作品12.《美国历史中的边疆地区（The Frontier in American History）美国史学家特纳（Frederick Jackson Turner,1861-1932）的作品13.《黑人男孩》（Black Boy）美国黑人作家莱特（RichardWright,1908-1960）的自传14.《小说的几个方面》（Aspects of the Novel）英国小说家福斯特（E.M.Forster,1879-1970）的作品15.《南北战争》（The Civil War）美国作家富特（Shelby Foote,1916-）的作品16.《八月的炮声》（The Guns of August）美国历史学家塔其曼夫人（Barbara Tuchman,1912-1989）的作品17.《人类的研究》（The Proper Study of Mankind）英国哲学家、社会历史学家伯林（Isaiah Berlin,1909-）的作品18.《人的本性与命运》（The Nature and Destiny of Man）美国神学家尼布尔（Reinhold Niebuhr,1892-1971）的作品19.《土生子札记》（Notes of a Native Son）美国黑人作家鲍德温（James Baldwin,1924-1988）的散文集20.《爱丽斯.B.托克拉斯的自传》（The Autobiography of Alic B.Toklas）美国前卫派女作家斯坦因（Gertrude Stein,1874-1946）的作品21.《英文写作的风格与要素》（The Elements and Style of English Writing）美国英文教授史屈克（William Strunk,1869-1946）原著，作家怀特（E.B.White,1899-1985）增订的作品22.《美国难题:黑人问题与现代民主》（An American Dilemma:the Negro Problem and Modern Democracy）瑞典经济学家及社会学家米达尔（Gunnar23.《数学原理》（Principia Mathematica）英国数学家、教育家、形而上学家怀德海（Alfred North Whitehead,1861-1947）与哲学家罗素（Bertrand Russell,1872-1970）合写的作品24.《人的不可测量》（The Mismeasure of Man）美国古生物学家、地质学教授古尔德（Stephen Jay Gould,1941-）的作品25.《镜与灯:浪漫理论与批评传统》（The Mirror and the Lamp:Romantic Theory and Critical Tradition）美国英语教育学者亚伯拉姆斯（Meyer Howard Abrams,1912-）的作品26.《溶解的技术》（The Art of the Soluble）英国动物学家梅达沃（PeterB.Medawar,1915-1987）的作品27.《蚁类》（The Ants）德裔美籍生物学家霍尔多伯（Bert Holldobler,1936-）与美国生物学家威尔逊（Edward O.Wilson,1929-）合写的作品28.《正义的原理》（A Theory of Justice）美国哲学家罗尔斯（John Rawls,1921-）的作品29.《艺术与幻象》（Art and Illusion）奥裔英籍艺术史学者龚布瑞克（ErnestH.Gombrich,1909-）的作品30.《英国劳工阶级的形成》（The Making of the English working Class）英国社会史学家汤普逊（E.P.Thompson,1924-1993）的作品31.《黑人的灵魂》（The Souls of Black Folk）美国黑人社会学家杜包斯（W.E.B.Du Bois,1868-1963）的作品32.《伦理学原理》（Principia Ethica）英国哲学家摩尔（G.E.Moore,1873-1958）的作品33.《哲学和文明》（Philosophy and Civilization）美国哲学家、教育学家杜威（John Dewey,1859-1952）的作品34.《生长与体型》（On Growth and Form）英国生物学者汤普森生（Sir D'Arcy W.Thompson,1860-1948）的作品35.《概念与判断》（IIdeas and Opinions）德裔美籍物理学家爱因斯坦（Albert Einstein,1879-1955）的作品36.《杰克逊时代》（TThe Age of Jackson）美国历史学者施莱辛格（Arthur Schlesinger,1888-1965）的作品37.《原子弹的制作》（The Making of the Atomic Bomb）美国作家罗得斯（Richard Rhodes,1937-）的作品38.《黑羔羊与灰猎鹰》（Black Lamb and Grey Falcon）爱尔兰女记者、评论家威丝特（Dame Rebecca West,1892-1938）的作品39.《自传》（Autobiographies）爱尔兰诗人、剧作家叶慈（W.B.Yeats,1865-1939）的作品40.《中国之科学与文明》（Science and CIivilization in China）英国研究中国科学史学者李约瑟（Joseph Needham,1900-1995）的作品41.《向一切告别》（Goodbye to All That）英国诗人格雷夫斯（Robert Graves,1895-1985）的第一次大战回忆录42.《向加泰隆尼亚致敬》（Homage to Catalonia）英国作家欧威尔（George43.《自传》（The Autobiography of Mark Twain）美国作家马克吐温（Mark Twain）的作品44.《危机转捩之儿童:勇气与惧怕之研究》（Children of Crisis:a Study of Courage and Fear）美国精神医疗学者寇尔慈兹（Robert Coles,1929-）的作品45.《历史的研究》（A Study of History）英国历史学家汤恩比（ArnoldJ.Toynbee,1889-1975）的作品46.《富裕社会》（The Affluent Society）美国经济学家盖伯瑞斯（John Kenneth Galbraith,1908-）的作品47.《参与创造世界》（Present at the Creation）美国前国务卿契逊（Dean Acheson,1893-1971）的回忆录48.《大桥》（The Great Bridge）美国作家、电视节目主持人麦库洛夫（David McCullough,1933-）的作品49.《为国家流血》（Patriotic Gore）美国文艺评论家及散文作家威尔逊（Edmund Wilson,1895-1972）的作品50.《塞缪尔.约翰逊》（Samuel Johnson）美国文学传记作家巴特（Walter Jackson Bate,1918-）的作品51.《麦康姆.X自传》（The Autobiography of Malcolm X）美国作家哈雷（Alex Haley,1921-1992）与黑人领袖麦康姆.X（Malcolm X,1925-1965）合写的作品52.《太空英雄》（The Right Stuff）美国新闻记者伍夫（Tom Wolfe,1931-）的作品53.《维多利亚女王时代四名人传》（Emincent Victorians）英国传记作家司特雷奇（Lytton Strachey,1880-1932）的作品54.《劳动》（Working）美国作家、口述历史学家德克尔（Studs Terkel,1912-）的作品55.《黑暗视觉》（Darkness Visible）美国作家史泰隆（William Styron,1925-）的作品56.《不带偏见的想象》（The Liberal Imagination）美国文学评论家特利凌（Lionel Trilling,1905-1975）的作品57.《二次世界大战回忆录》（The Sencond World War）英国前首相丘吉尔（Winston Churchill,1874-1965）的作品58. 《远离非洲》（Out of Africa）丹麦女作家丹妮逊（Isak Dinesen,1885-1962）的作品59.《杰弗逊和他的时代》（Jefferson and His Time）美国史学家马伦（Dumas Malone,1892-1986）的作品60.《美国性格》（In the American Grain）美国诗人威廉斯（William Carlos Willams,1883-1963）的散文集61.《卡迪拉克沙漠》（Cadillac Desert:the American West and Its Disappearing Water）美国自然保护作家赖斯纳（Marc Reisner,1948-）的作品62.《摩根之家》（The House of Morgan）美国专栏作家切诺（Ron Chernow,1949-）的作品63.《熟练的技术》（Sweet Science）美国新闻记者赖伯宁（A.J.Liebling,1904-1963）的作品64.《开放社会及其敌人》（Open Society and Its Enemies）英国哲学家巴伯（Karl Popper,1902-1994）的作品65.《记忆的艺术》（The Art of Memory）英国文化史学者叶芝（FrancesA.Yates,1899-1981）的作品66.《宗教与资本主义的兴起》（Religion and the Rise of Capitaism）英国经济史学者托尼（R.H.Tawney,1880-1962）的作品67.《道德序论》（A Preface to Morals）美国新闻评论家李普曼（Walter Lippmann,1889-1974）的作品68.《知识分子与中国革命》（The Gate of Heavenly Peace:the Chinese and Their Revolution）英国史学家史景迁（Jonathan D.Spence,1936-）的作品69.《科学革命的结构》（The Stucture ofScientific Revolutions）美国哲学家孔恩（Thomas S.Kuhn,1922-1996）的作品70.《吉姆.克劳的奇异生平》（The StrangeCareer of Jim Crow）美国历史学家和教育学家伍德沃德（C.Vann Woodward,1908-）的作品71.《西方的兴起》（The Rise of the West）美国史学家麦尼尔（WilliamH.McNeill,1917-）的作品72.《诺斯替教的福音》（The Gnostic Gospels）美国宗教历史学家佩格尔斯（Elaine Pagels,1943-）的作品73.《詹姆斯.乔伊斯》（James Joyce）美国文学研究者埃尔曼（Richard Ellmann,1918-1987）的作品74.《南丁格尔传》（Florence Nightingale）英国传记作家乌德罕.史密斯（Cecil75.《大战和现代的记忆》（The Great War and Modern Memory）美国作家富谢尔（Paul Fussell,1924-）的作品76.《历史名城》（The City in History）美国人文学者孟福德（Lewis Mumford,1895-1990）的作品77.《呼喊自由之战》（Battle Cry of Freedom:the Civil War）美国历史教育学者麦克佛森（James M.McPherson,1936-）的作品78.《为什么我们不能等待》（Why We Can't Wait）美国黑人领袖马丁.路德.金（Martin Luther King）的作品79.《迪奥多.罗斯福之崛起》（The Rise of Theodore Roosevelt）美国历史学家莫利斯（Edmund Morris,1940-）的作品80.《圣像画法研究》（Studies in Iconology）德裔美籍美术史学家帕诺夫斯基（Erwin Panofsky,1892-1968）的作品81.《战役的一面》（The Face of Battle）美国军事历史学家基根（John Keegan,1934-）的作品82.《自由英国的奇异之亡》（The Strange Death of Liberal England）英裔美籍作家丹杰菲尔德（George Dangerfield,1904-1987）的作品83.《荷兰风俗画家－弗美尔》（Vermeer）英国画家高文（LawrenceGowing,1918-1991）的作品Woodham Smith,1896-1977）84.《亮丽的谎言》（A Bright Lie:John Paul Vann and American in Vietnam）美国新闻记者、作家席汉（Neil Sheehan,1936-）的作品85.《乘夜向西》（West with the Night）英国女飞行先锋马卡姆（BerylMarkham,1902-1986）的作品86.《这男孩的一生》（This Boy's Life）美国作家沃尔夫（Tobias Wolff,1945-）的作品87.《一个数学家的告白》（A Mathematician's Apology）英国数学家哈代（G.H.Hardy,1877-1947）的作品88.《物理的精髓》（Six Easy Pieces,Essentials of Physics,Explained by Its Most Brilliat Teacher）美国物理学家费曼（Richard P.Feyman,1918-1988）的作品89.《顶克湾的清教徒》（Pilgrim at Tinker Creek）美国作家狄拉德（Annie Dillard,1945-）的作品90.《金枝》（The Golden Bough）英国人类学家弗莱齐（James George Frazer,1945-）的作品91.《影子和动作》（Shadow and Aet）美国作家埃利森（Ralph Ellison,1914-1994）的作品92.《权力的经纪人》（The Power Broker）美国作家卡洛（Robert A.Caro,1936-）的作品93.《美国政治传统》（The American Political Tradition）美国历史学家霍夫斯达德（Richard Hofstadter,1916-1970）的作品94.《美国历史之轮廓》（The Contours of American History）美国历史教育学者威廉斯（William Appleman Williams,1921-1990）的作品95.《美国生活的前途》（The Promise of American Life）美国作家、编辑克罗利（Herbert Croly,1869-1930）的作品96.《冷血》（In Cold Blood）美国作家卡波特（Truman Capote,1924-）的作品97.《新闻记者和谋杀犯》（The Journalist and the Murderer）美国作家玛康姆（Janet Malcolm,?）的作品98.《命运的驯服》（The Taming of Chance）美国哲学教育学者哈金（Ian Hacking,1936-）的作品99.《操作指导:吾儿第一年的日志》（Operating Instructions:a Journal of My Son's First Year）美国作家拉莫特（Anne Lamott,1954-）的作品100.《梅尔本勋爵》（Melbourne）英国传记作家西赛尔（Lord DavidCecil,1902-1986）的作品。
英国研究导论—英国历史研究
三、2）相关的知名组织、机构及期刊
III.ii. Influential Institutions and Periodicals
S 组织： S 期刊： S English Historical Review S Royal Historical Society S Journal of British Studies S Institute of Historical Research，IHR S Contemporary British History S The Historical Association S Twentieth Century British History S Journal of Victorian Culture S Victorian Studies S Past and Present
英国研究导论
An Introduction of British Studies in China
——英国历史研究概述
British History Study
李阳
S
一、英国历史研究在中国的奠基
二、英国历史研究在中国的发展 三、英国的英国史研究简述 四、我们从英国历史研究中得到什么？
一、英国历史研究在中国的奠基
陈晓律， 南京大学欧洲研究中心主任；
主要著作： 《1500年以来的英国历史与世界》，三联书店，2013年。 《英国发展的历史轨迹》，南京大学出版社，2009年。 《英国福利制度的由来与发展》，南京大学出版社， 1996年。 《英帝国》，三秦出版社，2000年。 《当代英国》，贵州人民出版社，2000年。 《在传统与变革之间：英国文化模式溯源》，浙江人 Joseph Toynbee, 1889－1975
Mankind and Mother Earth: A Narrative History of the World 《人类文明与大地母亲：一部叙事体世界历史》 A Study of History 《历史研究》 《展望21世纪：汤因比与池田大作对话录》 《中国印象：西方名人论中国》
多佛海滩DoverBeach
多佛海滩马修·阿诺德（1822-1888）王道余译今夜海面平静。
潮水涨满，明月高悬海峡之上；对面法国海岸灯光明灭；英格兰绝壁耸立；远处的宁静海湾，闪烁、无边。
快来窗边，夜晚空气如蜜甜！唯一的是，从那长长的海浪线，从那大海和月光漂洗的土地交会之地，听啊！你听得见那嘎吱嘎吱的呐喊那是海浪带着卵石退去，又抛起，再次回来时，将其送上高地，一来，一去，周而复始，有张有驰，不慌不急，带来了忧愁的永恒调子。
远古的索福克勒斯曾在爱琴海将它听见，带给他脑子的是人类不幸之污浊的落落起起；我们在这声音里也找到一个思想，当在这遥远的北海岸边将它听见。
信仰之海也曾一度涨满，围绕地球的海岸如同一卷明丽的腰带伸展。
但如今我只能听见它忧郁、绵长、退却的呐喊，在后撤，和着夜风的呼吸，撤下这个世界硕大阴沉的边缘和赤裸的碎石滩。
啊，爱人，让我们彼此忠诚坚贞！因为这个世界，它像梦幻之地在我们面前摊开，如此多样，如此美丽，如此崭新，其实没有欢乐，没有爱情，也没有光明，没有确定，没有平和，痛苦也没有助援；而我们在此也如同身处暗夜的平原，响遍了抗争斗杀的阵阵杂乱警鸣，有如无知的队伍趁夜交兵。
Dover Beach (published in 1867), is the most famous poem by Matthew Arnold and is generally considered one of the most important poems of the 19th century.[1] It was first published in the collection New Poems. Analysis"Dover Beach," says Park Honan, "opens with images of confidence and beauty and profound security." Reflecting the traditional notion that the poem was written during Arnold's honeymoon (see Date of compositio n below), he goes on to say, "The speaker might be talking to his bride in a moonlit city near glimmering chalk cliffs." [2] Allott notes that "in ll. 1-6 much of the effectiveness of the descriptio ns depends on the high proportion of monosyllables单音节字and the simplicity of the key epithets 'calm', 'fair', 'tranquil'. In l.6 the window is approached and the sweetness of the air felt before the sound of the sea is first heard in the following lines."[3] Allott also detects an echo of Senancour's Obermann in these opening lines.[4]The sea is calm to-night.The tide is full, the moon lies fairUpon the straits; —on the French coast the lightGleams and is gone; the cliffs of England stand,Glimmering and vast, out in the tranquil bay.Come to the window, sweet is the night-air!Only, from the long line of sprayWhere the sea meets the moon-blanched land,Listen! you hear the grating roarOf pebbles which the waves draw back, and fling,At their return, up the high strand,Begin, and cease, and then again begin,With tremulous cadence slow, and bringThe eternal note of sadness in.In the second section of the poem, Arnold invokes Sophocles (495 BC - 406 BC) who was, Allott tells us, "Arno ld's favourite Greek dramatist." Allott goes on, however, to point out that "no passage in the plays [ofSophocles] is strictly applicable" to the passage in "Dover Beach". [5] Tinker and Lowry suggest passages from the plays Antigone, The Women of Trachis, Oedipus at Colonus, and Philoctetes. But they add that "the Greek author has reference only to the successive blows of Fate which fall upon a particular family which has been devoted to destructio n by the gods. The plight described metaphorically by the English poet is conceived to have fallen upon the who le human race."[6] Allott feels that the passage from the Trachiniae (The Women of Trachis) is closest. Also of note in this section, Arno ld echoes the "distant northern shore" of line 20 in ll. 80-82 of his "Stanzas from the Grande Chartreuse" which appears to have been written at about the same time. [7]Sophocles long agoHeard it on the Aegean, and it broughtInto his mind the turbid ebb and flowOf human misery; weFind also in the sound a thought,Hearing it by this distant northern sea.Honan calls the final lines "the most deeply felt seventeen lines ever written by a modern English poet." [8] He also connects the "vast edges drear" to a possible memory of Wastwater in the Lake District, which Honan describes as "mountainous grey 'scree' running into translucent depths of water." [9]The Sea of FaithWas once, too, at the full, and round earth's shoreLay like the folds of a bright girdle furled.But now I only hearIts melancholy, lo ng, withdrawing roar,Retreating, to the breathOf the night wind, down the vast edges drearAnd naked shingles of the world.Ah, love, let us be trueTo one another! for the world, which seemsTo lie before us like a land of dreams,So various, so beautiful, so new,Hath really neither joy, nor love, nor light,Nor certitude, nor peace, nor help for pain;And we are here as on a darkling plainSwept with confused alarms of struggle and flight,Where ignorant armies clash by night.The "famous simile" in the final lines "descriptive of armies engaged in dubious conflict by night, was probably inspired by the well-known passage in Thucydides' account of the battle of Epipo lae. Here are to befound the details used by Arnold: a night-attack, fought upon a plain at the top of a cliff, in the moonlight, so that the soldiers could not distinguish clearly between friend and foe, with the resulting flight of certain Athenian troops, and various 'alarms,' watchwords, and battle-cries shouted aloud to the increasing confusion of all."[10] Honan notes that John Henry Newman had used the image once "when he defined controversy as a sort of 'night battle'" and the image also occurs in Arthur Hugh Clough's The Bothie of Tober-na-Vuolich.[11] Tinker and Lowry point out that "there is evidence that the passage about the 'night-battle' was familiar coin among Rugbeians" at the time Arnold attended Rugby and studied under his father Dr. Thomas Arnold.[12] "The poem's discourse," Honan tells us, "shifts literally and symbo lically from the present, to Sophocles on the Aegean, from Medeieval Europe back to the present—and the auditory and visual images are dramatic and mimetic and didactic. Exploring the dark terror that lies beneath his happiness in love, the speaker resolves to love—and exegencies of history and the nexus between lovers are the poem's real issues. T hat lovers may be'true/To one another' is a precarious notion: love in the modern city, momentarily gives peace, but nothing else in a post-medieval society reflects or confirms the faithfulness of lovers. Devo id of love and light the world is a maze of confusion left by 'retreating' faith."[13] CompositionAccording to Tinker and Lowry, "a draft of the first twenty-eight lines of the poem" were written in pencil "on the back of a fo lded sheet of paper containing notes on the career of Empedocles."[14] Allott concludes that the notes are probably from around 1849-50.[15] "Empedocles on Etna," again according to Allott, was probably written 1849-52, the notes on Empedocles are likely to be contemporary with the writing of that poem.[16] The final line of this draft is:And naked shingles of the world. Ah love &cTinker and Lowry conclude that this "seem[s] to indicate that the last nine lines of the poem as we know it were already in existence when the portion regarding the ebb and flow of the sea at Dover was composed." This would make the manuscript "a prelude to the concluding paragraph" of the poem in which "there is no reference to the sea or tides."[17] Ah, love, let us be trueTo one another! for the world, which seemsTo lie before us like a land of dreams,So various, so beautiful, so new,Hath really neither joy, nor love, nor light,Nor certitude, nor peace, nor help from pain;And we are here as on a darkling plainSwept with confused alarms of struggle and flight,Where ignorant armies clash by night.Arnold's visits to Dover may also provide some clue to the date of composition. Allott has Arno ld in Dover in June 1851 and again in October of that year "on his return from his delayed continental honeymoon." To critics who conclude that ll. 1-28 were written at Dover and ll. 29-37 "were rescued from some discarded poem," Allott suggests the contrary, i.e. that the final lines "were written at Dover in late June," while " ll. 29-37 were written in London shortly afterwards." [18] InfluenceAnthony Hecht, US Poet Laureate, replied to Dover Beach" in his poem "The Dover Bitch".So there stood Matthew Arnold and this girlWith the cliffs of England crumbling away behind them,And he said to her, "Try to be true to me,And I'll do the same for you, for things are badAll over, etc. etc."The anonymous figure to whom Arno ld addresses his poem becomes the subject of Hecht's poem. In Hecht's poem she "caught the bitter allusion to the sea", imagined "what his whiskers would feel like / On the back of her neck", and felt sad as she looked out across the channel. "And then she got really angry" at the thought that she had become "a sort of mournful cosmic last resort." After which she says "one or two unprintable things."But you mustn't judge her by that. What I mean to say is,She's really all right. I still see her once in a whileAnd she always treats me right.[19]Kenneth and Miriam Allott, referring to "Dover Bitch" as "an irreverent jeu d'esprit," nonetheless see, particularly in the line "a sort of mournful cosmic last resort," an extension of the original's poem main theme.[20] "Dover Beach" has been mentio ned in of a number of novels, plays, poems, and films. Joseph Heller's novel Catch-22 alludes to the poem in the chapter Havermyer: "the open-air movie theater in which—for the daily amusement of the dying—ignorant armies clashed by night on a collapsible screen." In Fahrenheit 451, author Ray Bradbury has his protagonist Guy Montag read part of "Dover Beach" to his wife Mildred and her friends. Samuel Barber composed a setting of "Dover Beach" for string quartet and baritone. In Dodie Smith's novel, I Capture the Castle,the book's protagonist remarks that Debussy's Clair de Lune reminds her of "Dover Beach" (in the film adaptation of the novel, the character quotes (or, rather, misquotes) a line from the poem). It is also mentioned in Saturday by Ian McEwan, The Last Gentleman by Walker Percy, A Song For Lya by George R.R. Martin, Rush song "Armour and Sword", from the album Snakes and Arrows (lyrics by Neil Peart), Nora's Lost, a short drama by Alan Haehnel, Daljit Nagra's prize-winning poem "Look We Have Coming to Dover!" which quotes the line, "So vario us, so beautiful, so new" as its epigraph, and the poem "Moon" by Billy Collins. Kevin Kline's character, Cal Go ld, in the film The Anniversary Party recites part of "Dover Beach" as a toast. The poem has also provided a ready source for titles: A Darkling Plain by Philip Reeve, As On a Darkling Plain by Ben Bova (the title refers to a lunar plain covered with strange unexplained artifacts), Clash by Night a play by Clifford Odets (later made into a film noir by Fritz Lang), and Norman Mailer's National Book Award winner The Armies of the Night about the 1967 March on the Pentagon.Even in the U. S. Supreme Court thepoem has had its influence: Justice William Rehnquist, in his concurring opinio n in Northern Pipeline Co. v. Marathon Pipe Line Co., 458 U.S. 50 (1982), compared judicial decisions regarding the power of Congress to create legislative courts to "landmarks on a judicial 'darkling plain' where ignorant armies have clashed by night."。
张君劢是中国现代著名的政治活动家...
中南民族大学硕士学位论文摘要张君劢是中国现代著名的政治活动家和思想家，一直徘徊于政治与学问之间。
他先后翻译了密尔、拉斯基等人的著作，介绍了倭伊铿、柏格森和汤因比等人的思想，还创立了国家社会党，参与组建了民盟和多次宪法的起草工作，在国家危难之际积极探求民族建国方案。
张君劢经常称自己的政治思想是英国的。
研究发现，拉斯基的政治学说对张君劢影响很大。
其著作《政治典范》也是张君劢系统翻译的惟一一本著作。
张君劢总结拉斯基学说的宗旨是国家、社会团体和个人之间相剂于平，而在30 年代的“民主与独裁”的大讨论中，他提出修正的民主政治，便是要求在个人自由与国家权力之间求得一种平衡。
可见，拉斯基对张君劢的思想有一定的影响。
因此，本文以《政治典范》为核心，在阐释拉斯基政治思想的基础上，着重分析张君劢与拉斯基政治思想的关联性。
从主权论、权利论与社会制度改革三个方面重点介绍《政治典范》的主要内容和张君劢对拉斯基思想的吸收和背离。
并进而从张君劢思想的复杂性和中国特殊的历史情势两方面分析背离的原因，以此来理解近代中国学人的“责任伦理”。
关键词：张君劢；拉斯基；主权论；权利论；社会制度改革张君劢政治思想研究——以拉斯基《政治典范》的翻译为核心AbstractZhang Junmai, who wandered between the politics and the scholarship was a modern Chinese famous activist and thinker. He had translated John Stuart Mill‟s and Laski‟s book,introdused Rudolph Euken‟s, Henri Bergson‟s, and Arnold Joseph Toynbee‟s thought, founded National Socialist Party, joined the founding of the NLD, and drafted the constitution. He researched the way of founding a Nation-state in a dangerous period.Zhang Junmai had claimed that he had the English polict thought. By studying, he was influenced by Laski‟s polict thought ski‟s “Political Model” was the only one book, which was translated systemly by Zhang Junmai. In Zhang‟s opinion, Las ki‟s purpose is the average of the nation, social group, and the personal.In the last century 30‟s argument betweet “Democracy and Dictatorship”, he advocated the average of the personal democracy and the nation‟s power. So, Laski‟s polict thought really influenced Zhang Junmai.This article‟s core is the study of the contact between Laski‟s and Zhang Junmai‟s thought by the study of “Political Model”, on the basis of the elucidating of Laski‟s politic thought. I will introduce “Political Model” by the “Study of the power”,“Study of the right” and “Study of the social system‟s reform”, research Zhang‟s absorption and departure from Laski‟s thought, and know the reason through the conplexity of Zhang‟s thought and the Chinese history. By this study, we can learn much more about Chinese “Ethical Responsibility”.Key Words: Zhang Junmai; Laski; Study of the power; Study of the right;Social system‟s reform中南民族大学硕士学位论文导言张君劢（1887-1969），现代新儒家，政治活动家，是中国近代史上著名的宪政主义者，被成为“中华民国宪法之父”。
《泰晤士报文学评论副刊》近50年来最具影响力的一百本书
Arthur Koestler: Darkness at Noon 《正午的黑暗》
André Malraux: Man's Fate 《人的命运》
Franz Neumann: Behemoth: The Structure and Practice of National Socialism
Primo Levi: If This is a Man
Claude Lévi-Strauss: A World on the Wane（即Tristes tropiques的英译本 1955）列维·施特劳斯：《忧郁的热带》
Czeslaw Milosz: The Captive Mind《被禁锢的头脑》
有关纳粹主义的第一部重要著作是莱曼（Franz Neumann）于1942年出版的《巨兽》（Behemoth: The Structure and Practice of National Socialism 1935-1944, 1963）
George Orwell: Animal Farm 《动物农庄》
《泰晤士报文学评论副刊》近50年来最具影响力的一百本书
The Hundred Most Influential Books Since the War (TLS)
The Times Literary Supplement
《泰晤士报文学评论副刊》
1.Books of the 1940s
Mary Douglas: Purity and Danger
玛丽·道格拉斯（Mary Douglas，人类学家）：《洁净与危险》（Purity and Danger）
北大教授推荐
北大教授推荐——对我最有影响的几本书北京大学党委宣传部收集到了一部分教授的治学感言，学者们在其中都谈到了对自己最有影响的几本书。
图书馆将这些书目汇总起来，标明馆藏地点，推荐给读者。
安平秋北京大学中文系教授题名责任者出版信息馆藏址索书号史记司马迁中华书局2000 人文社科区K204.2/31d1(3) 管子房玄龄注刘续增注上海古籍出版社1989 闭架借书处111.171/3002.3论语孔子杨伯峻杨逢彬注译岳麓书社2000 库本阅览室/教参阅览室B222.24/13牛虻艾·丽·伏尼契(E.L.Voynich) 李俍民译中国青年出版社1953 库本阅览室/闭架借书处/文学借阅室/美国文献室853.9/5048古文观止吴楚材吴调侯选中华书局1959 文学借阅室810.08/2624.8 蔡运龙北京大学城市与环境学院教授题名责任者出版信息馆藏址索书号牛虻艾·丽·伏尼契(E.L.Voynich) 李俍民译中国青年出版社1953 库本阅览室/闭架借书处/文学借阅室/美国文献室853.9/5048毛泽东选集毛泽东人民出版社1951 库本阅览室4739.14/2135.24哥德尔、艾舍尔、巴赫集异璧之大成侯世达郭维德等译商务印书馆1996 自然科学区TP1/5地理学性质的透视R.哈特向黎樵译商务印书馆1963 库本阅览室/闭架借书处K90/17地理学中的解释大卫·哈维高泳源等译商务印书馆1996 库本阅览室K90/12 曹凤岐北京大学光华管理学院教授题名责任者出版信息馆藏址索书号矛盾论毛泽东人民出版社1952 闭架借书处/库本阅览室A424/4.1实践论毛泽东人民出版社1976 闭架借书处/库本阅览室A424/3.3资本论马克思人民出版社2004 库本阅览室/教参阅览室A123/2.17 中国近代史范文澜人民出版社1955 库本阅览室/闭架借书处917/4403.5辩证唯物主义和历史 唯物主义艾思奇 人 民出版社 1960库本阅览室/闭架借书处B0-0/17 曹维孝 北京大学化学与分子工程学院 教授 题名 责任者 出版信息馆藏址 索书号 水浒传 施耐庵，罗贯中 李永祜点校 中华书局 1997库本阅览室I242.4/1q居里夫 人卢永建编译 山 东科学技术出版社 1979 库本阅览室 979.93797/1867d钢铁是怎样炼 成的奥斯特洛夫斯基外语教学与研究 1986闭架借书处/库本阅览室H359.4/15 贵族之家屠格涅夫 丽尼译 人民文学出版社 1955库本阅览室/文学借阅 室 /闭架借书处883/3576a1 牛虻艾·丽·伏尼契(E.L.Voynich) 李 俍民译中国青年出版社 1953库本阅览室/闭架借书处/文学借阅室/美国文献室853.9/5048 饥饿岛，死亡岛--日 美瓜岛战记实南言 北京广播学院出版社 1994昌增益 北京大学生命科学学院 教授 题名 责任者 出版信息馆藏址 索书号 孙子兵法 孙武 北京燕山出版社 1995 库本阅览室 E892.25/25道德经老子三秦出版社 2002库本阅览室/人文社 科区B223.14/6论语孔子 杨伯峻, 杨逢彬注译岳麓书社 2000 库本阅览室/教参 阅览室B222.24/13 The Structure of Scientific RevolutionsThomas S. Kuhn China Social Sciences Pub.House1999自然科学区 N02/K955/1999 A Study of HistoryToynbee, Arnold JosephChina Social Sciences Pub.House1999人文社科区 K103/T668ab常文保 北京大学化学与分子工程学院 教授 题名责任者出版信息馆藏址索书号 Qualitative Chemical Analysis of Inorganic Substances Noyes, Arthur A. Macmillan Company 1942 闭架借书处544/N874cTextbook of Quantitative Inorganic Analysis Kolthoff, I. M.The Macmillan company 1952自然科 学区 O655-43/K835大学普通化学付鹰人民教育出版社 1979-1981 库本阅览室/自然 科学区O6/34定性分析张锡瑜高等教育出版社1965 北大文库/库本阅览室/ 闭架借书处544/1181化学元素的发现M. E. 韦克思黄素封译商务印书馆1965 库本阅览室/闭架借书处541.029/5442a陈滨北京大学工学院教授题名责任者出版信息馆藏址索书号钢铁是怎样炼成的奥斯特洛夫斯基外语教学与研究1986 闭架借书处/库本阅览室H359.4/15微积分学教程菲赫金果尔茨杨弢亮, 叶彦谦译高等教育出版社1953-1959 库本阅览室515/5420a自然哲学的数学原理牛顿赵振江译商务印书馆2006 库本阅览室O301/1.3朗道物理学丛书朗道·栗弗席兹人民教育出版社闭架借书处/库本阅览室A treatise onanalytical dynamicsPars, L. A. Heinemann 1965 物理学系531.3/P25t 陈佳洱北京大学物理学院教授题名责任者出版信息馆藏址索书号华家的儿子陈伯吹北新书局1934居里夫人传艾芙·居里贾文浩, 贾文渊, 贾令仪译北京燕山出版社2005 库本阅览室K835.6561/3i绞索套着脖子时的报告伏契克刘辽逸译人民文学出版社1959 闭架借书处/库本阅览室889.289/5520.1原子物理学史包尔斯基卢鹤绂等译人民教育出版社1959 物理学系530.11/9010a:2,2 Particle Accelerators M. StanleyLivingston,JohnP. Blewett.McGraw-Hill 1962陈平原北京大学中文系教授题名责任者出版信息馆藏址索书号陶庵梦忆張岱贝叶山房民国25[1936] 闭架借书处/库本阅览室818.96/1123儒林外史吴敬梓华夏出版社1994 库本阅览室/文学借阅室I242.4/2.6文史通义章学诚中华书局1956 闭架借书处/库本阅览室071.7/0070.13国故论衡章太炎上海大共和日报馆民国2[1913] 闭架借书处/库本阅览室/教参071/0090阅览室野草鲁迅鲁迅全集出版社民国36[1947] 闭架借书处/库本阅览室/北大文库特藏室817.8/7748.7陈庆云北京大学政府管理学院教授题名责任者出版信息馆藏址索书号爱因斯坦文集第一卷爱因斯坦许良英,范岱年编译商务印书馆1976-1979 库本阅览室/闭架借书处N52/1 (1)爱因斯坦文集第二卷爱因斯坦许良英,范岱年编译商务印书馆1976-1980 库本阅览室/闭架借书处N52/1 (2)科学史及其与哲学和宗教的关系W· C·丹皮尔李珩译商务印书馆1975 教参阅览室/闭架借书处N091/1系统科学许国志上海科技教育出版社2000 库本阅览室/自然科学区N94/146Public policyanalysis : anintroductionDunn, William N. Prentice-Hall 1981 闭架借书处D035/D922陈晓非北京大学地球与空间科学学院教授题名责任者出版信息馆藏址索书号钢铁是怎样炼成的奥斯特洛夫斯基外语教学与研究1986 闭架借书处/库本阅览室H359.4/15毛泽东选集毛泽东人民出版社1951 库本阅览室4739.14/2135.24 力学朗道高等教育出版社2007 库本阅览室O3/56科学研究的艺术W.I.B.贝弗里奇陈捷译科学出版社1979 教参阅览室/闭架借书处/库本阅览室501/1454.1Quantitative Seismology Aki, Keiiti W. H. Freeman 1980 自然科学区/闭架借书处P315.0/Ak51陈兴良北京大学法学院教授题名责任者出版信息馆藏址索书号法的形而上学原理权利的科学康德沈叔平译商务印书馆1991 闭架借书处/北大文库/库本阅览室B516.31/15法哲学原理黑格尔(G.W.F.Hegel) 范扬,张企泰译商务印书馆1961 闭架借书处/教参阅览室/ 库本阅览室390.0191/04641844年经济学-哲学手稿马克思刘丕坤译人民出版社1979 库本阅览室/闭架借书处A121/14论犯罪与刑罚贝卡里亚黄风译中国法制出版社2002 库本阅览室D917/111.1犯罪构成的一般学说 特拉伊宁 中国人民大学 1958闭架借书处/库本阅览室394.2/3704 陈学飞 北京大学教育学院 教授 题名 责任者 出版信息 馆藏址 索书号毛泽东选集毛泽东人民出版社 1951库本阅览室 4739.14/2135.24 Higher Education In Transition ：A History of American Colleges and Universities Brubacher, John Seiler Harper & Row 1976 美国文献室G649.7129/B83.3大学的功用Clark Kerr 陈学飞等译江西教育出版社 1993 库本阅览室/北大文库/教参阅览室/ 季老工作室G649.712/13 老子道德经 王弼 注 扫叶山房 民国14[1925] 库本阅览室 111.121/1017.2 鲁滨孙漂流记丹尼尔·笛福 陈健健译广州出版社 2006医文艺书室I561.44/DF-3(Y0)陈占安 北京大学马克思主义学院 教授 题名 责任者 出版信息馆藏址 索书号毛泽东 选集 毛泽东 人民出 版社 1951 库本阅览室4739.14/2135.24大众哲学 艾思奇人民出版社 2006库本阅览室/人文社科区 B0-0/182.1 古文观止吴楚材, 吴调侯编选上海古籍 出版社 2006 库本阅览室H194.1/64.1智囊补 冯梦龙辑 上海古籍出版社 1993 库本阅览室 I214.82/70:17管理学哈罗德·孔茨, 海因茨·韦里克 郝国华等译经济科学出版社 1993 库本阅览室/闭架借书处C93/137.2 陈志达 北京大学化学与分子工程学院 教授 题名 责任者 出版信息馆藏址 索书号 红楼梦 曹雪芹浙江古籍出版社 1993库本阅览室 I242.4/4d 水浒传施耐庵，罗贯中 李永祜点校中华书局 1997 库本阅览室I242.4/1q西游记 吴承恩 华夏出版社 1994库本阅览室/文学借阅室I242.4/134 程玉华 北京大学信 息科学技术学院 教授 题名 责任者 出版信息馆藏址 索书号 毛泽东选集毛泽 东人民出版社 1977闭架借书处A41/1b第三次浪潮托夫勒三联书店1984 季老工作室G303/9.1孙子兵法孙武北京燕山出版社1995 库本阅览室E892.25/25艳阳天浩然人民文学出版社1976 库本阅览室813.882/3423g1(1) 三国演义罗贯中沈伯俊点校浙江古籍出版社1997 人文社科区I242.4/3.16迟惠生北京大学信息科学技术学院教授题名责任者出版信息馆藏址索书号毛泽东选集毛泽东人民出版社1977 闭架借书处A41/1b新华字典新华辞书社编写商务印书馆2004 人文社科区H163/51.2现代英汉词典外语教学与研究出版社词典编辑室编外语教学与研究出版社1990 工具书区H316/63a 丛京生北京大学信息科学技术学院讲座教授题名责任者出版信息馆藏址索书号The art of computer programming Knuth, DonaldErvinReading, Mass.,Addison-Wesley Pub. 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McGraw-Hill Co. 1975黄宗良北京大学国际关系学院教授题名责任者出版信息馆藏址索书号三国演义罗贯中著沈伯俊校点浙江古籍出版社1997 文学借阅室I242.4/3.16 唐诗三百首蘅塘退士编选胡可先注评河北人民出版社2006 新书阅览室I222.742/188辨证唯物主义历史唯物主义艾思奇主编人民出版社1978 闭架借书处/库本阅览室103.2/4464.2列宁全集列宁人民出版社1958 库本阅览室A2/1让历史来审判罗伊·梅德韦杰夫著何宏江等译东方出版社2005 社会学系A742/03 姜伯驹北京大学数学科学学院教授题名责任者出版信息馆藏址索书号数学万花镜胡·施坦豪斯(H.Steinhans)著裘光明译湖南教育出版社1999 库本阅览室O1-49/40直观几何 D. 希尔伯特, S. 康福森著王联芳译高等教育出版1959-1964 库本阅览室517/0471数学是什么柯朗(Courant,R.),罗宾斯(Robbins，H.)著左平张饴慈译科学出版社1985 库本阅览室/自然科学区怎样解题波利亚(G. 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大王花的背景知识补充
大王花的背景知识补充大王花中文版本（from Baidu）在苏门答腊的热带森林里，生长着一种奇特的植物，它的名字叫大花草。
它一生只开一朵花，花也特别大，一般直径有1米左右，最大的直径可达1.4米，是世界上最大的花，因此又叫它“大王花”。
这种花有5片又大又厚的花瓣，整个花冠呈鲜红色，上面还有点点白斑，每片长约30厘米，一朵花就有6—7公斤重，因此看上去绚丽而又壮观。
花心像个面盆，可以盛7—8公斤水，是世界“花王”。
大花草的花很特别，在刚开放时有点香味，但不几天就变得臭不可闻了，这种令人难受的恶臭能传到几里以外，招来一些逐臭的蝇类和甲虫为它传粉。
这种植物更为奇特的是，它既没有叶子，也没有茎，而是寄生在葡萄科爬岩藤属植物的根或茎的下部。
起初，在寄主的寄生部位藤皮裂开，渐渐鼓出一个小包；以后，小包慢慢地长大，9个月后便开出一朵硕大的花朵。
四五天后便开始凋谢，花瓣逐渐萎缩，颜色也由红变黑，几周后便烂成一团糊状物。
受精后的雌蕊，逐渐发育成果实，从受精到果实成熟，大约需要7个月左右的时间。
那么，大王花的种子究竟是怎样进入寄主体内的呢？至今仍然是个谜。
由于这种植物的专门寄主并非随处可见，而种子进入寄主体内也有很大的偶然性，加之它又生长在热带雨林里，所以能有机会见到这种奇特植物的人不多，故常常给人以神秘莫测之感。
1818年英国探险家、植物爱好者莱佛士在苏门答腊西南部的热带雨林中首次发现了大王花，为了纪念这一重要发现，植物学家就以他的姓氏作为这一新属和新科的学名。
19世纪中叶，英国博物学家华莱士，在马来群岛的热带雨林中考察时，也曾见到了大王花。
但是，有的植物学家在东南亚的密林中寻找多年，却未能见到它的踪迹。
由于大王花赖以生存的热带雨林受到人类的大量采伐，加上当地人作为药用而对它滥采，使得这种植物濒临灭绝的境地。
1984年国际自然和自然资源保护联盟将大王花列为“世界范围内遭受最严重威胁的濒危植物”，要求人们加以保护。
《呼啸山庄》的意象研究
《呼啸山庄》的意象研究艾米莉·勃朗特是十九世纪英国最重要的小说家之一。
她唯一的小说《呼啸山庄》被公认为英国小说中最伟大的作品之一，在英国乃至世界文学史上占有重要的地位。
作者在《呼啸山庄》中运用了象征手法和大量的意象，为小说增色不少。
本文笔者将小说中的意象归类为自然意象和非自然意象两类。
在自然意象中选取荒原，天气和季节，火焰，飞蛾，兰铃花和石楠丛作为研究对象；在非自然意象中选取书籍、窗户、鬼魂、呼啸山庄和画眉山庄作为研究对象。
用文学批评的原理，分析这些具有代表性的意象，探讨作品中的象征手法的运用。
以此解读《呼啸山庄》，帮助读者更好地理解这一部十九世纪英国最杰出的文学巨作。
1．I ntroductionEmily Brontë (1818-1848),the author of Wuthering Heights, is the famous poetess and novelist in the nineteenth century of English literature. However, she is a novelist so much more than she is a poetess, for the only novel Wuthering Heights, which makes her the one of the most famous novelists in nineteenth century of English literature, even in the world literature. And Wuthering Heights, as well as Jane Eyre (by Charlotte Brontë), is considered as a precious pearl of English literary heritage.Nevertheless, when Wuthering Heights was first published in 1847, there was little admiration but a torrent of abuse. Owing to the writing style used in Wuthering Heights against the one in that time, Victorian literary critics and readers could not understand this work. Nowadays, more and more readers accept and admire this novel. Besides, considerable scholars study this classical work, basing on the theory of religion, psychology, esthetics, literature and art and the like. Especially, symbolism and imagery used in quantity in Wuthering Heights make the story meaningful and vividly, which impresses readers favourably.By analyzing some critical images, this thesis studies symbolism and imageryused in Wuthering Heights to explore the real value of this novel and help readers to understand this excellent work better . from /2．Background of Wuthering Heights2.1Personal experience of Emily BrontëThe author Emily Brontë lived an eccentric, closely guarded life. She was born in 1818, two years after Charlotte and a year and a half before her sister Anne, who also became an author. Her father worked as a church rector, and her aunt, who raised the Brontë children after their mother died, was deeply religious. Emily Brontë did not take to her aunt’s Christian fervor; the character of Joseph, a caricature of an evangelical, may have been inspired by her aunt’s religiosity. The Brontës lived in Haworth, a Yorkshire village in the midst of the moors. These wild, desolate expanses—later the setting of Wuthering Heights—made up the Brontës’ daily environment, and Emily lived among them her entire life. She died in 1848, at theage of thirty.2.2 The social background of writingThe thirty years of Emily Brontë’s whole life was the very turbulent times in English history, when capitalism developed on and on, and its internal disadvantage was revealed more and more. The conflicts between employers and employees became intense; unemployed workers were poorer and poorer; a great many of child labors were tortured to death. The famous English poetess Elizabeth Barrett Browning expressed her objection to employing child labors in her poem The Cry of the Children. Besides the British government suppressed democratic reform movement and labor movement cruelly, such as Peterloo Massacre, which was reflected in literature works in that time.Emily Brontë’s family located between town and wasteland, which was near an industrial estate. Emily, with her sister, often took a walk there. On the one hand, Brontë sisters were impressed by the wild and free atmosphere of wasteland; on the other hand, they witnessed the development of capitalism in the town. Furthermore their father was a radical member of Conservative Party, who was against Luddite at his early age, and then stood by Whowose worker for their strike. So Brontë sisters grew up under the nurture of politics, especially Emily, who was incommunicative on the surface but enthusiastic in internal and paid close attention to politics, which done preparation for the writing of Wuthering Heights.2.3 Different comments on Wuthering HeightsWuthering Heights, which has long been one of the most popular and highly regarded novels in English literature, seemed to hold little promise when it was published in 1847, selling very poorly and receiving only a few mixed reviews. Victorian readers found the book shocking and inappropriate in its depiction of passionate, ungoverned love and cruelty (despite the fact that the novel portrays no sex or bloodshed), and the work was virtually ignored. Even Emily Brontë’s sister Charlotte—an author whose works contained similar motifs of Gothic love and desolate landscapes—remained ambivalent toward the unapologetic intensity of her sister’s novel. In a preface to the book, which she wrote shortly after Emily Brontë’s death, Charlotte Brontë stated, “Whether it is right or advisable to create beings likeHeathcliff, I do not know. I scarcely think it is.” [1]1Today, Wuthering Heights has a secure position in the canon of world literature, and Emily Brontë is revered as one of the finest writers—male or female—of the nineteenth century. Like Charlotte Brontë’s Jane Eyre, Wuthering Heights is based partly on the Gothic tradition of the late eighteenth century, a style of literature that featured supernatural encounters, crumbling ruins, moonless nights, and grotesque imagery, seeking to create effects of mystery and fear. But Wuthering Heights transcends its genre in its sophisticated observation and artistic subtlety. The novel has been studied, analyzed, dissected, and discussed from every imaginable critical perspective, yet it remains unexhausted. And while the novel’s symbolism, themes, structure, and language may all spark fertile exploration, the bulk of its popularity may rest on its unforgettable characters. As a shattering presentation of the doomed love affair between the fiercely passionate Catherine and Heathcliff, it remains one of the most haunting love stories in all of literature.The English poet and critic, Matthew Arnold, says: “Her (Emily) extraordinary passion, feverish feelings, gloominess and boldness are incomparable after Byro n.”[2]234 The famous English writer Virginia Woolf said in her book The Common Reader, First Series: Jane Eyre and Wuthering Heights, ”Wuthering Heights is a more difficult book to understand than Jane Eyre, because Emily was a greater poet than Charlotte. When Charlotte wrote she said with eloquence and splendor and passion ‘I love’, ‘I hate’, ‘I suffer’. Her experience, though more intense, is on a level with our own. But there is no ‘I’in Wuthering Heights.There are no governesses. There are no employers. There is love, but it is not the love of men and women. Emily was inspired by some more general conception. The impulse which urged her to create was not her own suffering or her own injuries. She looked out upon a world cleft into gigantic disorder and felt within her the power to unite it in a book. That gigantic ambition is to be felt throughout the novel—a struggle, half thwarted but of superb conviction, to say something th rough the mouths of her characters which is not merely ‘I love’ or ‘I hate’, but ‘we, the whole human race’ and ‘you, the eternal powers…’the sentence remains unfinished. ” [3]34The English critic Arnold Kettle concluded in the book An introduction to the English novel, “Wuthering Heights is an expression in the imaginative terms of art of the stresses and tensions and conflicts, personal and spiritual, of nineteenth-century capitalist society.” [2]2683．Symbolism and imagery in Wuthering HeightsEmily Bronte uses both symbolism and imagery in her novel. The two houses, Wuthering Heights and Thrushcross Grange, are highly symbolic. The Heights represents a “storm,” whereas the Grange stands for “calm.” Lockwood explains the meaning of “wuthering” as “descriptive of the atmospheric tumult to which its statio n is exposed in stormy weather.”Brontë takes pains to stress the house's ordinary, unfinished, and provincial nature. But its chief characteristic is exposure to the power of the wind, which makes it appear fortress-like. It is an appropriate house for the Earnshaw family: they are the fiery, untamed children of the storm, especiallyHeathcliff, the foundling. On the other hand, Thrushcross Grange is set in a civilized valley and stands in a sheltered park. Here, the effects of weather are always gentler, filtered, and diluted. The Grange is a house of soft, clinging luxury, and its inhabitants are guarded b y servants and bulldogs. It is “a splendid pla ce,”rich, carpeted and cushioned with crimson. In contrast to the Heights, it belongs to “civilization,” which values comfort more than life itself. Thus, it is a natural home for the children of calm: the gentle, passive and timid Lintons.Animal imagery is used by Emily Brontë to project her insights into human character. Catherine describes Heathcliff as a wolfish man. Isabella Linton, after she bec omes his wife, compares him to “a tiger, or a venomous serpent.” Nelly Dean sees his despair after Catherine's death as not like that of a man, but of a savage beast. Heathcliff himself, when he wishes to insult his enemies, compares them to animals. However, these are not wild creatures he respects for their strength, but gentler animals that he despises. Ed gar Linton is “a lamb” that “threatens like a bull.” Linton, Heathcliff's son, is a “pull ing chicken.” Heathcliff hates Hindley Earnshaw because he sees him as the author of all his misfortunes. When he dies before the arrival of the doctor, Heathcliff bru tally says that “the beast has changed into carrion.”Symbolism is implicit also in various events of the novel. For example, on the fateful night of Heathcliff's departure fro m the Heights, the storm comes “rattling over the Heights in full fury.”It symbolizes the storm that eventually destroys the lives of Cathy and Heathcliff. Then again, after three years, on Heathcliff's return, he and Cathy meet by the light of fire and candlelight, symbolizing the warmth of their affection for one another. In these ways, and many others, images and symbols in Wuthering Heights add meaning to characters, theme, tone, and mood.4. Nature images in Wuthering Heights4.1 The main image of moorsAs Emily Brontë lays emphasis on landscape throughout Wuthering Heights using repetition, the uncultivated and wild Yorkshire moors become of a symbolic importance, representing the disorderly behaviour at Wuthering Heights. The mystery of the moors (meeting places, lurking corners) cannot be separated from mysteries of the characters. Brontë portrays both the harshness and the beauty of the Yorkshire moors, using it, not only as a background, but also as a central image of the passions and longings of the characters. The Yorkshire moors are where Catherine and Heathcliff played as children, and are often described throughout the novel as being isolated, haunting and primitive. It is a symbol of Catherine and Heathcliff’s wilderness and a representation of their love for one another. The moors are symbolic as a place of freedom and escape where Catherine and Heathcliff could get away from the barriers and social expectations of society which divided them. [4]564.2 The images of seasons and weatherThe seasons are used in the novel as symbols to create mood and suggest the passing of time. The novel opens in winter with snowstorm, symbolic of the atmosphere at Wuthering Heights and associated with grief and tragedy. The novel ends with the flowering of spring, mirroring the passions that fuel the drama and the peace that follows its resolution. Moreover, Catherine compares her love for Linton to the seasons “foliage in the woods”and her lo ve for Heathcliff to the rocks “My love for Heathcliff resembles the eternal rocks…” [2]132Therefore, it is not just love that Catherine and Heathcliff seek but a higher, spiritual existence which is permanent and unchanging.The theme of Wuthering Heights, by Emily Brontë, is a universe of opposing of forces-storm and calm. On the storm side, the land of storm was also known as Wuthering Heights. The house that is set up high on the windy moors and is highlycharged with emotion of hatred, cruelty, violence, and savage love. In comparison, on the calm side, the land of calm was also known as Thrushcross Grange. Unlike Wuthering Heights, Thrushcross Grange is set up in the peaceful valley and is much less full of hatred. Nevertheless, instead of focusing directly on storm and calm, the antithesis of storm and calm and branches is used into more specific comparisons. Three main antitheses are developed in Brontë’s novel originating from storm and calm and those are: the antithesis between man and nature, the antithesis of good and evil, and the antithesis between life and death. However, instead of using the correct, original antitheses in her novel, Emily Brontë does away with all three of the original antitheses.The first antithesis Emily Brontë does away with is the antithesis between man and nature. Emily Brontë does not animate man revealed against inanimate nature. According to Cecil, “Men and nature to her are equally living in the same way. To her an angry man and an angry sky are not just metaphorically alike, they are actually alike in kind; different manifestation s of a single spiritual reality”[5]81. Emily Brontë does not see nature as just being a setting her novel, each piece of nature is associated is a reflection of a character in the novel. Some characters share the same nature which gives them their like qualities. In the novel, Young Cathy and Linton Heathcliff describe what their most perfect idea of heaven’s happiness is. Cathy says his would be only half alive, and he said Cathy’s would be drunk. Their choices represent no chance preference, but the fundamental bias of their different natures. Each is expressing his or her instinctively felt kinship with that aspect of nature of which he or she is the human counterpart. By combining man and nature together, Brontë does away with the original antithesis.The second antithesis Emily Brontë does away with is the antithesis of good and evil. Typically, there is a fine line between good and evil, but what Brontë does is move away from that and almost combines the two. For example, Young Cathy at first does not like Hareton Earnshaw, but as novel progresses, she begins to change her mind and eventually ends up getting married with hi m. Cecil states, “To call some aspects of life good and some evil is to accept some experiences and to reject others. Her characters set no bridle on their destructive passions; nor do they repent of their destructive deeds” [5]82. With this example of Young Cathy, Brontë does away with the original antithesis of good and evil.The third antithesis Emily Brontë does away with is the antithesis between lifeand death. Cecil explains, “The spiritual principle of which the soul is a manifestation is active in this life; therefore, the disembodied soul continues to be active in this life”[5]83. Emily Brontë believes in the immortality of the soul. Cecil states that the characters my regret dying, but it is only because death means a temporary separation from those with whom they feel an affinity. In the novel, this is clearly seen with Catherine and her ghost. At one point, Catherine Earnshaw dreams that she goes to heaven, but is miserable there because she is homesick for Wuthering Heights; the native country of her spirit, but when in fact she does die, her spirit does take up its abode at Wuthering Heights. The belief in the continuation of the soul shows that Brontë moves away from the original antithesis between life and death.T he influential theory of storm and calm are key concepts in the author’s thought and works. All three antitheses mentioned, derived from the original theme of storm and calm. Emily Brontë however, used these antitheses in a different way, and moved away from them. By combining man and nature, good and evil, and life and death, Brontë has not only written a tragic love story but a work of literature full of layered themes.4.3 The images of fire and flameThroughout Victorian literature there is a constant theme of fire and flame imagery representing an innate passionate, masculine force. The passion of Wuthering Heights is personified throughout the novel by the fires that are within the manor. All life and activity in the house takes place next to an immense fire. This contrasts the fires of Thrushcross Grange which are almost non-existent. Passion is the driving force that motivates all the “children of the storm” and so this is significant in that the fire is the only source of light in the hous e. Catherine's passion is contrasted to the coolness of Linton, whose “cold blood cannot be worked into a fever” [6]83.However, Catherine's devotion to Heathcliff is immediate and absolute “Whatever our souls are made of, his and mine are the same, and Linton's is as different as a moonbeam from lightning or frost from fire”.As it was already pointed out, the novel presents the collision between two types of reality, restrictive civilization and anonymous unrestrained natural energies or forces. This collision takes the form of inside or domestic versus outside or nature, human versus the “other”, the light versus the dark with in the soul. Catherine andHeathcliff are violent elementals who express the flux of nature; they struggle to be human and assume human character in their passion, confusions, and torment, but their inhuman appetites and energy can only bring chaos and self-destruction.4.4 The images of moths, heath and hare-bellsAs Emily wrote at the end of the last chapter, “I lingered round them, under that benign sky: watched the moths fluttering among the heath and hare-bells; listened to the soft wind breathing through the grass; and wondered how anyone could ever imagine unquiet slumbers for the sleepers in that quiet earth.”It represents a softened, less harsh environment and new hope for the future. There the heath and hare-bells symbolizes the ideal world the author expects, where there is no conflict and oppression between classes, just peaceful and freedom, and human nature is closer to the natural. The moths fluttering among the heath and hare-bells symbolizes the free souls of Heathcliff and Catherine, who was tortured in the real world .Like the Chinese ancient legend Butterfly Love, Wuthering Heights,is a complex literary works, where author remonstrates about the unfair world but she found there was nothing she can do to change it. So she made an unreal world to console her console soul. It is considered as the one of the best conclusions of literary works, and is thought-provoking conclusion for readers to study.5. Non-natural images in Wuthering Heights5.1 Wuthering Heights and Thrushcross GrangeBoth the natural and social settings between Wuthering Heights and Thrushcross Grange form striking ugliness-beauty contrasts in the novel. Wuthering Heights, the house of the moors, and Thrushcross Grange, the house of the valley, present completely opposing worlds and values as they do in their inhabitants: the energetic native civilization and the repressive Christian civilization. The contrast of these two houses adds much to the meaning of this novel, and without it, the story would be less interesting and complex.Wuthering Heights appears in the novel to be wild, disrupted and hostile. It symbolizes human emotions, love, hate, jealousy, and pride. “Wuthering” i s a Yorkshire term for roaring of the wind, thus Wuthering Heights represents nature and the storm. The protagonists Catherine and Heathcliff are driven by irresistible passion-lust, curiosity, ambition, intellectual pride, and envy and are full of wildness just like Wuthering Heights. Natural images that Bronte uses emphasize their bond which is deeply rooted in the free and passionate realms of the natural wilderness.[6]46On the other hand, Thrushcross Grange appears to be calm, refined and welcoming. It represents the calm and civilization and together with the Linton family symbolizes culture, sophistication, tradition and development. Thrushcross Grange is an estate closer to the town and nicer than that of Wuthering Heights. ThrushcrossGrange is in the valley, sheltered from the violent winds and storms that Wuthering Heights tolerated. In a deeper sense, the walls of Thrushcross Grange symbolically protect the Lintons and Catherine from the dangerous influences of Heathcliff and Wuthering Heights i tself. It is also described as “buried in trees”, the plants flourishing in the more welcome environment, just as the characters are more able to grow beyond the initial difficulties which impeded their neighbors.[7]15.2 Images of Book and windLooking at all the times books appear in the novel, it is clearly associated with Thrushcross Grange. There is an entire library of books at the Grange. While Catherine is sick, Edgar Linton is reading his book. He is in a fit of passion while he resigns to his circle of rational and sophisticated thoughts by reading his books. Thus, books are a symbol in that they represent the culture and sophistication of the Lintons. They are certainly more genteel and possess more reasoning than the Earnshaws and the books represent this. [8]1Wind represents the very opposite of what the books do. Wind is associated with Wuthering Heights, and therefore with the Earnsh aw s. Wind represents the uncontrollable passion that the Earnshaws possess and the opposite of the sophisticated withdrawn Lintons. It is raw and natural. Catherine and Heathcliff are the wind because they possess these qualities. Even when Catherine goes to Thrushcross Grange and marries Edgar she cannot deny who she really is on the inside. When she becomes sick a fter Heathcliff and Edgar have “broken”her heart, she tells Nelly Dean to open the window so that she may feel the wind.5.3The image of windowsIn Wuthering Heights, the interpretation of window imagery causes sudden and quite innovative realization of how Brontë wanted the reader to interpret her words. Windows are transparent, providing a person only with the means by which to see the outside. Windows, like dreams, can cause bitterness simply by making one yearn for what one cannot have. Baring in mind what the cryptic symbol represents, must look upon the elder Catherine in a new light. Nearing the beginning of the story, the elder Catherine and Heathcliff come upon Thrushcross Grange, and wanting to explore this new presence, they “crept through a broken hedge… and planted(themselves)… under the drawing-room window… and (they) saw—ah! It was beautiful—a splendid place carpeted with crimson… Edgar and his sister had it entirely to themselves; shouldn’t they have been happy? (Catherine and Heathcliff) should have thought (themselves) in heaven!”[1]38. Upon spying the two siblings crying and screaming over minor and insignificant possessions, Catherine and Heathcliff thought that this life style would be a heaven on earth. For Catherine, this vision through the window left her desiring more, instilling a bitterness and sense of inadequacy. Yet even as Catherine comes close to mimicking the scene in the window, her efforts are in vain, for such an existence for her is nothing more than a lie, a dream in which Catherine would be playing as an actor. This can be confirmed by comparing what Catherine sees through a window as a child to what she sees through the window as an adult. In her delirious state prior to death, she fancies that she would be herself again among the heather on the hills. But at this point in the story, the peace of nature and the stability of Heatcliff elude her, and because she is truly delirious, her true dream so to speak is revealed. She bids Nelly to open the window again wide, but Nelly is afraid of Cathy dying a death due to cold. Catherine rebukes her by cl aiming that Nelly “won’t give (Catherine) a chance at life” [1]98. But this dream, of running free and wild through the moors, is just that, but a dream. Catherine is no longer a child in age, but in maturity she has stopped growing as soon as Heathcliff left. Because of the window symbolism, it becomes clear that Catherine is just acting as a Linton, and that she can never be more than a child in terms of understanding and responsibility. Because of her duplicity she is delirious, losing all sense of true self. This insanity is further established by Edgar telling Ellen to shut the window, when he learns that Catherine is ill. By shutting the window, Catherine’s mind returns as she delivers a condescending and hurtful speech to Linton, but “By a spring from the window… her soul will be on the hilltop” [1]100 . This means that Catherine’s innate childish, free, and wild like traits, all of the defining innate personality traits that make up the true Cathy, are forever lost in a false dream, a lie. The true Cathy is only attainable by death, by jumping through the window.Through the image of windows, the true Cathy is described vividly that differs greatly and significantly from a Catherine Linton. A personal growth and change is learnt in perception that Cathy undergoes as she goes from Cathy to Catherine and back to Cathy, this last change being too late to help herself. Windows show what one yearn for, but are unable to reach. They are cruel and deceptive in that theytempt people, but also insightful and resourceful in evaluating one’s desires, personal growth, and oneself. [9]125.4 The image of ghostsThe religious images in the book symbolize suppression of feelings because it is all about repenting sins and preparing for death rather than living life to its fullest. The religion used in the book represents the kind of life Catherine and Heathcliff trying to rebel against. [10]44Ghosts, which is the main religious image in the novel, are apparent throughout Wuthering Heights and Emily Bronte emphasizes this by making the reader unsure of whether they really exist or not.At chapter3, Mr. Lockwood met the ghost of little Catherine, and he stated, “My fingers closed on the fingers of a little, ice-cold hand! The intense horror of nightmare came over me: I tried to draw back my arm, but the hand clung to it.” [1]20 The theme of the afterlife is repeated all throughout the novel, and is especially reiterated by the fact that Heathcliff had lost Catherine due to consumption. The idea that she could be a ghost is magnified by the fact that Heathcliff had actually seen the ghost himself at the window, and it was Catherine. So author described such a plot that Heathcliff called for the ghost of Catherine insanely. “‘Come in! Come in!’ He (Heathcliff) sobbed. ‘Cathy, do come. Oh do once more! Oh! My heart’s darling! Hear me this time, Catherine, at last!’” [1]22Ghosts there are also used in order to explain a character’s personality, and they are used to create suspense in the novel. Brontë uses the presence of ghosts to try and give the reader a greater understanding of Nelly’s character. We are told that she is superstitious, but it is not until she feels the presence of something she thinks of as Hindley that the reader fully understands the extent of her fears and beliefs. [11]1“It appeared that I beheld my early playmate seated on the withered turf: his dark square head bent forward, and his little hand scooping out the earth with a piece of slate…It vanished in a twinkling; but immediately I felt an irresistible yearning to be at the heights.” [1]92Nelly is very shaken by the whole experience, and the fact that her superstition took hold of her, and urged her to the Heights shows that she is very compassionate of her friendship with Hindley as this spot that she saw him in was “a favorite spot。
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The GaleGroup, Inc. accepts no payment for listing; andinclusion in the publication of any organiza-tion, agency, institution, publication, service,or individual does not imply endorsement ofthe editors or publisher. Errors brought to theattention of the publisher and verified to thesatisfaction of the publisher will be correctedin future editions.Printed in the United States of AmericaISSN 1533-7561IntroductionPurpose of the BookThe purpose of Nonfiction Classics for Stu-dents (NCfS) is to provide readers with a guide to understanding, enjoying, and studying nonfiction works by giving them easy access to information about the work. Part of Gale’s ‘‘For Students’’literature line, NCfS is specifically designed to meet the curricular needs of high school and undergradu-ate college students and their teachers, as well as the interests of general readers and researchers consid-ering specific works. While each volume contains entries on ‘‘classic’’ works frequently studied in classrooms, there are also entries containing hard-to-find information on contemporary pieces, in-cluding works by multicultural, international, and women authors.The information covered in each entry includes an introduction to the work and the work’s author; a summary, to help readers unravel and understand the events in a work; descriptions of key figures, including explanation of a given figure’s role in the work as well as discussion about that figure’s rela-tionship to other figures in the work; analysis of important themes in the work; and an explanation of important literary techniques and movements as they are demonstrated in the work.In addition to this material, which helps the readers analyze the work itself, students are also provided with important information on the literary and historical background informing each work.This includes a historical context essay, a box comparing the time or place the work was written to modern Western culture, a critical essay, and ex-cerpts from critical essays on the work, when avail-able. A unique feature of NCfS is a specially com-missioned critical essay on each work, targeted toward the student reader.To further aid the student in studying and enjoying each work, information on media adapta-tions is provided, as well as reading suggestions for works of fiction and nonfiction on similar themes and topics. Classroom aids include ideas for re-search papers and lists of critical sources that pro-vide additional material on each work. Selection CriteriaThe titles for each volume of NCfS were se-lected by surveying numerous sources on teaching literature and analyzing course curricula for various school districts. Some of the sources surveyed in-cluded: literature anthologies; Reading Lists for College-Bound Students: The Books Most Recom-mended b y America’s Top Colleges; a College Board survey of works commonly studied in high schools; a National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE) survey of works commonly studied in high schools; Arthur Applebee’s 1993 study Literature in the Secondary School: Studies of Curriculum and Instruction in the United States; and the Modern Library’s list of the one hundred best nonfiction works of the century.x iI n t r o d u c t i o nN o n f i c t i o n C l a s s i c s f o r S t u d e n t sx i i Input was also solicited from our expert advi-sory board, as well as educators from various areas.From these discussions, it was determined that each volume should have a mix of ‘‘classic’’ works (those works commonly taught in literature classes)and contemporary works for which information is often hard to find. Because of the interest in ex-panding the canon of literature, an emphasis was also placed on including works by international,multicultural, and women authors. Our advisory board members—educational professionals—helped pare down the list for each volume. If a work was not selected for the present volume, it was often noted as a possibility for a future volume. As always, the editor welcomes suggestions for titles to be included in future volumes.How Each Entry Is OrganizedEach entry, or chapter, in NCfS focuses on one work. Each entry heading lists the full name of the work, the author’s name, and the date of the work’s publication. The following elements are contained in each entry:•Introduction: a brief overview of the work which provides information about its initial publication, its literary standing, any contro-versies surrounding the work, and major con-flicts or themes within the work.•Author Biography: this section includes basic facts about the author’s life and focuses on events and times in the author’s life that in-spired the work in question.•Summary: a description of the major events in the work. Subheads demarcate the work’s vari-ous chapters or sections.•Key Figures: an alphabetical listing of major figures in the work. Each name is followed by a brief to an extensive description of the person’s role in the works, as well as discussion of the figure’s actions, relationships, and possible motivation.Figures are listed alphabetically by last name. If a figure is unnamed—for instance, the narrator in Pilgrim at Tinker Creek —the figure is listed as ‘‘The Narrator’’ and alphabetized as ‘‘Narra-tor.’’ If a person’s first name is the only one given, the name will appear alphabetically by the name. Variant names are also included for each person. Thus, the full name ‘‘Richard Monckton Milnes’’ would head the listing for a figure inThe Education of Henry Adams, but listed in a separate cross-reference would be his more for-mal name ‘‘Lord Houghton.’’•Themes: a thorough overview of how the major topics, themes, and issues are addressed within the work. Each theme discussed appears in a separate subhead, and is easily accessed through the boldface entries in the Subject/Theme Index.•Style: this section addresses important style ele-ments of the work, such as setting, point of view, and narration; important literary devices used, such as imagery, foreshadowing, sym-bolism; and, if applicable, genres to which the work might have belonged, such as Gothicism or Romanticism. Literary terms are explained within the entry but can also be found in the Glossary.•Historical Context: This section outlines the social, political, and cultural climate in which the author lived and the work was created. This section may include descriptions of related historical events, pertinent aspects of daily life in the culture, and the artistic and literary sensibilities of the time in which the work was written. If the piece is a historical work, infor-mation regarding the time in which the work is set is also included. Each section is broken down with helpful subheads.•Critical Overview: this section provides back-ground on the critical reputation of the work,including bannings or any other public contro-versies surrounding the work. For older works,this section includes a history of how the work was first received and how perceptions of it may have changed over the years; for more recent works, direct quotes from early reviews may also be included.•Criticism: an essay commissioned by NCfS which specifically deals with the work and is written specifically for the student audience, as well as excerpts from previously published criticism on the work, when available.•Sources: an alphabetical list of critical material used in the compilation of the entry, with full bibliographical information.•Further Reading: an alphabetical list of other critical sources that may prove useful for the student. It includes full bibliographical infor-mation and a brief annotation.I n t r o d u c t i o nV o l u m e 4x i i iIn addition, each entry contains the following highlighted sections, set separate from the main text:•Media Adaptations: a list of important film and television adaptations of the work, including source information. The list may also include such variations on the work as audio record-ings, musical adaptations, and other stage interpretations.•Topics for Further Study: a list of potential study questions or research topics dealing with the work. This section includes questions re-lated to other disciplines the student may be studying, such as American history, world his-tory, science, math, government, business, ge-ography, economics, psychology, etc.•Compare and Contrast: an ‘‘at-a-glance’’ com-parison of the cultural and historical differ-ences between the author’s time and culture and late twentieth-century/early twenty-first century Western culture. This box includes pertinent parallels between the major scien-tific, political, and cultural movements of the time or place the work was written, the time or place the work was set (if a historical work),and modern Western culture. Works written after 1990 may not have this box.•What Do I Read Next?: a list of works that might complement the featured work or serve as a contrast to it. This includes works by the same author and others, works of fiction and nonfiction, and works from various genres,cultures, and eras.Other FeaturesNCfS includes ‘‘Literature: Conversation, Com-munication, Idea, Emotion,’’ a foreword by Carol Dell’Amico, an educator and author. This essay examines nonfiction as a lasting way for authors to communicate as well as the influence these works can have. Dell’Amico also discusses how Nonfic-tion Classics for Students can help teachers show students how to enrich their own reading experi-ences and how the series is designed to aid students in their study of particular works.A Cumulative Author/Title Index lists the au-thors and titles covered in each volume of the NCfS series.A Cumulative Nationality/Ethnicity Index breaks down the authors and titles covered in each volume of the NCfS series by nationality and ethnicity.A Subject/Theme Index, specific to each vol-ume, provides easy reference for users who may be studying a particular subject or theme rather than a single work. Significant subjects from events to broad themes are included, and the entries pointing to the specific theme discussions in each entry are indicated in boldface.Entries may include illustrations, including pho-tos of the author, stills from stage productions, and stills from film adaptations.Citing Nonfiction Classics for StudentsWhen writing papers, students who quote di-rectly from any volume of Nonfiction Classics for Students may use the following general forms.These examples are based on MLA style; teachers may request that students adhere to a different style,so the following examples may be adapted as needed.When citing text from NCfS that is not attrib-uted to a particular author (for example, the Themes,Style, Historical Context sections, etc.), the follow-ing format should be used in the bibliography section:‘‘The Journalist and the Murderer.’’ Nonfiction Clas-sics for Students. Ed. Elizabeth Thomason. Vol. 1.Farmington Hills, MI: The Gale Group, 2001, pp.153–56.When quoting the specially commissioned es-say from NCfS (usually the first piece under the "Criticism" subhead), the following format should be used:Hart, Joyce. Critical Essay on ‘‘Silent Spring.’’ Non-fiction Classics for Students. Ed. Elizabeth Thomason.Vol. 1. Farmington Hills, MI: The Gale Group, 2001,pp. 316–19.When quoting a journal or newspaper essay that is reprinted in a volume of NCfS, the following form may be used:Limon, J ohn. ‘‘The Doub le Helix as Literature.’’Raritan Vol. 5, No. 3 (Winter 1986), pp. 26–47;excerpted and reprinted in Nonfiction Classics for Students, Vol. 2, ed. Elizabeth Thomason (Farming-ton Hills, MI: The Gale Group, 2001), pp. 84–95.When quoting material reprinted from a book that appears in a volume of NCfS, the following form may be used:Gunnars, Kristjana. ‘‘Life as Fiction: Narrative Appro-priation in Isak Dinesen’s Out of Africa ,’’ in Isak Dinesen and Narrativity , ed. Gurli A. Woods, (Carleton University Press, 1990), pp. 25–34; excerpted and reprinted in Nonfiction Classics for Students, Vol. 2,ed. Elizabeth Thomason (Farmington Hills, MI: The Gale Group, 2001), pp. 281–86.I n t r o d u c t i o nN o n f i c t i o n C l a s s i c s f o r S t u d e n t sx i v We Welcome Your SuggestionsThe editor of Nonfiction Classics for Students welcomes your comments and ideas. Readers who wish to suggest works to appear in future volumes or who have other suggestions are cordially invited to contact the editor. You may contact the editor via E-mail at: ForStudentsEditors@. Or write to the editor at:Editor, Nonfiction Classics for Students The Gale Group 27500 Drake Rd.Farmington Hills, MI 48331–3535AcknowledgmentsThe editors wish to thank the copyright holders of the excerpted criticism included in this volume and the permissions managers of many book and magazine publishing companies for assisting us in securing reproduction rights. We are also grateful to the staffs of the Detroit Public Library, the Library of Congress, the University of Detroit Mercy Li-brary, Wayne State University Purdy/Kresge Library Complex, and the University of Michigan Libraries for making their resources available to us. Follow-ing is a list of the copyright holders who have granted us permission to reproduce material in this volume of Nonfiction Classics for Students (NCfS). Every effort has been made to trace copyright, but if omissions have been made, please let us know.COPYRIGHTED MATERIAL IN NCfS, VOLUME 1, WERE REPRODUCED FROM THE FOLLOWING PERIODICALS:Americas, v. 47, November-December, 1995.©1995 Américas. Reprinted by permission of Américas, a bimonthly magazine published by the General Secretariat of the Organization of Ameri-can States in English and Spanish.—A Review of International English Literature, v. 20, July, 1989 for ‘‘But We Argued About Novel-Writing: Vir-ginia Woolf, E. M. Forster and the Art of Fiction,’’by Ann Henley. Copyright ©1989 The Board of Governors, The University of Calgary. Reproduced by permission of the publisher and the author.—Commentary, v. 90, November, 1990 for ‘‘Depres-sion-as-Disease,’’ by Carol Iannone./ v. 107, Janu-ary, 1999 for ‘‘First in Flight,’’ by Sam Tanenhaus. Copyright ©1990, 1999 by the American Jewish Committee. All rights reserved. Both reproduced by permission of the publisher and the author.—Dis-sent, Fall, 1995 for ‘‘Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring’’by Yaakov Garb. ©1995, by Dissent Publishing Corporation. Reprinted by permission of the pub-lisher and the author.—First Things, n. 75, August-September, 1997. Reproduced by permission.—Journal of American Folklore, v. 104, Summer, 1991 for ‘‘The Failure of Folklore in Richard Wright’s Black Boy,’’ by Jay Mechling. Repro-duced by permission of the American Folklore Society from Journal of American Folklore and the author.—Journal of Feminist Studies in Religion,v. 6, Spring, 1990. Reproduced by permission.—MELUS: Society for the Study of the Multi-Ethnic Literature of the United States, v. 22, Summer, 1997. Copyright, MELUS: The Society for the Study of Multi-Ethnic Literature of the United States, 1997. Reproduced by permission.—The Nation (New York), v. 250, June 25, 1990; v. 265, November 3, 1997. ©1990, 1997 The Nation magazine/The Nation Company, Inc. Both reproduced by permission.—National Review, v. l, October 26, 1998. Copyright©1988 by National Review, Inc, 215 Lexington Avenue. New York, NY 10016. Reproduced by permission.—The New Republic, v. 221, Novem-ber 1, 1999. ©1999 The New Republic, Inc. Repro-duced by permission of The New Republic.—Northx i xA c k n o w l e d g m e n t sN o n f i c t i o n C l a s s i c s f o r S t u d e n t sx x Dakota Quarterly , v. 56, Summer, 1988. Copyright 1988 by The University of North Dakota. Repro-duced by permission.—South Atlantic Quarterly ,v. 82, Spring, 1983. Copyright ©1983 by Duke University Press. Reproduced by permission.—Style ,v. 27, Summer, 1993 for ‘‘Richard Wrights and the African-American Autobiography Tradition’’ by William L. Andrews. Copyright ©Style, 1993. All rights reserved. Reproduced by permission of the publisher and the author.—Technology and Cul-ture , v. 30, October, 1989. ©The Johns Hopkins University Press. Reproduced by permission.—Tulane Studies in English, v. 22, 1977. Copyright ©1977 by Tulane University. Reproduced by per-mission.—Washington Monthly , v. 22, May, 1990.Reproduced with permission from The Washington Monthly. Copyright by the Washington Monthly Company, 1611 Connecticut Ave., N.W., Washing-ton, D.C. 20009 (202) 4462–0128.—The Women’s Review of Books , v. xiii, November, 1995 for ‘‘In the House of Spirits’’ by Ruth Behar. Copyright ©1995. All rights reserved. Reproduced by permis-sion of the author.COPYRIGHTED MATERIAL IN NCfS,VOLUME 1, WERE REPRODUCED FROM THE FOLLOWING BOOKS:Colmer, John. From E.M. Forster: The Per-sonal Voice . Routledge & Kegan Paul. ©John Colmer 1975. Reproduced by permission.—Horowitz, Howard. From New Essays on The Edu-cation of Henry Adams . Edited by John Carlos Rowe. Cambridge University Press, 1996. ©Cam-bridge University Press 1996. Reproduced with permission of Cambridge University Press and the author.—Thompson, Kenneth W. From Toynbee’s Philosophy of World History and Politics . Louisi-ana State University Press, 1985. Copyright ©1985by Louisiana State University Press. All rights reserved. Reproduced by permission of Louisiana State University Press.PHOTOGRAPHS AND ILLUSTRATIONS APPEARING IN NCfS , VOLUME 1, WERE RECEIVED FROM THE FOLLOWING SOURCES:Adams, Henry, illustration by P. Ruller.—Allende, Isabel, photograph. Archive Photos. Repro-duced by permission.—Allende, Salvador, photo-graph. UPI/Bettmann. Reproduced by permission.—Austen, Jane, engravings. Source unknown.—Bail,Horace, sitting on porch of former slave shack,photograph. Corbis. Reproduced by permission.—Berg, A. Scott, photograph. Aloma. Reproduced by permission.—Bohr, Niels, photograph. The Library of Congress.—Carson, Rachel L., photo-graph. UPI/Bettmann Newsphotos. Reproduced by permission.—‘‘Colored Drinking Fountain,’’ pho-tograph. The Library of Congress.—Corliss Engine,illustration. The Library of Congress.—Cover of ‘‘Le Petit Journal,’’ photograph by Leonard de Selva. Corbis. Reproduced by permission.—Depressed women, sitting in window, photograph.©1992 Science Photo Lib. Custom Medical Stock Photo. Reproduced by permission.—Dillard, Annie,photograph. Jerry Bauer. Reproduced by permis-sion.—DuBois, W.E.B., photograph. The Bettmann Archive. Reproduced by permission.—Forster, E. M.,photograph. Archive Photos, Inc. Reproduced by permission.—Goldstein, Gee, with her son Rob-ert, photograph. Bettmann/Corbis. Reproduced by permission.—Guy, George H., 1961, Mississippi,photograph. AP/Wide World Photos, Inc. Repro-duced by permission.—Hardy, Thomas, photograph.Archive Photos, Inc. Reproduced by permission.—Interior of the British Museum of Egyptian an-tiquities, photograph by Peter Aprahamian. Corbis.Reproduced by permission.—Kincaid, Jamaica, pho-tograph by Adam Riesner. The Liaison Agency Network. Reproduced by permission.—La Mondeda/Plaza dl. Libertad, photograph Susan D. Rock.Reproduced by permission.—Levi, Primo, photo-graph by Jerry Bauer. ©Jerry Bauer. Reproduced by permission.—Lindbergh, Anne Morrow, hold-ing her baby Charles Jr., photograph. ©Bettmann/Corbis. Reproduced by permission.—Lindbergh,Charles, photograph. The Library of Congress.—Lippman, Walter, photograph. Archive Photos, Inc.Reproduced by permission.—MacDonald, Dr.Jeffrey, being interviewed after being released from prison, photograph. ©Bettmann/Corbis. Reproduced by permission.—Malcolm, Janet. ©Jerry Bauer.Reproduced by permission.—McCourt, Frank, pho-tograph by Jerry Bauer. ©Jerry Bauer. Reproduced by permission.—McGinniss, Joe, photograph. AP/Wide World Photos. Reproduced by permission.—Merton, Thomas, photograph. The Library of Con-gress.—Mushroom cloud rising from Baker Day atomic bomb blast at Bikini Island, photograph.Corbis. Reproduced by permission.—Rastafarian man standing behind banner, photograph by Dan-iel Laine. Corbis. Reproduced by permission.—Rhodes, Richard, standing in front of the Atom Bomb Dome, photograph. Reproduced by permis-sion.—Scene from the film ‘‘Angela’s Ashes,’’photograph. The Kobal Collection. Reproduced by permission.—Scopes Trial, photograph. UPI/Corbis-Bettmann. Reproduced by permission.—St. Pat-A c k n o w l e d g m e n t sV o l u m e 1x x irick’s Roman Catholic Cathedral, photograph by Michael St. Maur Sheil. Corbis. Reproduced by permission.—Street scene, with volcano in the dis-tance, Antigua, Guatemala, photograph by David Johnson. Reproduced by permission.—Styron, Wil-liam, New York City, 1990, photograph. AP/Wide World Photos. Reproduced by permission.—Three white-tailed does, eating from shrubs in the Appala-chian Trail, Shenandoah National Park, photograph by Raymond Gehman. Corbis. Reproduced by per-mission.—Thucydides, illustration. The Library of Congress.—Toynbee, Arnold J., photograph. Hulton-Deutsche Collection/Corbis. Reproduced by per-mission.—Washington, Booker T, photograph.—Worker in protective photograph by Ed Young.Corbis. Reproduced by permission.—Wright, Rich-ard, photograph. AP/Wide World Photos, Inc. Repro-duced by permission.345A Study of HistoryArnold J. Toynbee 1934–1961Arnold Toynbee’s multi-volume A Study of History is one of the major works of historical scholarship published in the twentieth century. The first volume was published in London in 1934, and subsequent volumes appeared periodically until the twelfth and final volume was published in London in 1961. A two-volume abridgement of volumes 1–10 was prepared by D. C. Somervell with Toynbee’s coop-eration and published in 1947 (volume one) and 1957 (volume two) in London.A Study of History in its original form is a huge work. The first ten volumes contain over six thou-sand pages and more than three million words.Somervell’s abridgement, containing only about one-sixth of the original, runs to over nine hundred pages. The size of the work is in proportion to the grandeur of Toynbee’s purpose, which is to analyze the genesis, growth, and fall of every human civili-zation ever known. In Toynbee’s analysis, this amounts to five living civilizations and sixteen extinct ones, as well as several that Toynbee defines as arrested civilizations.Toynbee detects in the rise and fall of civiliza-tions a recurring pattern, and it is the laws of history behind this pattern that he analyzes in A Study of History .From the outset, A Study of History was a controversial work. It won wide readership amongst the general public, especially in the United States,and after World War II Toynbee was hailed as aprophet of his times. On the other hand, his work was viewed with skepticism by academic histori-ans, many of whom argued that his methods were unscientific and his conclusions unreliable or sim-ply untrue. Despite these criticisms, however, A Study of History endures as a provocative vision of where humanity has been, and why, and where it may be headed.Arnold J. Toynbee was born in London on April 14, 1889, the son of Harry V. Toynbee, a social worker, and Sarah Edith Marshall Toynbee, a historian. Showing academic promise at a young age, Toynbee won scholarships to attend Winchester School from 1902 to 1907, and then Balliol College, Oxford, where he studied Classics and graduated in 1911. In the same year, Toynbee pursued his interest in ancient Greek history by studying at the British Archeological School in Athens. In 1912, he be-came a fellow and tutor at Balliol College, a posi-tion he held for three years. Unable to perform military service because of his health, during World War I he worked in the Political Intelligence De-partment of the War Office and was a member of the British delegation at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919. He also held the Koraes Chair of Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies at London Univer-sity in 1919.In 1925, Toynbee began a thirty-year tenure as director of studies at the Royal Institute of Interna-tional Affairs and professor of international history at London University. He was a prolific author, writing more than 140 articles and books between 1921 and 1934, including The Western Question in Greece and Turkey(1922), Greek Historical Thought(1924), Greek Civilisation and Charac-ter (1924), the annual Survey of International Af-fairs (1923–1927), and A Journey to China (1931). He was also at work on A Study of History, for which he is best known. The first three volumes of this investigation into the rise and fall of civiliza-tions were published in 1934; volumes 4–6 fol-lowed in 1939.From 1943 until 1946, Toynbee directed the Research Department at the Foreign Office. He also attended the second Paris Peace Conference as a British delegate. In 1954, volumes 7–10 of A Study of History were published. An abridged version,prepared by D. C. Somervell with Toynbee’s coop-eration, appeared in two volumes (1947 and 1957).Toynbee’s massive work made him one of the best-known historians of his time although it also proved controversial. The final, twelfth volume, Reconsiderations (1961), was an attempt to answer his many critics.After finishing A Study of History, Toynbee continued to publish at a prolific rate. Between 1956 and 1973, he wrote sixteen books. These included An Historian’s Approach to Religion(1956), in which he advocated a return to spiritual values, Change and Habit: The Challenge of Our Time (1966), in which he suggested that China might emerge as a unifying influence in world affairs, and the autobiographical Experiences (1969).Toynbee married Rosalind Murray in 1912, and they had two children. The marriage ended in di-vorce in 1945. In 1946, Toynbee married Veronica Marjorie Boulter, a research associate and writer. They collaborated in writing the Survey of Interna-tional Affairs.Toynbee died in York, England, on October 22, 1975.Chapter 1: The Unit of Historical Study In A Study of History, Toynbee first identifies the unit that should be the object of the historian’s study. This unit is not an individual nation but an entire civilization. Toynbee identifies five living civilizations: Western Christian, Orthodox Chris-tian, Islamic, Hindu, and Far Eastern. In addition there are sixteen extinct civilizations from which living civilizations developed. Toynbee then makes a distinction between primitive societies, of which there are many, and civilizations, which are com-paratively few. He dismisses the idea that there is now only one civilization, the West, and also the notion that all civilization originated in Egypt. Chapter 2: Geneses of Civilizations How do civilizations emerge from primitive societies? For Toynbee, the answer does not lie in race; nor does an easy environment provide a key to the origins of civilization. On the contrary, civiliza-tions arise out of creative responses to difficult situations. It is difficulty, rather than ease, that proves the stimulus. Toynbee identifies five chal-。