胡壮麟语言学复习重点
胡壮麟语言学总复习课件
句子由主语、谓语、宾语、定语、状 语等不同的成分组成，各成分在句子 中起到不同的作用。Biblioteka 句法结构与句型句法结构
句法结构是指句子的内部构造和组织方 式，包括简单句、复合句、并列句等。
VS
句型
句型是根据句子的结构特点和语义功能划 分的句子类型，如陈述句、疑问句、祈使 句等。
语法的层级体系
01
层级体系
语言学的研究对象与范围
总结词
语言学的研究对象是语言，包括语音、语法、词汇、语义等方面。
详细描述
语音学研究语言的发音和音系规则，语法学研究词法和句法规则，词汇学研究词汇的构成和意义，语义学研究词 汇和句子的意义。此外，社会语言学、心理语言学、计算机语言学等分支学科也丰富了语言学的研究范围。
语言学与其他学科的关系
详细描述
该领域关注第二语言学习的过程、影响因素、学 习策略等，旨在揭示第二语言学习的本质和规律 ，为外语教学提供理论支持和实践指导。
语言教学理论与实践
总结词
语言教学理论与实践主要研究如何有 效地教授和学习语言。
详细描述
该领域关注语言教学方法、教材设计 、课程设置等方面，旨在提高语言教 学的效果和质量，培养学习者的语言 运用能力。
语言接触与变异
语言接触是指不同语言或方言之间的接触和交流 01 ，这种接触会导致语言的变异和融合。
语言变异是指在一个语言的内部，由于地域、社 02 会、年龄等因素的影响，导致语音、词汇、语法
等方面的差异。
社会语言学研究语言接触与变异，旨在揭示语言 03 变化的原因和规律，以及变异对语言的生存和发
展的影响。
音变现象
音变定义
音变是指语音在连续发出时发生的音素变化， 包括同化、异化、弱化等。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记1-3章
胡壮麟语言学重难点Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics常考考点：1. 语言: 语言的定义；语言的基本特征；语言的功能；语言的起源2. 语言学：语言学的定义；现代语言学与传统语法学研究的三个显著区别；语言学研究的四个原则及简要说明；语言学中的几组重要区别；每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义；普通语言学的主要分支学科及各自的研究范畴；宏观语言学及应用语言学的主要分支及各自的研究范畴。
1. 语言的定义特征1.1. 任意性1.2. 二重性1.3. 创造性1.4. 移位性1.5. 文化传递性1.6. 互换性2. 语言的功能1.1. 信息功能1.2. 人际功能1.3. 施为功能1.4. 感情功能1.5. 寒暄功能1.6. 娱乐功能1.7. 元语言功能3. 微观语言学3.1. 语音学3.2. 音系学3.3. 形态学3.4. 句法学3.5. 语义学3.6. 语用学4. 宏观语言学4.1. 心理语言学4.2. 社会语言学4.3. 应用语言学4.4. 计算语言学4.5. 神经语言学5. 重要概念及其区分5.1. 描写式&规定式5.2. 共时&历时5.3. 语言&言语5.4. 语言能力&语言应用5.5. 唯素的&唯位的5.6. 传统语法&现代语法5.7. 语言潜势&实际语言行为Chapter 2 Speech Sounds常考考点：1. 语音学语音学的定义；发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的定义；发音部位、发音方法和分类；英语元音的定义和分类；基本元音；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；语音标记，国际音标；严式与宽式标音法2. 音系学音系学的定义；音系学与语音学的联系与区别；音素、音位、音位变体、最小对立体、自由变体的定义；音位理论；自由变异；音位的对立分布于互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音；音高和语调。
胡壮麟语言学概论复习要点
语言学概论复习要点一．定义1 languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication2 define featuresDesign features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.3 Synchronic vs. diachronicA synchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present) as its point of observation. Diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history and focuses on the differences in two or more than two states of language over decades or centuries.4 Langue & paroleLangue is the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech communityParole is particular realizations of langue5 Competence and performanceAn ideal language user's underlying knowledge about the system of rules in his language is called his linguistic competence.Performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations, that is, the infinite varied individual acts of verbal behavior with irregularities, inconsistencies, and errors.6 descriptive and prescriptive7 phonetic transcriptionA phonetic transcription is an economical means for capturing sounds on paper.When we use a simple set of symbols in our transcription, it is called a broad transcription.The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a narrow transcription.8 phonemePhoneme is a unit of explicit sound contrast. If two sounds in a language make a contrast between two different words, they are said to be different phonemes.phoneme is the minimum phonemic unit that is not further analyzable into smaller units.9 allophones[p, ph] are two different phones (音子) and are variants of the phoneme /p/. Such variants of a phoneme are called allophones of the same phoneme. (Phonetic similarity, complementary distribution)10 assimilationassimilation, a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring soundassimilation refers to the phonological process in which a target or affected segment undergoes a structural change in certain environments or contexts11 distinctive featuresdistinctive features are those phonologically relevant properties, that is, the features which can distinguish meaning, for example, voicing, place and manner of articulation are all principal distinctive features of consonants.12 morphemesthe smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be further divided into smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning,whether it is lexical or grammatical.(Free vs. Bound morphemes:Free morphemes: those that may constitute words by themselves, e.g. boy, girl, table, nation.; Bound morphemes: those that cannot occur alone, e.g. -s, -ed, dis-, un-Root vs. affix morphemes: a root morpheme can be a bound one or a free one. An affix morpheme can be a inflectional one or a derivational one.Inflectional vs. Derivative morphemes:Inflectional morpheme provides further grammatical meaning to the existing lexical item. Derivative morpheme provides lexical information to the existing lexical item）Root: A “root”is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. In other words, a “root”is that part of the word left when all the affixes are removed. Affix: “affix”is a collective term for the type of formative that can be used, only when added to another morpheme (the root or stem). Affixes are naturally bound and they are limited in number in a language.Stem(词干): A stem refers to the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme (曲折詞素)in a word.Base(词基）: A base is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added; any root or stem can be termed a base13 positional relationPositional relation, or WORD ORDER, refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language. syntagmatic, horizontal or chain relations.14 Relation of SubstitutabilityThe Relation of Substitutability refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure.15Construction and ConstituentConstruction：the grammatical structure of a sentence or any smaller unit, represented by a set of elements and relations between them.(Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head. Exocentric construction refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable “Centre” or “Head” inside the group)A constituent is a word or a group of words that functions as a single unit within a hierarchical structure.IC analysis:the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents-word groups or phrases, which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached.16 categoryThe term category refers to the defining properties of the general units of different word classes as well as their syntactic functions17 agreementAgreement (or concord) may be defined as the requirement that the forms of two or more words of specific word classes that stand in specific syntactic relationship should agree with one another in terms of some categories二．简答1 Design Features of Language:Arbitrariness Duality Creativity Displacement2 Functions of language❖referential (to convey message and information),❖poetic (to indulge in language for its own sake),❖emotive (to express attitudes, feelings and emotions),❖conative (to persuade and influence others through commands and requests),❖phatic (to establish communion with others)❖metalingual (to clear up intentions and meanings).-----JocobsonMetafunctions of Language❖ideational, interpersonal and textual functions.4 Functional Grammar⏹Theoretical approach to the description and explanation of linguistic phenomena based ontheir various functions.⏹basic assumption: linguistic phenomena cannot be explained without examining theirfunctionIt offers an alternative to (post) structuralism attempts at describing linguistic phenomena formally(i.e. assuming the autonomy of syntax)5 5.1 The Prague School⏹Prague Linguistic Circle:⏹Started by V. Mathesius (1882-1946) in 1926, with such activists as R. Jacobson(1896-1982), N. Trubetzkoy (1890-1938) and later J. Firbas (1921-2000).⏹The Circle stood at the heart of important developments in structural linguistics andsemiotics in the 1930's.⏹Three important points:⏹Stressed synchronic linguistics, but not rigidly separated from diachronic studies.⏹L is systemic in that no element of L can be satisfactorily analysed or evaluated inisolation and assessment can only be made if its relationship is established with thecoexisting elements in the same language system.⏹L is functional in that it is a tool for performing a number of essential functions ortasks for the community using it.5.1.1 Prague School Phonology⏹N. Trubetzkoy: Principle of Phonology (1939).⏹Phonetics & phonology: different for parole & langue.⏹Phoneme: an abstract unit of the sound system.⏹Distinctive features: phonological oppositions.⏹Showed distinctive functions of speech sounds and gave an accurate definition of thephoneme.Trubetzkoy’s contributions⏹Defined the sphere of phonological studies.⏹Revealed interdependent syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations between phonemes.⏹Put forward a set of methodologies for phonological studies.5.1.2 Functional Sentence Perspective⏹FSP is a theory about analysis of utterances (or texts) in terms of the information they contain.⏹Principle: the role of each utterance part is evaluated for its semantic contribution to thewhole.5.1.3 Communicative dynamism⏹J. Firbas⏹Linguistic communication is dynamic, not static.⏹CD measures the amount of info an element carries in a sentence. The degree of CD isthe effect contributed by a linguistic element. For example,5.2 The London School⏹ B. Malinowski (1884-1942), professor of anthropology (1927).⏹J. R. Firth (1890-1960), the first professor of linguistics in the UK (1944).⏹M. A. K. Halliday (1925- ), student of Firth.⏹All three stressed the importance of context of situation and the system aspect of L.5.2.1 Malinowski’s theories⏹Language “is to be regarded as a mode of action, rather than as a counterpart of thought”.⏹The meaning of an utterance comes from its relation to the situational context in which itoccurs.⏹Three types of situational context:⏹situations in which speech interrelates with bodily activity;⏹narrative situations;⏹situations in which speech is used to fill a speech vacuum—phatic communion.5.2.2 Firth’s theoriesa.语言观Regarded L as a social process, a means of social life.⏹L is a means of participation in social activities.⏹L is a means of doing things and of making others do things, a means of acting andliving.⏹L is both inborn and acquired.⏹The object of linguistic study is L in use.⏹The goal of linguistic inquiry is to analyse meaningful elements of L in order to establishcorresponding relations between linguistic and non-linguistic elements.⏹The method of linguistic study is to decide on the composite elements of L, explain theirrelations on various levels, and ultimately explicate the internal relations between theseelements and human activities in the environment of language use.b. 意义观Meaning is use. five parts of its analysis:⏹the relationship of each phoneme to its phonetic context;⏹the relationship of each lexical item to the others in the sentence;⏹the morphological relations of each word;⏹the sentence type of which the given sentence is an example;⏹the relationship of the sentence to its context of situation.In sum, he emphasizes three kinds of meaning: collocational meaning, referential meaning, and contextual meaningc. 语境观contextual analysis: situational context and linguistic context⏹Internal relations of the text:⏹syntagmatic relations in structure⏹paradigmatic relations in system⏹Internal relations of the context of situation:⏹relations between text and non-linguistic elements⏹analytical relations between elements of the text and elements within the situationd. Prosodic analysis (韵律分析): prosodic phonology⏹Since any human utterance is continuous speech flow made up of at least one syllable,it cannot be cut into independent units. Mere phonetic and phonological descriptionsare insufficient.⏹It is not phonemes that make up the paradigmatic relations, but Phonematic Units, thefeatures of which are fewer than those of phonemes and are called prosodic units.⏹prosodic units include such features as stress, length, nasalisation, palatalisation, andaspiration.⏹prosodic analysis is advantageous in categorising data and revealing the relations betweenthem compared with phonemic analysis一．论述1 TG grammarA brief introduction to generative grammar⏹Generative grammar: a system of rules that in some explicit and well-defined way assignsstructural descriptions to sentences. It aims to reveal the unity of particular grammars anduniversal grammars as well as human cognitive systems. To achieve this goal, a grammarshould achieve observational adequacy, descriptive adequacy and explanatory adequacy.⏹Different from Bloomfield’s data-oriented discovery procedure, he insists on theHypothesis-deduction method.Five stages of development⏹The Classical Theory⏹The Standard Theory⏹The Extended Standard Theory⏹The Revised Extended Standard Theory⏹The Minimalist Program4.1 Early theories (1957)4.1.1 Innateness hypothesis: the starting point of TG grammarLanguage is somewhat innate, and children are born with a Language Acquisition Device (LAD)—a unique kind of knowledge that fits them for language learning.Children are endowed with a universal knowledge of the basic grammatical relations and categories and study of language can shed light on the nature of the human mind.LAD consists of three parts: hypothesis maker, linguistic universal and evaluation procedure.⏹Evidences: children learn mother tongue very fast and with little effort; similar stagesexperienced by them (babbling stage, nonsense word stage, holophrastic stage, two-wordutterance, developing grammar, near-adult grammar, and full competence); learn the totalgrammar during limited period of time, from limited exposure to speech.⏹target: to reveal linguistic universals4.2 The classical theorySyntactic Structures (1957)⏹Three features: emphasis on generative ability of language, introduction of transformationalrules and grammatical description regardless of meaning.⏹finite state grammar, phrase structure grammar, and transformational grammar.4.2.1 Phrase structure grammar⏹ A system of finite rules generating an infinite number of sentences, and the rules are:generative, simple (represented by symbols and formulae), explicit (to state everythingprecisely), exhaustive (to cover all linguistic fact) and recursive (can be repeatedly applied to generate an infinite number of sentences)⏹more generative, stronger powerPhrase structural rules are also called rewritten rules, and the generative process of a sentence is that of rewriting one symbol into another.(NP(Det(the)N(man)) VP(V(hit)NP(Det(the)N(ball))))4.2.2 Transformational grammar⏹Linguistic competence : phrase structure grammar that consists rules governing idealizedsentence formation, and transformational grammar that enables us to manipulate sentences to produce the full range of sentence types.⏹Every sentence has a surface structure (a post-transformational stage) and a deep structure (apre-transformational stage)Deep structure and surface structure⏹Deep structure: the abstract structure and the propositional core. The underlying structure thatspecifies the grammatical relations and functions of the syntactic elements as well as themeaning of constituents.⏹Surface structure: the actually produced structure and the directly observable actual form. Anabstract sentence structure resulting from the application of transformational rules. Transformation⏹the relationship between deep structure and surface structure.⏹responsible for the generation of many phrase markers not generated directly by the phrasestructure rules, and thus contribute to the open-endedness and creativity of languages.⏹structural analysis (SA) and structural change (SC)⏹SA shows which relevant structural properties phrase markers must have for thetransformations to apply and specifies the input. (structural description SD)⏹SC describes the effect of the transformation and specifies what the output structure will be.⏹Transformation is based on the deletion and insertion of constituents. Substitution andpermutation are derived from them.4.3 The standard theory (1965)⏹Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (1965)⏹three components: syntactic (base component including categories and lexicon, andtransformational components), semantic (makes semantic interpretations on the deepstructure), phonological (phonological interpretation on the surface structure).⏹Category component is somewhat similar to the re-writing rules, but with featurespecifications for the words.⏹N ◊ [+N, ±Common]⏹[+Common] ◊ [±Count]⏹[+Count] ◊ [±Animate]⏹[-Common] ◊ [±Animate]⏹[+Animate] ◊ [±Human]⏹[-Count] ◊ [±Abstract]⏹verbs are subcategoriezed according to the context they occur in. eat [+V,+--NP, +--#]⏹words with the same feature specifications are in a paradigmatic relation and can occur in thesame specific context. Sincerity may frighten the boy.⏹transformations can’t alter the meaning⏹selection restriction⏹restrictions on transformations⏹the symbol S is introduced, which means that a sentence can be embedded⏹order of the rules4.4 The Extended Standard Theory⏹the first revision of the Standard Theory (the EST): the principle that the transformation rulecan’t change meaning cannot be held with the passive transformation. E.g. I have been taught physics by Einstein. Surface structure also has some bearing on semantic interpretation.⏹The second revision (the REST): all the necessary information for semantic interpretation canbe captured by the surface structure with the help of the notion trace.Beavers built damsDams are built t by beavers4.5 the Theory of Government and Binding⏹In 1981, Lectures on Government and Binding⏹ A Rule system with four components: lexicon, syntax (categorical component andtransformational component), phonetic form and logical form. The transformationalcomponent has one rule: move α: any element may be moved to another place, or moregenerally changed in some way, as long as the relevant conditions are satisfied.⏹ A principle system which specifies these conditions: bound theory, θtheory, bindingtheory, government theory, case theory and control theory, among which we only focus ongovernment and binding theory here.The minimalist program:⏹ a universal grammar is a theory for studying the initial states and particular grammars studythe states of acquisition.Particular language exposureUniversal Grammar Particular Grammar4.5 Main features of TG Grammar⏹The development of TG reflects a process of constantly minimalising theories and controllingthe generative powers.⏹rationalism, innateness, deductive methodology, emphasis on interpretation, formalization,emphasis on linguistic competence, strong generative powers, emphasis on linguisticuniversals.Systemic-functional grammar⏹Two components and inseparable parts:⏹systemic grammar: internal relations in L as a system network, meaning potential.⏹functional grammar: L as a means of social interaction, uses or functions of languageform.5.2.3.1Systemic grammar⏹System: a set of mutually exclusive options that can appear in a linguistic structure.⏹characteristics (entry conditions): options have a common area of meaning and grammaticalenvironment; mutually exclusive; finite; interdependent relationships between terms ofdifferent systems.⏹Delicacy is a scale on which we can arrange systems according to the fineness of thedistinction.⏹ A system is simultaneous with another if they are independent of each other but have the sameentry conditions. Their terms can combine freely to enable us to make more delicatedistinctions in meaning.⏹SG: a chart of the full set of choices available in constructing a sentence, with a specificationof the relationships between choices.⏹realization relationships between various levels: semantics (meaning)lexicogrammar (form)phonology(substance)⏹features of SG:a. emphasizes the sociological aspectsb. L is a form of doing rather than knowingc. distinguishes linguistic behavior potential from actual linguistic behaviord. emphasizes particular languagee. explains L in terms of clines (continuum)f. empirical: observation from texts and by means of statistical techniquesg. The category of the system is the core.5.2.3.2 Functional grammar⏹Ideational function (experiential & logical): to convey new info, communicate a contentunknown to the hearer⏹Interpersonal function: to express social and personal relations⏹Textual function: to make any stretch of spoken or written discourse into a coherent andunified text and make a living passage different from a random list of sentences.Ideational functionExperiential function: six processes of transitivity⏹ A process, in principle, mainly consists of three components:(1)the process itself(2)participants in the process;(3)circumstances associated with the process.⏹L can express experiential function by building a mental picture of reality to interpret or makesense of what goes on around us or inside us..a Material process: process of doing⏹Actor—the one who does something⏹Goal—the one who receives the action⏹Dispositive type: the lion caught the tourist.⏹Creative type: they wrote a letter.Transitivity analysis of John built a house.Actor: JohnProcess: Material: Creation: builtGoal: Affected: a new houseb.Mental process: process of sensing⏹The human conscious participant is called the Senser and the other one called Phenomenon.The three sub-processes of the mental process: feeling, perceiving and thinking are labeled in more general terms: 1. PERCEPTION (seeing, hearing, smelling), 2. AFFECTION (liking,fearing, etc. ) and 3. COGNITION (thinking, knowing, understanding).⏹John likes the house.Senser :JohnProcess: mental: affection: likesPhenomenon: the housec. Relational process: process of being⏹two parts are related in a certain way, indicated by verbs like be, become, turn, etc.d. Behavioral Processes⏹processes of physiological and psychological behaviors, like smiling, breathing, coughing, etc.⏹The participant: one participant called Behaver, typically a conscious beinge. Verbal process: a process of saying⏹Apart from the Sayer, there are other three participants in a verbal process: (1) RECEIVER,(2)VERBIAGE, (3) TARGET. The first two are oblique participants, that is, they are in theoblique case (间接格).⏹The RECEIVER is the participant to which the saying is directed.He didn’t tell me the truth.f. Existential Process⏹It represents that something exists or happens. The thing that exists is labeled Existent Interpersonal function⏹embodies all uses of language to express social and personal relations.⏹realized by mood and modality.Mood⏹the role selected by the speaker in the speech situation an that he assigns to the addressee. Two speech roles: giving and demanding.Contents of giving/demanding: goods-services/information⏹In sum, we have four moods: offer, command, statement and question P.314⏹Mood includes two parts: subject and finite.⏹Subject : N, NP or clause⏹Finite elements: Aux and M to express tense or modality, one part of VP.⏹ResidueTextual function⏹to make any stretch of spoken or written discourse into a coherent and unified text rather thana random list of sentences.⏹related to the theme-rheme structure⏹two inseparable components for an integral framework of Systemic-Functional linguisticstheory.⏹SG aims to explain the internal relations in L as a system of meaning potential. FG functionsto reveal that L is a means of interaction. SG has a functional component, and the theorybehind his FG is systemic.⏹innovation: relate his FG to its structure. The three metafunctions are related respectively tothree systems: transitivity, mood and theme.A brief summary: formalism vs. functionalism⏹Formalism: Structural grammar & TG grammar which pays more attention to structures.⏹Functionalism: functional grammar which emphasizes systems and relates them to functionsplayed by L.Semantics1 The conceptualist (referential) theory●The conceptualist theory treats meaning as concept or reference to cope with problems of thenaming theory.●any particular sound image is psychologically associated with a particular concept.2 Types of meaningLeech’s seven types of meaningGeoffrey Leech (1974, 1981). Semantics: The Study of Meaning.●Conceptual meaning●Associative●Connotative meaning●Social meaning●Affective meaning●Reflected and meaning●Collocative meaning●Thematic meaning3 marked and unmarkedUnmarked forms: more usual, easy to learn, broader in meaning, non-metaphoricalMarked forms: less frequently used.4 Antonymya: gradable antonymy (semantic polarity and semantic relativity; continuum; markedness)good ----------------------- bad●Can be modified by adverbs of degree like very. Can have comparative forms. Can beasked with how.●graded against different norms●one member of a pair, usually the one for the higher degree, serves as the cover term orunmarked term. E.g. How long…, lengthb: Complementary antonymy. These antonyms divide a semantic field completely. The assertion of one means the denial of the other and there is no intermediate ground between the two. A yes or no question, not a choice between more or less.●alive : dead male : femaleFeatures: no comparative or superlative degrees. absolute norm, no cover termc: converse antonymy （关系反义词）: the two members of the pair do not constitute a positive-negative opposition. They show the reversal of a relationship between two entities in reciprocal social roles. X presuppose Y.buy : sell lend : borrow husband : wife smaller: bigger反义词有不稳定性，针对具体语义特征而言。
【考研专业课笔记】胡壮麟《语言学教程》(第5版)复习攻略(第2章)
好的，以下是考研语言学专业课复习攻略：
1.复习要点
第2章语音学的主要内容包括以下方面：
（1）语音符号：声母、韵母、声调和语调等；
（2）语音系统：语音库、音位、音系、音变等；
（3）语音规律：音位组合规律、音节结构规律、声调变化规律等；（4）语音变异：方言、口音、个体差异等。
2.学习目标
通过本章的学习，你应该能够：
（1）理解语音学的基本概念，包括声音、音素、音位、音系等；
（2）掌握各种语音符号的特点和用法，以及声调语调的分类和作用；
（3）了解语音规律和变异现象，掌握语音变异的基本类型和特点；
（4）掌握语音学研究的基本方法和技术，如声谱分析、声学实验等。
3.时间安排
第一天：
上午：阅读第2章，理解语音学的基本概念和语音符号的特点和用法。
下午：掌握声调语调的分类和作用，了解语音规律和变异现象。
第二天：
上午：了解语音变异的基本类型和特点，掌握语音学研究的基本方法和技术。
下午：进行实验操作或模拟练习，加深对语音学知识的理解和运用。
4.总结
通过以上复习要点和学习目标，你可以在2天内全面了解语音学的基本概念和知识体系，掌握各种语
音符号的特点和用法，了解声调语调的分类和作用，学习语音规律和变异现象，掌握语音学研究的基本方法和技术。
建议在学习过程中注重实践和思考，多进行练习和实验操作，加深对概念和方法的理解和记忆。
同时，还应该注意扩大知识面，关注语音学的前沿研究和应用领域，为未来的学术研究和职业发展打下坚实的基础。
语言学重要知识点(胡壮麟版)
Language is a means of verbal communication. It is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.Design features of language The features that define our human languages can be called design featureswhich can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication.Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings.eg.the dog barks wowwow in english but 汪汪汪in chinese.Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.eg.dog-woof(but not w-oo-f)Creativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Eg. An experiment of bee communication.Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.3. Origin of language The bow-wow theory In primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived and speech developed from that.The pooh-pooh theory In the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pains, anger and joy which gradually developed into language. The “yo-he-ho” theory As primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language.4.Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one community, but the language of all human beings.5. Main branches of linguistics✧Phonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acousticphonetics, and auditory phonetics.✧Phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and theshape of syllables.✧Morphology studies the minimal units of meaning – morphemes and word-formation processes.✧Syntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply,the study of the formation of sentences.✧Semantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language. It is concerned with both meanings of wordsas lexical items and levels of language below the word and above it.✧Pragmatics is the study of meaning in context. It concerned with the way language is used to communicaterather than with the way language is structured.6.Important distinctions in linguistics1)Descriptive vs. prescriptive For example, “Don’t say X.” is a prescriptive command; “People don’t say X.” is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are.Lyons2)Synchronic vs. diachronic A synchronic study takes a fixed instant (usually at present) as its point of observation. Saussure’s diachronic description is the study of a language through the course of its history. E.g. a study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time would be synchronic, and a study of the changes English has undergone since then would be a diachronic study.3)Langue & parole langue: the linguistic competence of the speaker. parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances). Saussure4)Competence and performance According to Chomsky,a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language in concrete situations is called performance. Competence7.consonant is produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some places to divert, impede, orcompletely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity. Vowel:are sound segments produced without such obstruction, so no turbulence of a total stopping of the air can be perceived. The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream. [p] voiceless bilabial stop[b] voiced bilabial stop[s] voiceless alveolar fricative [z] voiced alveolar fricative[m] bilabial nasal[n] alveolar nasal[l] alveolar lateral[j] palatal approximant[h] glottal fricative[r] alveolar approximant[f v]labiodental fricative[ ]dental fricative[t d]alveolar stop[k g]velar stop[w]velar approximant8. Coarticulation: The simultaneous or overlapping articulation of two successive phonological units. Anticipatory coarticulation: If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamp, it is known as anticipatory coarticulation.Perseverative coarticulation: If the sound displays the influence of the preceding sound, as in the case of map, it is perseverative coarticulation.9.Phoneme: the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a particular language.allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme.10. Assimilation: A process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.11. Classification of wordsa)Variable and invariable words E.g. follow – follows – following – followed. Invariable words refer tothose words such as since, when, seldom, through, hello, etc.b)grammatical word: word expressing grammatical meanings, such conjunction, prepositions, articles andpronouns. lexical word: word having lexical meanings, that is ,those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and verbs.c)Closed-class words and open-class words pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. are allclosed items. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are all open-class items.d)4.Word class particles助词auxiliaries助动词pro-form代词形式determiners限定词13.morpheme:the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.Morphology studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.Morpheme is a branch of morphology.Types of morphemesa)Free morpheme and bound morpheme Those which may occur alone, that is, those which may constitutewords by themselves, are free morphemes.eg.dog,nation,free.Those which must appear with at least another morpheme are called bound morphemes. Eg.dogs,national,disclose.b)Root, affix and stem A root is the base form of a word that cannot further beanalyzed.eg.internationalism,the root is nation. An affix is the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme. A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.friend in friendsc)Inflectional affix and derivational affix The distinction between inflectional affixes and derivationalaffixes is sometimes known as a distinction between inflectional morphemes and derivational morphemes. pounds refer to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form, such as ice-cream, sunrise, paper bag, railway, rest-room, simple-minded, wedding-ring, etc. Derivation shows the relation between roots and suffixes.un＋conscious→unconscious15. Lexical change propera)Invention Since economic activities are the most important and dynamic in human life, many new lexicalitems come directly from the consumer items, their producers or their brand names.eg.coke,kodak,nylonb)Blending is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining theinitial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words.eg.smoke+fog→smog,breakfast+lunch→bru nchc)Abbreviation / clipping A new word is created by cutting the final part, cutting the initial part or cuttingboth the initial parts of the original words.eg.bicyle→bike,aeroplane→plane,influenza→flud)Acronym Acronym is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavilymodified headword.WTO world trade organizatione)Back-formation Back-formation refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word isderived by deleting an imaged affix from a longer form already in the language. editor→edit gangling→ganglef)Analogical creation The principle of analogical creation can account for the co-existence of two forms,regular and irregular, in the conjugation of some English verbs.work→wrought→workedg)Borrowing English in its development has managed to widen her vocabulary by borrowing words fromother languages. Greek, Latin, French, Spanish, Arabic and other languages have all played an active role in this process.feast was borrowed directly from the middle french festa16.constituent is a term used in structural sentence analysis for every linguistic unit,which is a part of a larger linguistic unit. Immediate constituents are constituents immediately, directly, below the level of a construction, which may be a sentence or a word group or a word.Immediate constituent analysis, IC analysis for short, refers to the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents –word groups (phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate sake of convenience.17.endocentric construction: one construction whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents, which serves as the centre, or head, of the whole. Hence an endocentric construction is also known as a headed construction. e.g. boys and girls, in which the two content constituents, boys and girls, are of equal syntactic status, and no one is dependent on the other.exocentric construction: a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any to any of its constituents. Eg.the boy smiled.(neither constituent can substitute for the sentence structure as a whole)18.Meanings of “meaning”Meaning: Meaning refers to what a language expresses about the world we live in or any possible or imaginary world.Connotation: The additional meaning that a word or phrase has beyond its central meaning.Denotation: That part of the meanings of a word or phrase that relates it to phenomena in the real world or in a fictional or possible word.Different types of meaning (Recognized by Leech, 1974)(1)Conceptual meaning: Logical, cognitive, or denotative content.(2)Associative meaning a.Connotative meaning: What is communicated by virtue of what language refers to. b.Social meaning: What is communicated of the social circumstances of language use. c.Affective meaning: What is communicated of the feelings and attitudes of the speaker / writer.d.Reflected meaning: What is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression.e.Collocative meaning: What is communicated through association with words which tend to occur in the environment of another word.(3) Thematic meaning: What is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis.19.The difference between meaning, concept, connotation, and denotationMeaning refers to the association of language symbols with the real world. There are many types of meaning according to different approaches.Concept is the impressio n of objects in people’s mind.Connotation is the implied meaning, similar to implication.Denotation, like sense, is not directly related with objects, but makes the abstract assumption of the real world.20..The referential theoryThe referential theory: The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the referential theory.The semantic triangle theory Ogden and Richards presented the classic “Semantic Triangle” as manifested in the followin g diagram, in which the “symbol” refers to the linguist elements (word, sentence, etc.), the “referent” refers to the object in the world of experience, and the “thought” or “reference” refers to concept or notion. Thus the symbol of a word signifies “things” by virtue of the “concept,” associated with the form of the word in the mind of the speaker of the language. The concept thus considered is the meaning of the word. The connection (represented with a dotted line) between symbol and referent is made pos sible only through “concept.”21. Sense relations sense: the semantic relations between one world and another, or more generally between one linguistic unit and another.(1)Synonymy:is the technical name for the sameness relation.eg.buy and purchase Antonymy:is the name for oppositeness relation. There are three subtypes: gradable, complementary and converse antonymy.Gradable antonymy e.g. good / bad, long / short, big / small, plementary antonymy , e.g. alive / dead, hit / miss, male / female, boy / girl, etc.Converse antonymy e.g. buy / sell, parent / child, above / below, etc.Hyponymy.It is a matter of class membership. e.g. under flower, there are peony, jasmine, tulip, violet, rose, etc., flower is the superordinate of peony, jasmine, etc., peony is the hyponym of flower, and peony, jasmine, tulip, violet, rose, etc. are co-hyponyms.ponential analysis Componential analysis defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components. That is, the meaning of a word is not an unanalyzable whole. It may be seen as a complex of different semantic features. There are semantic units smaller than the meaning of a word. E.g Boy: [+human][-adult][+male] Girl: [+human][-adult][-male]Son: child (x, y) & male (x) Daughter: child (x, y) & -male (x)Take: cause (x, (have (x, y))) Give: cause (x, (-have (x, y)))Sense relations between sentences(1) X is synonymous with Y (2) X is inconsistent with Y(3) X entails Y (4)X presupposes Y (5) X is a contradiction (6)X is semantically anomalous23. What is pragmatics? What’s the difference between pragmatics and semantics?Pragmatics is the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationships between sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used. Pragmatics includes the study of (1) How the interpretation and use of utterances depends on knowledge of the real world;(2) How speakers use and understand speech acts;(3) How the structure of sentences is influenced by the relationship between the speaker and the hearer.Pragmatics is sometimes contrasted with semantics, which deals with meaning without reference to the users and communicative functions of sentence24.The theory of conversational implicature austin’sa)The cooperative principle (CP)refers to the “co-operation” between speakers in using the maxims duringthe conversation. There are four conversational maxims:b)Conversational implicature: The use of conversational maxims to imply meaning during conversation iscalled conversational implicature.1. How do you understand the design features of human language?1) Arbitrariness,According to Saussure, it refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no naturalrelationship to their meaning. For instance,we cannot explain why a book is called a /buk/ and a pen a /pen/. 2) Duality.It refers to the property of having two levels of structures: units of the primary level being composed of elements of the secondary level and each level having its own principles of organization. At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure of sounds, which are meaningless, discrete, individual sounds. But the sounds of language can be combined according to rules into units of meaning such as morphemes and words, which, at the higher level, can be arranged into sentences. This duality of structure or double articulation of language enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge. No animal communication system has duality or even comes near to possessing it. 3）Creativity.by creativity we mean language is resouceful owing to its duality and its recursiveness. Peculiar to human languages，users of language can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before.For example,“ A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the hotel bed” 4) nguage can be used to refer to things, which are not present: real or imagined matters in the past, present or future, or in far-away places. Displacement enables people to handle generalizations and abstractions.For example,a dog cannot tell people that its master will be home in a few days.Our language enables us to communicate about things that do not exist or do not yet exist.2. What are the three branches of phonetics? How do they contribute to the Articulatory phonetics —describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ.Auditory phonetics -–studies the physical properties of speech sounds, reaches the important conclusion that phonetic identity is only a theoretical ideal.Acoustic phonetics -–studies the physical properties of speech sounds ,the way sound travel from the speaker to the hearer.3. Cite examples from English and Chinese to discuss the concept of the syllable.English: a unit of speech sounds consisting of a vowel or a vowel with one or more than one consonant. Chinese: word or part of word which contains a vowel sound or consonant acting as a vowel.In English we can divide a syllable into two parts: the phyme and the onset. As the vowel within the thyme is the nucleus, the consonant after it will be termed the coda, for example clasp .All syllables must have a nucleus but not all syllables contain an onset and a coda. A syllable that has no coda is called an open syllable, for example: bar, tie. While a syllable with coda is known as closed syllable, forexample: hard, tied, dead.English syllable can be represented as (((C)C)C)V((((C)C)C)C) , However ,the Chinese syllable allows at most one consonant in the onset position and only nasals in the coda for the Putonghua .Thus the Chinese syllable is represented as (C)V(C)e.g. “split”, “sixths” and “prompts”. “您好，请问河南工业大学在哪里？”4. Morpheme is defined as the smallest unit in terms of relationship betweenSince morpheme is defined as the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content,it at the same time covers the grammatical and semantic aspect of linguistic unit.A morpheme may overlap with a phoneme,such as I,but usually not,as in pig,in which the morpheme is the whole word,i.e. an independent,free morpheme,but the phonemes are/p/,/i/,and/g/.5. Use examples to illustrate the concept of “recursiveness”.Recursiveness is an umbrella term, under which may be brought together several important linguistic phenomena such as coordination and subordination, conjoining and embedding, hypotactic and paratactic. All these are means to extend sentences. Theoretically, there is no limit to the number of embedded clauses in a sentence, so long as it does not become an obstacle to successful communication. This is what we call recursiveness, for example, (1) I met a man who had a son whose wife sold cookies that she had baked in her kitchen that was fully equipped withelectrical appliances that were new. Recursiveness, together with openness, is generally regarded as the core of creativity of language. Coordination and conjoining are different names for the same linguistic phenomenon, that is, to use and, but or or to join together syntactic constituents with the same function. For instance, the sentence A man got into the car could be extended into a sentence like this “[NP A man, a woman, a boy, a car and a dog] got into the car”. Subordination and embedding can be understood as the extension of any syntactic constituent by inserting one or more syntactic elements with different functions into another. I saw the man who had visited you last year is an extended sentence by changing the independent clause The man had visited you last year into a dependent element (here a relative clause). Other examples of this type include:(2) I saw the man who had visited you last year. (relative clause)(3) I don’t know whether Professor Li needs this book. (complement clause)(4) If you listened to me, you wouldn't make mistakes. (adverbial clause) Hypotaxis and parataxis are two traditional terms for the description of syntacticrelations between sentences. In the examples below, the former is hypotactic, whilethe latter is paratactic:(5) We live near the sea. So we enjoy a healthy climate.(6) He dictated the letter. She wrote it.6.The sentence "John saw the police with binoculars" has two semantic interpretations. You are required to explain why the sentence is two way ambiguous. Syntactic tree diagrams are necessary for your explanation.SS N VPN VP V NPVP DET NPV NP PP N PPDET N P N P NJohn saw the police with binoculars John saw the police with binoculars 7. Why do we say tree diagrams are more advantageous and informative thanIn addition to revealing a linear order,a constituent structure tree has a hierarchical structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic category of each structural constituent,and consequently is believed to most truth fully illustrate the constituent relationship among linguistic elements.For example,the phrase“the old men and women”may have two interpretations,i.e.the adjective“old”may modify the noun“men”,or the following two nouns“men and women”.Linear order analysis cannot tell this difference,so it is ambiguous.Whereas,the constituent or tree diagrams analysis can make this difference clear.So,we say tree diagrams are more advantageous and informative than linear structure analysis.NP NPNP NP NP NPThe old men and the women the old men and the old women8 why is it important to know the relations a sign has with others, such as syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations? As the relation between a signifier and its signified is arbitrary, the value of a sign cannot be determined by itself. To know the identity of a sign, the linguist will have to know thesigns it is used together with and those it issubstitutable for. The former relation is known as syntagmatic and the latter paradigmatic.9.“任何语言里的任何一句话，它的意义绝不等于一个个字的总和，而是还多些semantics and pragmatics. Semantics is the study of the literal meaning of a sentence(without taking context into consideration).pragmatics is the study of the intended meaning of a speaker(taking context into consideration).For example,“Today is Sunday”,semantically,it means that today is the first day of the week;pragmatically, you can mean a lot by saying this,all depending on the context and the intention of the speaker,say,making a suggestion or giving an invitation.10. What are the four maxims of the Cooperative Principle? Please give examples(1)quantity----Make your contribution as informative as required for the current purpose of the exchange. eg.War is war.> War is cruel----Do not make your contribution more informative than is required. eg. A: Where is Tom?B: He has gone to the library. He said so when he left.> I am not sure and I do not believe what he said.(2)quality----Do not say what you believe to be false. eg.He is made of iron ----Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence. eg. A:would you like to come to our party tonight?B:I’m afraid I’m not feeling so well tonight.(3)relation----Be relevant. eg. A: Prof. Wang is an old bag.B: Nice weather for the time of year. > I don’t want to talk about Prof. Wang. (4)manner----Avoid obscurity of expression.Eg.A:Let’s get the kids something.B:Ok, but I veto C-H-O-C-O-L-A-T-E.> Don’t give them chocolate ----Avoid ambiguity. eg. A: Name and title, please?B: John Smith, Associate Editor and professor.----Be brief. eg.A:Did you get my assignment?B: I received two pages clipped together and covered with rows of black squiggles.> not satisfied.----Be orderly.11. In recent years, people, e.g. 上网，海选.If we compare newspaper articles published recently with those published five years ago, we will catch a big difference in their lexical choice—there are so many new words and expressions in these new articles. Based on the results of this comparison, we may predict that today's readers will find it a little bit difficult to understand what future newspapers will carry.Over the past decades, Chinese people have enjoyed a much more colorful life,materially and spiritually. The rapid development in science, technology, economics,culture, and education has brought in our daily communication thousands andthousands of new words. Words such as 短信、鼠标、上网、博客、动漫、网游、按揭、干细胞、海选(in an election or contest)、海面(in a job interview), which used to sound so professional, have now become part of our active vocabulary and are used frequently in our speech. Facing a situation like this, you may ask this question: Where do these new words and expressions come from? It is not an easy job to tell a complete story of these words. If you look at the question from a sociolinguistic point of view,you may claim that language changes with society. Words are the most active, sensible, and changeable component of language. Following this line of reasoning, we may conclude that, as society changes, the vocabulary of our language will become richer, more colorful and expressive in the days to come.。
胡壮麟语言学总复习
Productivity
Productivity refers to the property of language which enables language to generate new utterances by its users.
The property of language enables us to express our unlimited and new ideas.
1.1 Definition of language
In the Textbook Language is a means of verbal communication. It is
instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiotic and communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction including such associated factors as nonverbal cures, motivation, and social-cultural roles Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.
Chapter 1 Language and Linguistics
（完整版）胡壮麟语言学教程笔记、重点全解
（完整版）胡壮麟语言学教程笔记、重点全解《语言学教程》重难点学习提示第一章语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。
第二章语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。
第三章语音学发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。
第四章音位学音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。
第五章词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。
第六章词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。
第七章句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。
第八章语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。
第九章语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；第十章语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。
第十一章语用学语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。
胡壮麟语言学重点
胡壮麟语言学重点（转自爱北语论坛）(2011-01-09 18:37:46)转载标签：教育三星级重点章节07年冬天，学校组织了一个讲座，请老师给我们谈考试重点，同时学生有什么问题，可以当面问他。
他说前五章是最重要的，第七和第八次之，第六，第九和第十二章也有考的内容，但不会很多，剩下的十章和十一章可以不看！所以，我就用三颗星表示最重要；俩颗星表示第二重要，一颗星表示第三重要。
王老师说只要把胡壮麟那本书背会了，肯定能考好！因为考试覆盖的知识点都在书上！其实，背会那本书是不实际的，而把那本书过5到6遍是可能的，也是必须的。
而且重点章节要在理解的基础上反复看。
虽然我们文科的知识，背时关键，但是理解更重要，尤其语言学这门课，比较抽象，不理解就背，效果不好，不容易背会。
北语没有提供考纲之类的东西，只告诉语言学参考书是胡壮麟的《语言学教程(修订版)》。
（09年不知是否会换成该书的第三版）所以能知道该书哪些章节是重点，能让我们有的放矢。
我这里所说的三星级重点，即最重要的章节是该书的前五章。
不知道外校的考生，他们学校开过这门课没有！我们北语大三下学期讲前五章，大四上学期讲的6，7，8，9，12这几章。
下面，我们先谈谈前五章该如何复习。
Chapter1: Invitations to linguistics；Chapter2: Speech Sounds；Chapter3: Lexicon；Chapter4: Syntax (新版中，这章改成From Word to Text，是变化最大的一章，变化的结果是比以前的简单了）；Chapter5: Meaning。
这五章可以说是语言学的基础和考试的重点。
我们一定要反复看，理解其中的定义等知识点。
一定要在理解的基础上记忆。
Chapter1: Invitations to linguistics这章是该书的开篇，目的是让大家对语言学这门课有个初步的了解，为后面几章作个铺垫。
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语言学期末考试范围
Chapter 1
⑴Language, linguistics
⑵Design features of Language (细致掌握)
⑶Functions of Language(细致); Halliday’s metafunctions（了解）
⑷Saussure’s Langue and Parole (概念，区别，联系)
⑸Chomsky competence and performance; Communicate competence
⑹Prescriptive and descriptive
⑺Synchronic and diachronic
Chapter 2
⑴Phonetics; Three aspects of phonetics
⑵Write the phonetic symbols according to descriptions
⑶Vowels and consonants; The criteria of the classification of English
⑷Vowels and consonants (manner, place ,voice)
⑸IPA
⑹Phonology; Phoneme; phonology
⑺Suprasegmental, syllable( syllabic)
Chapter 3
⑴Morpheme; Morphology
⑵Types of morphemes
⑶Inflection
⑷The relation between morpheme and phoneme
Chapter 4
⑴Syntax
⑵Syntactic relations; Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations
⑶Constituents and Immediate analysis
⑷Endocentric and exocentric construction
⑸The characteristics of English subject
Chapter 5
⑴Semantics
⑵Leech’s seven types of meaning
⑶The referential theory; Reference; concept
⑷Semantic triangle
⑸Synonymy,
⑹Antonymy (三种类型，细致掌握)
⑺Entailment（定义）
⑻Compositionality
Chapter 7
Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis and your viewpoint
Chapter 8
⑴Pragmatics
⑵Speech act theory (illocutionary force)
⑶CP and its four measures
⑷Characteristics of CI (conversational implicature)
六，九，十章没讲，第六章自己可以稍微看看。
九十章我个人认为可以略过，有精力可了解一下。
十一章根据师大笔记可以看，这章和教学法结合的比较紧密。
至于十二章，师大本科讲Chomsky比较细致，但是需从总体来看，十二章是各大高校考研的重点，各个理论都应该具体把握。
总的来说，考研和本科期末考试还不大相同，还得根据真题自己总结。