Linguistic名词解释
英语 语言学 名词解释
名词解释nguage: language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.2.Design features of language(语言的区别性特征) :i.Arbitrariness:the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to theirmeaning=language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a word(e.g.pen) and the object it refers to .ii.Duality:the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level. By duality we mean that language system has two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meanings.指拥有两层结构的这种特性，底层结构是上层结构的组成成分。
指语言是声音和意义双重结构组成的系统。
举例：Sounds > syllables > words > phrases > clauses > sentences> texts/discoursesiii.Productivity： Language can be used to create new meanings because of its duality .语言可以理解并创造无限数量的新句子，是由双层结构造成的结果（Understand and create unlimited number with sentences）iv.Displacement：Human languages enable their users to symbolize something which are not present at the moment of communication.v.Cultural transmission: language is passed on from generation to generation through teaching and learning rather than instinct.3.Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It is a scientific study because it is based on thesystematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.4.Psycholinguistics: It is the study of how language is acquired, understood and produced.ngue:F. de Saussure. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all themembers of a speech community.语言指语言系统的整体，这个整体相对是比较稳定的。
语言学名词解释
Define the following terms:1.Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.3.Syntax: The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. .4.Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.5.Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to the workings of mind is called psycholinguistics.nguage: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.7.Phonetics: The study of sounds which are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics.8.Morphology: The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology.9.Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics.10.Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics.11.Applied linguistics: In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. In a broad sense, it refers to the application of linguistic findings to the solution of practical problems such as the recovery of speech ability.12.Arbitrariness: It is one of the design features of language. It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds13.Productivity: Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.14.Displacement: Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker15.Duality: The duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meanings.16.Design features: Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communicationpetence: Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language,18.Performance: performance is the actual realization of the knowledge of the rules in linguistic communication.ngue : Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community; Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow; Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently20.Parole: Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use; parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules; parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.45. phonology: Phonology studies the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.21. phoneme: The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit of distinctive value. Butit is an abstract unit. To be exact, a phoneme is not a sound; it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.22. allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.23. international phonetic alphabet: It is a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.24. intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.25. phonetics: Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world' s languages26. auditory phonetics: It studies the speech sounds from the hearer's point of view. It studies how the sounds are perceived by the hear-er.27. acoustic phonetics: It studies the speech sounds by looking at the sound waves. It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.528. phone : Phones can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning. 529. phonemic contrast: Phonemic contrast refers to the relation between two phonemes. If two phonemes can occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning, they are in phonemic contrast.30. tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.31. minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.33.Morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.34.inflectional morphology: The inflectional morphology studies the inflections35. derivational morphology: Derivational morphology is the study of word- formation.36.Morpheme: It is the smallest meaningful unit of language.37.free morpheme: Free morphemes are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes. 38.Bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.39.Root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.40.Affix: Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional affixes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories, while derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.41.Prefix: Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word . Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but they usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.42.Suffix: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.43.Derivation: Derivation is a process of word formation by which derivative affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.pounding: Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.45.syntax: Syntax is a subfield of linguistics. It studies the sentence structure of language. It consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences.46.Sentence: A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject and a predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.47.coordinate sentence: A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "or".48.syntactic categories: Apart from sentences and clauses, a syntactic category usually refers toa word (called a lexical category) or a phrase ( called a phrasal category) that performs a particular grammatical function.49. grammatical relations: The structural and logical functional relations of constituents are called grammatical relations. The grammatical relations of a sentence concern the way each noun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb. In many cases, grammatical relations in fact refer to who does what to whom .50. linguistic competence: Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence.51. Transformational rules: Transformational rules are the rules that transform one sentence type into another type.52. D-structure: D- structure is the level of syntactic representation that exists before movement takes place. Phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.53. Semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language.54. Sense: Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and decontextualised.55. Reference: Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience56. Synonymy :Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.57. Polysemy :Polysemy refers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning.58. Homonymy : Homonymy refers to the phenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e. , different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.59. homophones :When two words are identical in sound, they are called homophones60. homographs :When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.61. complete homonyms.:When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are called complete homonyms.62.Hyponymy :Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.63. Antonymy :Antonymy refers to the relation of oppositeness of meaning.64. Componential analysis : Componential analysis is a way to analyze word meaning. It was pro-posed by structural semanticists. The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a -word can be divided into meaning components, which are called semantic features.65.The grammatical meaning : The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality, i.e. , its grammatical well-formedness . The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by the grammatical rules of the language.66. predication :The predication is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.67. argument : An argument is a logical participant in a predication. It is generally identical with the nominal element (s) in a sentence.68. predicate : A predicate is something that is said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.69. two-place predication :A two-place predication is one which contains two arguments.37.pragmatics: Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.38.Context: Generally speaking, it consists of the knowledge that is shared by the speak-er and the hearer. The shared knowledge is of two types: the knowledge of the language they use, and the knowledge about the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place.39.utterance meaning: the meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence ina real situation of communication, or simply in a context.40.sentence meaning: The meaning of a sentence is of-ten considered as the abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of a predication.41.Constative: Constatives were statements that either state or describe, and were verifiable ;42.Performative: performatives, on the other hand, were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable. Their function is to perform a particular speech act. 43. locutionary act: A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.44. illocutionary act: An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker's intention; it is the act performed in saying something.45. perlocutionary act: A perlocutionary act is the act per-formed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something.46. Cooperative Principle: It is principle advanced by Paul Grice. It is a principle that guides our conversational behaviors. The content is : Make your conversational contribution such as is required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or the talk exchange in which you are engaged.。
语言学名词解释及知识点（1）
语言学名词解释及知识点（1）语言学名词解释及知识点1.Linguistics is the scientific study of language./doc/cc11829409.html,ngugage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.3.Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.(1)Arbitrariness任意性refers that there is no logic or intrinsic 固有的relationship between form(sound) and meaning.(2)Duality双重性means the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level arecomposed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.(3)Productivity多产性means language is resourceful because of its duality and recursiveness.(4)Displacement means language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.(5)Cultural transmission: language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation. The details of the linguistic system must be learned by each speaker.(6)Interchangeability互换性means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages./doc/cc11829409.html,nguage is human unique.5.Six prmary factors of any speech event and language functions（Closing Statement: Linguistics and Poetics 1960 Jakobson）:(1)context语境——referential（to convey message and information）(2)message——poetic（to indulge in language for its own sake）(3)addresser陈述人——emotive（to express attitudes，feelings and emotions）(4)addressee受话人——conative（to persuade and influence others through commands and requests）(5)contact接触方法——phatic（to establish communion with others）(6)code编码（手语等）——metalingual元语言的（to clear up 表达intentions and meanings）/doc/cc11829409.html,nguage Functions: Informational信息功能；Interpersonal人际功能；Performative施为功能；Emotive；Directive；Phatic communion 寒暄功能；Metalingual（the analysis of language itself）；Recreational7.Scope of Linguistics(1)Microlinguistics微观语言学: sound: phonetic语音学, phonology音系学; form：morphology形态学, syntax句法学;meaning: semantics语义学; pragmatics语用学(2)Macrolinguistics宏观语言学: interdisciplinary交叉学科, sociolinguistics社会语言学, psycholinguistics心理语言学, applied linguistics应用语言学, anthropological linguistics人类语言学, computational linguistics计算机语言学8.Key Concepts in Linguistics(1)Descriptive描写means the linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use.(2)Prescriptive规定means the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for correct and standard behavior in usinglanguage to tell people what they should say and not say.(3)Synchronic共时in which languages are treated as self-contained systems of communication at any particular time 时间点(4)Diachronic历时in which the changes to which languages are subject in the course of time and treated historically.时间段(5)Langue语言is the set of conventions and rules, it is abstract and relatively stable.(6)Parole言语is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules, it is concrete and varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.(7)Competence语言能力is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his or her language.(8)Performance语言表现is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. (NoamChomsky Aspects of the Theory of Syntax in 1965)9.Phonetics语音学is defined as the scientific study of speech sounds, especially on its production, transmission and perception.10.Consonants辅音are sounds produced by obstructing the flow of air in the oral cavity.11.Vowels元音are produced when the air stream meets with no obstruction.12.Phonology音系学is the study of sound patterns and sound systems of a specific language. It aims to discover the principles that governs the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.13.Relationship between phonetics and phonology;(1)Phonetics is the basis for phonological study while phonology is the extension of phonetics.(2)Phonetics is gloal while phonology is local.(3)Phonetic transcription音标is in [ ] (square brackets) while ponemic transcription is in / / (slashes).14.Phoneme音位is a phonological unit which is the smallest unit of sound in a language and which can distinguish two words.(phonology)15.Phone音素is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones.But a phone does not distinguish meaning. (phonetics)16.Allophone音素的变位means the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme.17.Tone is useless in English. (X) ; English is tone-language. (X)18.Morphology形态学is the study of word-formation and the study of the internal structure of words, or the rules by which words are formed from smaller components, that is morphemes.19.Morpheme词素is the minimal unit in terms of relationship between expression and content(form and meaning), a unit which can not be devided without destroying or drastically极端地altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.20.Word is a minimum free form which is stable and relatively uninterruptible.21.Allomorph语素变体is any of the different shapes or phonetic forms of a morpheme. (cats,dogs,horses中的s,z,iz是复数词尾s的变体）22.Word-formation: compounding复合词(blackboard,wedding-ring,coffee table); derivation派生(happy-unhappy); coinage新造词; blending合成词(brunch,smog); back-formation逆生词(commentate is a back-formation from commentator); clipping缩减; acronymy缩写; analogical creation 类比创造; borrowing借词23.Types of Morphemes：(1)Affix词缀is the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme.(2)Root词根is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.(free：friend；bound：-ceive）(3)Stem词干is a morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an affix may be added, eg.possibility+es/doc/cc11829409.html,paring inflectional屈折(不改变意义和词类，只能是后缀；三单,-ed,-ing,-en,pl,所有格,-er/-est) and derivational派生morphemes：①In terms of productivity②Whether the word class of the stem词干is changed or not③Grammatical need vs semantic need④Order: derivational morpheme + inflectional morpheme⑤Suffix后缀: derivational + inflectional; Prefix前缀: derivational25.Syntax is the study of the internal structure of sentences(clauses and phrases) and the rules that govern the formationof sentences.26.Morphology + Syntax= Grammar27.Autonomy自主性of syntax is the unique feature.28.Endocentric向心structure is one whose distribution is functionaly equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents. There is a head中心语. (NP,VP,PP,AP,TP)29.Exocentric离心structure refers to a group of syntacticallyrelated words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, There is no head.30.Systemic Functional Grammar系统功能语法：related to social settingsGenerative Grammar生成语法（形式语言学，Chomsky）：do not care about social settings31.Semantics语义学is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.32.Reference指称意义means the relationship between the linguistic form and what it refers to in the non-linguistic world of experience or physical world.33.Sense is the inherent固有的meaning of the linguistic form; the collection of all the features of the linguistic form. It is abstract and decontextualized.34.Contextualism: one can derive meaning from observable contexts which include situational context and the linguistic context.35.Behaviorism: meaning is the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls for the in the hearer.36.Semantic Componential Analysis语义成分分析法is the approach that analyze word meaning by decomposing is into its atomic features. It shows the semantic feature of a word.37.Pragmatics语用学is the study of meaning in context, the study of speakers’ meaning and the study of utterance meaning.38.Pragmatics = Meaning - Semantics39.Utterance 话语meaing: units of language in useSentence meaning: abstract units of the language system.40.Context is the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.41.Speech act theory 言语行为理论由Austin 提出How to DoThings with Words 196242.Locutionary act以言指事（言内行为）is the act of saying something in the full sense of “say”.43.Illocutionary act以言形事（言外行为）is the act performed in saying something.Illocutionary force: the most interesting part for pragmatic study.44.Perlocutionary acty以言成事（言后行为）is the act preformed by or as a result of saying, the effects on the hearer.45.Cooperative Principle(CP)合作原则——The essential thesis: Make your contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purposes or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.四个准则：maxim of quantity 数量准则；maxim of quality 质量准则（修辞）；relation；manner46.Sociolinguistics社会语言学is the subfield of linguistics that studies language in relation to society. It is interested in how social factors influence the structue and use of language.47.The key issue in sociolinguistics is variation./doc/cc11829409.html,nguage and Gender(1)Major ideas concerning language and gender:①Men and women speak differently.②Language is discriminatory against women.(2)Features of women’s language①Frequent use of hedges like “I’m afraid that…”, “I’m not sure but…”, “kind of ”, and “sort of “.②Abundant use of tag question as in “The lecture is terribly interesting, isn’t it?”③Greater us e of qualifiers and intensifiers than men: “awfully”, “lovely”, “terribly”, and “fascinating”, amongothers.④Preference for use of the standard form of a language, and more polite than men’s language(3)Language sexism①Job stereotypes: nurse, teacher, cl erk, president②In word-formation: author/ authoress, actor/ actress, widow寡妇/ widower鳏夫, hero/ heroine③In meaning: governor/ governess保姆; master/ mistress情妇。
语言法名词解释
语言法名词解释语言法（linguistics）是研究语言的结构、规则和使用的学科。
它在认识、描述、解释和预测人类语言的各个层面具有重要作用。
语言法的研究范围涉及语音学、语法学、语义学、语用学、文字学等诸多方面，其目的是帮助我们更好地理解语言的本质和功能。
在语言学中，语言法的研究关注的是语言的不同规则和结构。
语言中的规则可以分为语音规则、语法规则、语义规则和语用规则。
首先是语音规则，它研究的是语言中的音位及其组合和分布。
语音规则研究的是语音的发声特征、音位的分类以及音位之间的相互关系。
它关注的是语音如何被组织、如何表达，并研究语音对语义的影响。
其次是语法规则，它研究的是句子的构成和结构。
语法规则包括词汇、句法和句子结构等方面。
词汇规则研究的是单词的构成和使用，句法规则研究的是句子中的词组和短语的组合方式，句子结构规则研究的是句子的组成和语序等。
语法规则的研究有助于我们理解句子的组织和构成方式。
第三是语义规则，它研究的是词和句子的意义。
语义规则研究的是语言中词汇和句子的意义、概念和关系。
语义规则的研究有助于我们理解词语的意义以及句子的表达方式。
最后是语用规则，它研究的是语言用于交际的规则和策略。
语用规则研究的是语言的使用环境、语言交际的方式和目的以及话语的理解和推理等。
语用规则的研究有助于我们理解语言的交际功能以及语境对语言理解的影响。
除了这些基本的规则，语言法还关注语言的变体和演变。
语言的变体包括方言、口语和标准语等，它们在不同的地理、社会和文化环境中存在着。
语言的演变关注的是语言发展和变化的过程，包括语音、词汇和语法等方面。
在语言法的研究过程中，语言学家会使用不同的研究方法和工具。
其中，观察和实证研究是最常见的方法之一，通过收集和分析真实语言使用的数据来进行研究。
另外，实验和统计分析也是常见的研究方法，可以帮助语言学家验证假设和理论。
总结来说，语言法是研究语言结构、规则和使用的学科，它关注语音、语法、语义和语用等各个层面。
语言学教程考试
第一题名词解释1.Linguistics：Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language。
2.Phonetics：The study of sounds which are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics。
3.Phonology：The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology。
4.Morpheme：Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language.5.Reference：Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real,physical world;it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non—linguistic world of experience.6.Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics.7.Pragmatics ：The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.8.Free morpheme：Free morpheme are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes.ponential analysis：Componential analysis is a way to analyze word meaning.It was proposed by structural semanticists.10.Cooperative principle：It is a general principle which all participants are expected to observe。
语言学名词
1. 语言的普遍特征：任意性arbitrariness双层结构duality 既由声音和意义结构多产性productivity移位性displacement:我们能用语言可以表达许多不在场的东西文化传播性cultural transmission2。
语言的功能：传达信息功能informative人际功能：interpersonal行事功能：Performative表情功能：Em otive寒暄功能：Phatic娱乐功能recreatinal元语言功能m etalingual3. 语言学linguistics：包括六个分支语音学Phonetics音位学phonology形态学M orphology句法学syntax语义学semantics语用学pragmatics4. 现代结构主义语言学创始人：Ferdinand de saussure提出语言学中最重要的概念对之一：语言与言语language and parole ，语言之语言系统的整体，言语则只待某个个体在实际语言使用环境中说出的具体话语5. 语法创始人：Noam Chomsky提出概念语言能力与语言运用competence and performance1. Which of the following statements can be used to describe displacement. one of the unique properties of language:a. we can easily teach our children to learn a certain languageb. we can use both 'shu' and 'tree' to describe the same thing.c. we can u se language to refer to something not presentd. we can produce sentences that have never been heard before.2.What is the most important function of language?a. interpersonalb. phaticc. informatived.metallingual3.The function of the sentence "A nice day, isn't it ?"is __a informativeb. phaticc. directived. performative4.The distinction between competence and performance isproposed by __a saussureb. hallidayc. chomskyd. the prague school5. Who put forward the distinction between language and parole?a. saussureb. chomskyc. hallidayd anomymous第二节语音学1.发音器官由声带the vocal cords和三个回声腔组成2.辅音consonant：there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract.3.辅音的发音方式爆破音complete obstruction鼻音nasals破裂音plosives部分阻塞辅音partial obstruction擦音fricatives破擦音affricates等4.辅音清浊特征voicing辅音的送气特征aspiration5.元音vowel分类标准舌翘位置，舌高和嘴唇的形状6双元音diphthongs,有元音过渡 vowel glides1. Articulatory phonetics mainly studies __.a. the physical properties of the sounds produced in speechb. the perception of soundsc. the combination of soundsd. the production of sounds2. The distinction between vowel s and consonants lies in __a. the place of articulationb.the obstruction f airstreamc. the position of the tongued. the shape of the lips3. What is the common factor of the three sounds: p, k ta. voicelessb. spreadc.voicedd.nasal4. What phonetic feature distinguish the p in please and the p in speak?a. voicingb. aspirationc.roundnessd. nasality5.Which of the following is not a distinctive feature in English?a. voicingb.nasalc. approximationd. aspiration6.The phonological features of the consonant k are __a. voiced stopb. voiceless stopc. voiced fricatived. voiceless fricative7.p is divverent from k in __a. the manner of articulationb. the shape of the lipsc. the vibration of the vocal cordsd.the palce of articualtion8.Vibration of the vocal cords results in __a. aspirationb.nasalityc. obstructiond. voicing第三节音位学phonology1.音位学与语音学的区别：语音学着重于语音的自然属性，主要关注所有语言中人可能发出的所有声音；音位学则强调语音的社会功能，其对象是某一种语言中可以用来组合成词句的那些语音。
语言学概论名词解释
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. (Language is a means of verbal communication.)Arbitrariness 任意性There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.( refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.) Duality 二层性is the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.Creativity (productivity) 创造性Language is creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.(Language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness.)Displacement 移位性Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.( means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present( in time and space) at the moment of communication.)Linguistics 语言学is the scientific study of language.Saussure distinguished the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as Langue and Parole. Competence 语言能力the ideal user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules of his language.Performance 语言运用the actual realization of this knowledge in concrete situations.Chapter 2Phonetics 语音学(the study of sounds) studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.Phonology 音系学is the study of sound patterns and sound systems of languages. Coarticulation 协同发音When a speech sound changes, and becomes more like another sound which follows it or precedes it, this is called coarticulation.(When simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved, we call this process coarticulation.) Broad Transcription 宽式音标the transcription with letter-symbols only.Narrow transcription 窄式音标the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics 读音符号.Phone 音素A phone is a phonetic unit or segment.Phoneme 音位A phoneme is a phonological unit which is the smallest unit of sound in language which can distinguish two words.Allophone 音位变体the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.Assimilation 同化is a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.Syllable 音节A syllable is composed of a compulsory nucleus(peak), a non-compulsory onset and a non-compulsory coda.Stress 重音refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable.Intonation 语调involves the occurrence of recurring fall-rise patterns, each of which is used with a set of relatively consistent meanings, either on single words or on groups of words of varyingChapter 3Morpheme 词素is the smallest meaning minimal meaningful units in a language. (Morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of the relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.)Morphology 形态学studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.Free morphemes 自由音素those that may occur alone, that is those which may constitute words by themselves.Bound morphemes 黏着音素those must appear with at least another morpheme, that is, they cannot stand alone.Root 词根is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without destroying its meaning.Affixes 词缀forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function. (is a collective term for the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme (the root or stem), so affix is naturally bound.Stem 词干is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.Inflection indicates grammatical relations by adding inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case. It will not change the grammatical class of the stem to which it is attached.Word formation refers to the process of how words are formed.Compounding 复合法the formation of new words by joining two or more stems.(The term compound refers to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form.)Derivation (affixation) 派生法the formation of words by adding derivational affixes to stems. ConversionChapter 4Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.Syntax is the study of the formation of sentences.Syntactic relations can be analysed into three kinds, namely, positional relations, relations of substitutability, and the relations of co-occurrence 同现关系.Positional relation (word order) 位置关系refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language. The sequential arrangement of words can either be well-formed or ill-formed (ungrammatical or nonsensical).Relations of substitutability 可替换关系Firstly, it refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure. Secondly, it refers to groups ofmore than one word which may be jointly substitutable grammatically for a single word of a particular set.Grammatical construction/construct 语法结构can be used to mean any syntactic construct which is assigned one or more conventional functions in a language, together with whatever is linguistically conventionalized about its contribution to the meaning or use the construct contains. - Constituents are the components within one sentence (a term used for every linguistic unit, which is a part of a larger unit).Immediate constituents 直接成分are constituents immediately, or directly, below the level of a construction, which may be a sentence, a word group or even a word (which can be further analyzed into morphemes).Endocentric construction 向心结构is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable center or head.Exocentric construction 离心结构refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable center or head.- Subject refers to one of the nouns in the nominative case.- Object Traditionally, subject can be defined as the doer of an action (the agent), then object m ay refer to the “receiver” or “goal” of the action (the patient), and it is further classified into Direct Object and Indirect Object.PS rules provide explanations on how syntactic categories are formed and sentences generated.Chapter 5Semantics is the study of meaning, or more specifically, the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.Referential theory 指称论The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stand for, is known as the referential theory.- Reference is the relation by which a word picks out or identifies an entity in the world.Chapter 8Pragmatics 语用学Speaker’s meaning (utterance or contextual meaning) –the interpretation of a sentence depends on who the speaker is, who the hearer is, when and where it is used. In a word, it depends on the context. The discipline which concentrates on this kind of meaning is called pragmatics.Locutionary Act 发话行为（以言指事）When we speak we move our vocal organs and produce a number of sounds, organized in a certain way and with a certain meaning. The act performed in this sense is called a locutionary act.Illocutionary act 行事行为（以言行事）When we speak, we not only produce some units of language with certain meaning (locution), but also make our purpose in producing them, the way we intend them to be understood. This is the second sense in which to say something is to do something, and the act performed is known as an illocutionary act.Perlocutionary act 取效行为（以言成事）- It refers to the consequential effects of a locution upon the hearer.By telling somebody something the speaker may change the opinion of the hearer on something,or mislead him, or surprise him, or induce his to do something, etc.- Whether or not these effects are intended by the speaker, they can be regarded as part of the act that the speaker has performed.。
现代语言学名词解释（3）
现代语言学名词解释（3）现代语言学名词解释7 root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.8 affix词缀: Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational.9 prefix前缀: Prefix occur at the beginning of a word.10 suffix后缀: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech. 11 derivation派生: Derivation affixes are added to an existing form to create a word. Derivation can be viewed as the adding of affixes to stem to form new words.12 compounding组合: Like derivation, compounding is another popular and important way of forming new words in English. Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.四句法学1 linguistic competence语言能力: Comsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.2 sentence句子: A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement question or command.3 transformation rules转换法则: Syntactic movement is governed by transformational rules. The operation of the transformational rules may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.4 D-structure : A sentence may have two levels of syntacticrepresentation. One exists before movement take place, the other occurs after movement take place. In formal linguistic exploration, these two syntactic representation are commonly termed as D-structure.5 Move а : Just as there is a general rule for all phrase structure rules, i,e. the X-bar schema, there is a general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement. This movement rule is called Move а五语义学1 semantics语义学: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language.2 sense : Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and decontextualized(语境).3 reference 引用: Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.4 synonymy同义 : Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonymy.5 polysemy多义 : Polysemy refers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning. A word having more than one meaning is called a polysemic word.6 antonymy反义词组 : Antonymy refers to the oppositeness of meaning. Words that are opposite in meaning are called antonyms.7 homonymy一词多义: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e. different words are identical in sound or spelling,or in both.8 hyponymy上下义关系: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.9 componential analysis成分分析 : Componential analysis isa way to analyze word meaning. It was proposed by structural semanticists.10 grammatical meaning语法意义: The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality, i.e. its grammatical well-formedness. The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by the grammatical rules of the language.11 semantic meaning语意: The semantic meaning of a sentence is governed by rules called se-le-ctional restrictions.12 predication论断 : In semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is called predication. The predication is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.六语用学1 pragmatics语用学: Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.2 context上下文: The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. Generally speaking, it consists of the knowledge that is shared by the speaker and the hearer.3 utterance meaning话语意义: Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.4 locutionary act言内行为: A locutionary act is the act of utterance words,phrases,clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexion and phonology.5 illocutionary act言外行为: An illocutionary act is the act expressing the speaker’s intention; It is the act performed in saying something.6 perlocutionary act语言表达行为: A illocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something: it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something.七历史语言学1 historical linguistics历史语言学: Historical linguistics is the subfield of linguistics that studies language change.2 apocope字尾音消失: Another well-documented sound loss is the deletion of a word-final vowel segment, a phenomenon called apocope.3 epenthesis插入音: A change that involves the insertion ofa consonant or vowel sound to the middle of a word is known as epenthesis.4 metathesis复分解: Sound change as a result of sound movement is known as metathesis.5 compounding词组: Compounding is a process of combining two or more words into one lexical unit.6 derivation派生: Derivation refers to the process by which new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots.7 blending混合: Blending is a process of forming a new word by combining parts of other words.8 back-formation逆构词: Back-formation is a process by which new words are formed by taking away the suffix of an existing word.9 semantic broadening语义化: Semantic broadening refers to the process in which the meaning of a word becomes general or inclusive than its historically earlier denotation..10 semantic narrowing词义缩小: Semantic narrowing is a process in which the meaning of a word becomes less general or inclusive than its historically earlier meaning.11 semantic shift语义变化: Semantic shift is a process of semantic change in which a word loses its former meaning and acquire a new, sometimes related, meaning.12 protolanguage原始母语: It refers to a family of a language.13 sound shift语音演变: It refers to the systematic modification of a series of phonemes.八社会语言学1 sociolinguistics社会语言学: Sociolinguistics is the study of language in social context.2 speech community社区语言: A speech community is thus defined as a group of people who form a community and share the same language or a particular variety of language.3 speech variety语言变体: Speech variety, also known as language variety, refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or group of speakers.4 language planning语言规划: One way out of the communication dilemma is language standardization known as language planning. This means that certain authorities, such as the government or government agency of a country, choose a particular speech variety and spread the use of it, including its pronunciation and spelling system, across regional boundaries.5 idiolect个人习语: Such a personal dialect is refered to as idiolect.6 standard language标准语言: The standard language is a superposed, socially prestigious dialect of language. It is the language employed by the government and the judiciary system,used by the mass media.7 nonstandard language方言: Language varieties other than the standard are called nonstandard, or vernacular, languages.8 lingua franca混合语: A lingua franca is a variety of language that serves as a medium of communication among groups of people for diverse linguistic backgrounds.9 pidgin混杂语言: A pidgin is a variety of language that is generally used by native speakers of other languages as a medium of communication. 10 Creole克里奥耳语: A Creole language is originally a pidgin that has become established as a native language in some speech communication.11 diglossia使用两种语言: Diglossia usually describes a situation in which two very different varieties of language co-exist in a speech communication, each with a distinct range of purely social function and appropriate for certain situations.12 bilingualism双语: Bilingualism refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers, such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation.13 ethic dialect: An ethnic language variety is a social dialect of a language ,often cutting across regional differences.14 sociolect社会方言: Social dialect, or sociolects, are varieties of language used by people belonging to particular social classes.15 register语域: Registers are language varieties which are appropriate for use in particular speech situations, in contrast to language varieties that are associated with the social or regional grouping of their customary users. For that reason, registers are also known as situational dialects.16 slang俚语: Slang is a causal use of language that consists of expressive but nonstandard vocabulary, typically of arbitrary,flashy and often ephemeral coinage and figure of speech characterized by spontaneity and sometimes by raciness.17 tabo 禁语: A linguistic taboo refers to a word or expression that is prohibited by the “polite” society from general use.18 euphemism委婉语: Euphemism comes from the Greek word euphemismos, meaning “to speak with good words”. A euphemism, then ,is mild, indirect or less offensive word or expression substitute when the speaker or writer fears more direct wording might be harsh, unpleasantly direct, or offensive. -----九心理语言学1 psycholinguistics语言心理学: Psycholinguistics is the study of language in relation to the mind. As the suggests, psycholinguistics is viewed as the intersection of psychology and linguistics, drawing equally upon the language we acquire, produce and comprehend.2 cerebral cortex大脑皮层: The most important part of the brain is the outside surf-ace of the brain, called the cerebral cortex.3 brain lateralization大脑侧化: The localization of cognitive of cognitive and perpetual functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain is called lateralization.4 linguistic lateralization语言侧化: In their research of brain lateralization, psycholinguistics are particulary interested in linguistic lateralization, which is the brain’s neurological specialization for language.5 dichotic listening双听技术: Evidence in support of lateralization for language in the left hemisphere comes from researches in dichotic listening tasks6 right ear advantage右耳优势: Stimuli heard in the left ear are reported less accurately than those heard in the right ear. This phenomenon is know as theright ear advantage.7 critical period hypothesis关键假期说: The critical period hypothesis refers to a period in one’s life extending from about age two to puberty during which the human brain is most ready to acquire a particular language and language learning can proceed easily, swiftly and without explicit instruction.8 linguistic determinism语言决定论: Whorf proposed first that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on language. That is, language determines thought, hence the strong notion of linguistic determinism.9 linguistic relativism语言相对论: Whorf also believed that speakers of different language perceive and experience the world differently, that is, relative to their linguistic background, hence the notion10 subvocal speech无声语言: When language and thought are identical or closely parallel to each other, we may regard thought as “subvocal speech” of linguistic relativism.十语言习得1 language acquisition语言习得: Language acquisition is concerned with language development in humans. In general, language acquisition refers to children’s development of their first language, that is, the native language of the community in which a child has been brought up.2 telegraphic speech电报式语言: The early multiword utterance of children have a special characteristic. They typically lack inflectional morphemes and most minor lexical categories. Because of their resemblance to the style of language found in telegrams, utterance at this acquisition stage are often called telegraphic speech.3 holophrastic sentence独词句: Children’s one-wordutterance are also called holophrastic sentences.4 acquisition获得: According to Krashen, acquisition refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations.5 learning学习：Learning, however, is defined as a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of a second language usually obtained in school settings.6 language transfer语言迁移: Learners will subconsciously use their L1 knowledge in learning a second language. This is known as language transfer.7 positive transfer正迁移: Presumably, positive transfer occurs when an L1 pattern is identical with, or similar to, a target-language pattern.8 negative transfer负迁移: Conversely, negative transfer occurs when an L1 pattern is different from the counterpart pattern of the target language. 9 contrastive analysis对比分析: The Contrastive Analysis approach was founded on the belief that, by establishing the linguistic differences between the native and target language system, it was possible to predict what problems learners of a particular second language would face and the types of errors they would make.10 interlanguage人工辅助语言: SLA is viewed as a process of creative construction, in which a learner constructs a series of internal representations that comprises the learner’s interim knowledge of the target language, known as interlanguage.11 formal instruction正规教学: Formal instruction occurs in classrooms when attempts are made to raise learner’s consciousness about the nature of target language rules in order to aid learning.12 instrumental motivation工具性动机: Thus, instrumental motivation occurs when the learner’s goal is functional.13 integrative motivation综合性动机: Integrative motivationoccurs when the learner’s goal i s social.14 acculturation文化互渗: A related issue with integrative motivation has been the extent to which learners differ in the process of adapting to the new culture of the 12 community. This adaptation process is called acculturation.。
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一、名词解释1. Standard dialect refers to a particular language variety that has no connection with a particular region but widely accepted and normally used in official documents, newspapers and newscast and taught at schools to non-native speaker.2. Idiolect refers to personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines element, regarding, region, social, gender and age.3. First language acquisition refers to child acquisition of his mother tongue that is how the child comes to understand and speak the language of its community.4. Second language acquisition refers to how the people acquire the language other than their mother tongue inside or outside of the classroom.5. Illocutionary act is an act perform in saying something that in saying X of I was doing Y(the intention the speaker Y of speaking )6. Conversational Implicature as a type of implied meaning, which is deduced on the basis of the conversational meaning of words together with the context, under the guidance of the CP and its maxims.7 .Performatives: These sentences do not describe things, the uttering of these sentences is, or isa part of, doing of an action. So they are called performatives.8.Conceptual Metaphor involves the comparison of two concepts in that one is construed in terms of the other. It’s often described in terms of a target domain and source domain. The target domain is the experience being described by metaphor and the source domain is the means that we use in order to describe the experience.9. Image Schemas derive from sensory and perceptual experience as we interact with and move about in the world.10. Psycholinguistics is the study of psychological aspects of languages; it usually studies the psychological states and mental activity associated with the use of language.二、相似词组1. Pragmatics is the study of intended meaning of a speaker taking context into consideration. Semantics is the study of the literal meaning of a sentence without taking context into consideration2. Performatives: These sentences do not describe things, the uttering of these sentences is, or isa part of, doing of an action. So they are called performatives.Constatives: It is description of what the speaker is doing at the time of speaking. Sentences of this type are known as constatives.3. Speech community is refers to the social groups that is singled out for any special sociolinguistic study. A group of people who are speak the same language.Speech variety refers to any distinguishable form of speech, used by a speaker or a group of speakers.4. A Pidgin is a special language variety that mixes or bands languages and it is used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as treading.When a pidgin has become the primary language of a speech community and it’s acquired by the children of that speech community as their native language, it is set to have become the Creole.5. Bilingualism: In some speech communities ,two languages are used side by side with each having a different role to play, and language switching occurs when the situation changes, these constitutes the situation of Bilingualism.Diglossia refers to a sociolinguistic situation similar to bilingualism, but instead of two different languages in diglossia situation, two varieties of a language exist side by side throughout the community with each having a definite role to play.6. Learning refers to a conscious process of a accumulating knowledge of the vocabulary and grammar of language.Acquisition refers to gradual development of ability of language by using it naturally in communicative situations.7. Error reflects gaps in a learner’s knowledge, they occur because the learner doesn’t know what is correct.Mistake reflects occasional lapses in performance, the occur because in a particular instance, the learner is unable to perform what he or she knows.8. The Interlingual errors mainly result from cross-linguistic interference, at different levels such as phonological lexical, grammatical and so on.The Intralingual errors mainly result from faulty or partial learning of the target language, independent of the native language.9. Ontological Metaphor is a metaphor in which an abstraction such as an activity, emotion or idea, is represented as something concrete such as an object, substance, container or person. Structural metaphor is a metaphor in which one concept is understood and expressed in terms of another structured sharply defined concept.10. Positive Transfer:A first language pattern is identical with or similar to a target language, then first language facilitates the target language, this is positive transfer.Negative transfer: A first language pattern is different from the target language, and then first language interferes or hinders the target language learning, this is negative or interference.。