Some Theoretical and Pedagogical Implications of the Markedness Differential Hypothesis

294 F. Eckman
(4) Voiced obstruents Most marked
Voiceless obstruents
Sonorant consonants
Vowels Least marked
T h e hierarchy in (4) represents a universal implicational relation with respect to the types of segments that a language allows in word-final position, such that if a language allows one of the segment types on the hierarchy to occur word-finally, then it necessarily also allows all segment types below it on the hierarchy to occur word-finally, but not necessarily the segment types above it on the hierarchy.
For example, all languages allow vowels word-finally, but some allow only vowels in this position. Other languages allow voiced obstruents to occur finally, and it is the case that all languages that do allow final voiced obstruents also allow voiceless ob­struents, sonorant consonants and vowels to occur in this position. Thus, in any lan­guage, the occurrence of word-final voiced obstruents implies the occurrence of word-final voiceless obstruents, which in turn implies the occurrence of final sonorant con­sonants and vowels. T h e markedness relations shown in (4) are inferred from this implicational relationship.
Using these markedness relations, the M D H predicts that the most difficult segment type to learn word-finally is voiced obstruents, and that the least difficult is vowels. N o w, any given L2 learner can be viewed as being placed somewhere on the above markedness scale by his/her N L. That is, by virtue of having acquired a primary language, an L2 learner already has the ability to produce at least some of the segment types in (4) in word-final position and is assumed to be able to produce these in the T L.W h a t, if anything, a learner has to acquire concerning word-final segments in the T L depends on where on the above hierarchy the T L falls. In other words, it depends on how far the N L is from the T L on the above markedness scale.
For example, a Japanese speaker learning English must learn to produce word-final voiced and voiceless obstruents, because Japanese allows only vowels and sonorant consonants in final position. O n the other hand, a Polish speaker learning English must learn to produce word-final voiced obstruents, since Polish allows only voiceless ob­struents, sonorants and vowels in this position.
Thus, the M D H assumes that the L2 learner can apply or transfer to the T L those structures already learned in the N L, and that the amount of difficulty encountered with a given T L structure not contained in the N L will correspond to the relative degree of markedness of that structure. With respect to word-final segments, Polish is closer to English on the markedness scale in (4) than is Japanese. Consequently, the M D H predicts that a Polish learner of English will have relatively less difficulty with English final segments than will a Japanese learner.
T h e second assumption made by the M D H is that the structure of IL's is shaped by the same general principles that shape the structure of.primary languages. In fact, given the assumption that a learner will acquire less difficult structures before acquiring related structures which are more difficult, this is a corollary of the M D H. T o see this, let us consider once again the hierarchy in (4). A s a language universal, this hierarchy claims that, with respect to the types of word-final segments allowed, one。