国际贸易名词解释英文及简答论述期末考试复习
国际贸易实务(英语版)期末考试总结
1.询盘Enquiry(inquiry) refers to the buyer in order to buy or the seller in order to sell goods to ask to each other about trading conditions.2.接受Acceptance.In business law, an acceptance is the assent to the terms of an offer. It must be absolute and unconditional.3.商品的品质；Sale by seller’s sample made on the basis of the sample provided by the seller Sale by buyer’s sample made on the basis of the sample provided by the buyerSale by counter sample Counter sample: a replica made by the seller of the sample provided, normally by the buyer counter sample used as the basis for quality to remove the risk of the seller,a good substitute to sale by buyer’s sample4.重量gross weight （毛重）= net weight （净重）+ Tare（皮重）Conditioned weight:（公量）equals to the dry weight of a commodity plus the standard moisture content. Conditioned weight = Dried net weight x (1 + Standard regain rate)Theoretical weight（理论重量）= Unit weight x QuantityLegal weight（法定重量）= Net weight + Tare (immediate packing)5.商品包装bulk commodities（散装）nude packed commodities (裸装)Packed commodities(包装)Neutral packing （中性包装）means that there is neither a name of the origin, nor a name of the factory, nor a trade mark, a brand, or even any words on the packing of the commodity and the commodity itself. It includes two kinds: packing with trade mark designated by the buyer but without the mark of the manufacturers origins packing without trade mark and origins as well as the mark of the manufacturers .6.贸易术语Warsaw-Oxford Rules is made by International Law Association, which only defines CIF contracts.海洋和河内运输：FAS FOB CFR CIF任何：EXW FCA CPT CIP DAT DAP DDP装运港交货：FOB CFR CIF 向承运人交货：FTA CIP CPT 目的地交货：DA T DAP DDP FOB:Free on board The seller is responsible for shipping the contracted goods on board the ship dominated by the buyer at the port of shipment within specific period and bearing all costs and risks before the goods are on board the vessel.CFR----Cost and freight: The seller is responsible for booking space and delivering the goods on board the vessel sailing for the destination in due time according to the contract and covering the risks and expenses during carriage (the risks are transferred when goods are delivered on board). CIF-----Cost Insurance and Freight: CIF means that the seller delivers the goods on board the vessel. The risk of loss of or damage to the goods passes when the goods are on board the vessel. The seller must contract for and pay the cost and freight necessary to bring the goods to the named port of destination. The seller also contracts for insurance cover against the buyer’s risk of loss of or damage to the goods during the carriage. The buyer should note that under CIF the seller is required to obtain insurance only on minimum cover.7.国际运输：Liner Transport 班轮运输A liner is vessel with regular sailings and arrivals and sails on a fixed (regular) sailing route and calls at fixed (regular) base ports.特点：a. Fixity, namely fixed routes, fixed ports of call, fixed dates and fixed rates. 四固定b. Responsibility 一负责c. Liabilities, obligations and exemptions of liners and the shipper are all on the basis of the bill of lading issued by liners. 权利、义务、责任豁免Shipping by Charter租船运输：It means a freight-carrying vessel which has no regular route orschedule of sailings or port or freight. The shipper charters ship from the ship-owner and uses it to carry the goods.International Multi-modal Transport 国际多式联运：It involves the transportation of freight in an international container or vehicle, using multiple modes of transportation (rail, ship and truck), without any handling of the freight itself when changing modes.8.海运提单Bill of lading (B/L)：a document issued by an ocean carrier to a shipper with whom the carrier has entered into a contract for the carriage of goods. 作用：a receipt of cargo，an evidence of contract of carriage ，a document title to the goods9.保险：Perils of the Sea（海上风险）：Natural Calamities（自然灾害）Fortuitous Accidents （意外事故）Extraneous Risks（附加其他风险）General Extraneous Risks Special Extraneous Risks（特殊附加风险战争等）Actual Total Loss: 实际全损It means that the insured subject matter is totally and irretrievably (un-savable) lost.Constructive Total Loss: 推定全损It is estimated that the actual total loss of cargo is inevitable or the cost of salvage or recovery could have exceed the value of the cargo.Partial loss 部分损失：General Average: 共同海损It refers to a certain special sacrifice and extra expense intentionally incurred for the general interests of the ship-owner, the insurer, and the owners of the various cargoes abroad the ship. When a ship is in danger, the captain must make a decision and one of shippers will suffer.In order to compensate the special sacrifice,all the others will club together to re-compensate him for loss.Particular average: 单独海损It means that a particular cargo is damaged by any cause and the degree of the damage does not reach a total loss, i.e., only a partial loss, which shall be borne by the owner of this individual consignment.Free from particular average (F.P.A.) 平安险With particular average (W.P.A.) 水渍险I t covers partial loss due to vile weather, lightning, tsunami, earthquake and/or flood as well as the risks covered under F.P.A. condition as mentioned above.All risks: 一切险Aside from the risks covered under the F.P.A. and W.A. conditions as above, this insurance also covers all risks of losses or damage to the insured goods whether partial or total, arising from general additional risks.保险金额计算insurance amount=CIF price×（1 + markup percentage 加成率）premium(溢价)=insurance amount ×premium rateInsurance Policy: (保险单) It is the most widely used insurance document. Contents of the insurance policy usually include The detailed content .Insurance Certificate 保险凭证It is a kind of simplified insurance policy, and the rights and obligations of two parties are omitted. But it has the same legal validity as the insurance policy. 10.支付工具A bill of exchange（汇票）is an unconditional order in writing, addressed by one person to another, signed by the person giving it, requiring the person to whom it is addressed to pay on demand, or at a fixed or determinable further time, a sum certain in money to, or to the order of, a specified person, or to any bearer.Classification of the bill of exchange （汇票分类）：a.According to the drawer, it is divided into banker’s draft and commercial draft. b.According to whether accompanied with shipping documents, it can be classified into clean bill and documentary bill. c.According to the time of payment, it is divided into sight bill and time bill or usance bill.A promissory note (本票)is an unconditional promise in writing made by one person to another signed by the maker, engaging to pay, on demand or at a fixed or determinable future time, a sum certain in money to, or to a order of, a specified person or to a bearer.Promissory note is classified（分类）into bank note and commercial note. Bank note is issued by the bank; but commercial note is issued by the business or the person.11.The difference between the bill of exchange and promissory note（汇票本票区别）a.Promissory note: two parties involved; bill of exchange: three parties involved.b.The drawer of the promissory note is the payer, and time promissory note doesn’t need endorsement; time bill of exchange needs endorsement.c.In any cases, the drawer of the promissory note is the main debtor（债务人）; For bank draft,the drawer of bill of exchange is the main debtor before acceptance, but after acceptance, the acceptor become the main debtor.12.支付方式：Mail transfer (M/T):(信汇)The buyer gives money to a local bank which sendsa trust deed（契约）for payment to it’s correspondent bank at the seller’s end by mail and entrusts it with the task to pay money to the seller. Telegraphic transfer (T/T)(电汇) At the request of the buyer, a local bank sends a trust deed for payment by cable directly to it’s correspondent bank at the seller’s end and entrusts the work to it to pay money to the seller. Demand draft (D/D): (票汇) The buyer buys a draft from a local bank and sends it by mail to the seller, the seller or his appointed person can collect money from the relative bank at his end against the draft sent by the buyer.Collection 托收Collection means that the exporter asks his bank to arrange for the acceptance or payment of the bill overseas, and the bank will carry his task through it’s own branch office abroad or a correspondent bank.信用证In simple terms, a L/C is a conditional bank undertaking or guarantee of payment. Expressed more carefully, it is a written undertaking by a bank given to the seller at the request and in accordance with the instructionsof the buyer to effect payment up to a stated sum of money, within a prescribed time limit and against stipulated documents. 信用证分类According to whether the draft is accompanied with the shipping document, L/C is divided into Documentary L/C: 跟单信用证 and Clean L/C: 光票信用证. According to whether the draft is revocable ,L/C is divided into revocable L/C and irrevocable L/C.(可撤销否) Back to back L/C:（背对背信用证）The exporter sends the L/C established by the importer in his favor to a bank as sole security, requiring the local bank to reopen an L/C in favor of the actual exporter. The L/C opened by the importer is called the original L/C, while the second L/C issued in favor of the actual exporter at the request of the exporter is called the subsidiary L/C.13.货物检验：Legal inspection（法定检验）is conducted to make mandatory inspection of import and export commodities according to laws and regulations of the country. It is an important way to control the quantity of commodities.Place and time of inspection：货物检验分类It can be divided into 3 kinds:(1)To make inspection in the export country(2)To make inspection in the import country(3)To make inspection in the export country and make re-inspection in the import country。
考前国际贸易 名词解释与简答
国际贸易惯例（International Trade Custom ） 在国际贸易中长期实践中逐步形成的一些较为明确和内容固定的贸易习惯和一般做法，国际贸易惯例通常是有国际性的组织或者商业团体制定的有关国际贸易的成文多的通则 准则 和规则 良好平均品质(Fair Average Quality, FAQ) 是指一定时期内某个产地生产加工某种农副土特产品的平均产品水平，我国习惯上将其称为“大路货” 溢短装条款（More or Less Clause ） 就是交货时可以少交或者多交一定比例的数量，只要买方交货数量在约定的增减幅度范围内，就算按照合同规定数量交货，买方不得以交货数量不符为由而拒收货物货提出索赔。
贸易术语（Trade Terms ）又把它称为价格术语，是指用一个简短的概念或者几个外文所写的字母来表示价格的构成乙基买卖双方在货物交接过程中的有关手续 费用和风险的责任划分。
银行承兑汇票Bank's Acceptance Bill （BA ）是指以开证行或者另一指定银行作为远期汇票付款人的信用证。
不可抗力 (irresistible force ) 是指合同签立后，不是由于任何一方当事人的过失或者疏忽，而发生了当事人所不能预见，也无法采取预防措施的意外事故，以致遭受事故一方不能履行或不能如期履行合同的义务，有关当事人可以免责。
三种规定方式 概括式 列举式 综合式 仲裁 （arbitration ） 是指买卖双方在争议发生之前或之后，签订书面协议，自愿将争议提交双方同意的第三者予以裁决，裁决的结果对双方均有约束力，双方必须依照执行。
其优点 仲裁程序比较简便 仲裁费用比较低 处理争议比较快 且气氛较好 有利于今后交易的开展 裁决也具有一定法律效应 发盘（offer ）在法律上称为“要约”，指交易的一方想要买卖某种商品，向交易的另一方提出交易该项商品的各种条件 ，并愿意按照这些条件达成交易，这种口头或书面的表示，称之为发盘。
国际贸易专业英语整理
国际贸易专业英语整理第一篇：国际贸易专业英语整理可能出翻译(1)FOB: Free on Board(…named port of shipment)装运港船上交货（……指定装运港）“Free on Board” means that the seller fulfils his obligation to deliver when the goods have passed over the ship’s rail at thenamed port of shipment.（2）CFR: Cost and Freight(…named port of destination)成本加运费（……指定目的港）“Cost and Freight” means that the seller is responsible for chartering a liner and loading the goods on the liner at the stipulated time in the contract.（3）CIF: Cost Insurance and Freight(…named port of destination)成本、保险加运费（……指定目的港）“Cost Insurance and Freight” means that the seller has the obligations to procure marine insurance against the risks of losses of, or damage to the goods during the carriage.1.The theory ofcomparative advantageAlthough Smith’s work was instrumental in the development of economic theories about trade and production, it did not answer a question like if a country did not possess absolute advantage in any product, could it(or would it)trade ?尽管斯密的著作在贸易和生产相关的经济理论上有指导意义，但他没有回答类似于一个国家若没有绝对优势能否贸易这样的问题。
国际贸易复习要点
国际贸易复习要点国际贸易复习要点一，名词解释李嘉图的比较优势理论：一个国家将出口机会成本比较低的产品或服务，进口机会成本比较高的其他类产品或服务。
赫克歇尔-俄林理论：一个国家会出口密集使用该国充裕要素的产品，进口密集使用该国稀缺要素的产品。
要素丰裕度：如果一国的劳动力相对于其他要素的比率高于世界其他国家，那么该国就是相对劳动丰裕型的国家。
要素密集度：如果一种产品的价值中劳动成本所占比例高于其他产品价值中劳动成本所占比例，那么这种产品就是相对劳动密集型产品。
要素价格均等化定理：在特定的条件和假设下，自由贸易不仅使产品价格在两国之间趋同，而且使各种要素的价格也在两国之间趋同。
里昂惕夫之谜：里昂惕夫发现，虽然美国是世界上资本最充裕的国家，但是美国出口产品的资本密集度要低于美国进口产品的资本密集度。
外部规模经济：整个行业的生产在某一区域内的扩张导致该地区每个厂商的长期平均生产成本下降。
内部规模经济：指某一公司自身规模扩大导致其平均成本下降。
自由贸易区：在自由贸易区内，各成员国取消了他们之间的贸易壁垒，但各自仍对非成员国保持着不同的贸易壁垒。
经济联盟：在完全的经济联盟内，成员国实行统一的经济政策，包括货币，财政，福利以及贸易和要素流动政策。
雷布津斯基定理：在商品价格既定条件下，如果一种生产要素量增加，那么密集使用该要素的产品的供给会增加，而其他产品的供给会减少。
二，简答题1，赫克歇尔-俄林理论蕴藏的关于要素收入的三种主要含义。
答：（1），国内充裕要素的所有者从贸易中获利，而稀缺要素的所有者因贸易而受损。
（2），当某一要素价格上升时，则密集使用该要素的产品的价格也会上升；当某一要素价格下降时，则密集使用该要素的产品的价格也会随之下降。
（3)，贸易的结果可以使商品价格均等化，某种程度上也可使生产要素价格均等化。
2，有经济学研究者认为：就短期而言，自由贸易会损害进口替代产业从业人员的利益，但当长期内人员和资源实现不同产业间的流动时，人人皆将受益于自由贸易。
国际贸易名词解释英文及简答论述期末考试复习资料
《国际贸易》英文名词解释International Trade(国际贸易)International trade is the international exchange of goods and services between countries. This type of trade gives rise to a world economy, in which prices, or supply and demand, affect and are affected by global events.Free Trade（自由贸易）The main idea of free trade is that supply and demand factors, operating on a global scale, will ensure that production happens efficiently. Therefore, nothing needs to protect or promote trade and growth because market forces will do so automatically.Protectionism（贸易保护主义）In contrast, protectionism holds that regulation of international trade is important to ensure that markets function properly. Advocates of this theory believe that market inefficiencies may hamper the benefits of international trade and they aim to guide the market accordingly.Production Possibilities Curve /Frontier(生产可能性曲线/边界)A Production Possibilities Frontier is a graph that shows the various combinations of output that the economy can possibly produce, given the availablefactors of production and the existing technology .Opportunity Cost(机会成本)Opportunity Cost means whatever must be given up to obtain some item. Supply Curve(供给曲线)A Supply Curve is a graph that shows the relationship between the price of a good and the quantity supplied.Demand Curve (需求曲线)A Demand Curve is a graph that describes the relationship between the price of a good and the quantity demanded.Excess Supply Curve（出口供给曲线）Because Excess Supply is a situation in which quantity supplied is greater than quantity demanded, Excess Supply Curve can be defined as a graph that depicts the relationship between the price and the available quantity for export of a product. Excess Supply Curve can be derived from subtracting a supply curve with a corresponding demand curve.Excess Demand Curve（进口需求曲线）Because Excess Demand is a situation in which quantity demanded is greater than quantity supplied, Excess Demand Curve can be defined as a graph that depicts therelationship between the price and the desirable quantity for import of a product. Excess Demand Curve can be derived from subtracting a demand curve with a corresponding supply curve.Consumer Surplus(消费者剩余)Consumer Surplus means a buyer’s willingness to pay minus the amount the buyer actually pays. Consumer surplus measures the benefit to buyers of participating in a market.Producer Surplus (生产者剩余)Producer Surplus is the amount a seller is paid for a good minus the seller’s cost. Producer surplus measures the benefit to sellers of participating in a market.Economies of Scale(规模经济)Economies of Scale means the property whereby the long-run average cost falls as the quantity of output increases.Diseconomies of Scale(规模不经济)Diseconomies of Scale means the property whereby the long-run average cost rises as the quantity of output increases.Constant Returns to Scale(规模报酬不变)Constant Returns to Scale means the property whereby the long-run average cost stays the same as the quantity of output changes.Indifference Curve(无差异曲线)Indifference Curve is a curve that shows consumption bundles that give the consumer the same level of satisfaction.The Gravity Model(引力模型)In its basic form, the gravity model assumes that only size and distance(经济规模和距离) are important for trade in the following way：Tij = A x Yi x Yj /Dij 两国之间的贸易规模与经济规模成正比，与两国之间的距离成反比。
国际贸易名词解释
国际贸易名词解释1.国际贸易（nale Trade)是指世界各国（或地区）之间商品和劳务的交换活动，是各国在国际分工的基础上相互联系的主要形式，反映了世界各国在经济上的相互联系与依赖的关系。
2.净出口（净进口）是指一国（或地区）在一定时期内（一般以一年度计算），在同种商品上既有进口也有出口，当出口数大于（或小于）进口数时称之。
3.复出口（复进口）是指国外（本国）商品进口（出口）后未经加工制造又出口（进口）。
4.贸易条件：一般指出口商品价格与进口商品价格之间的比率，又称“进出换比价”或“交换比价”。
由于所涉及的是一个国家的种类繁多的所有进出口商品的价格，固常用贸易条件指数。
5.对外贸易量：指用进出口商品的计量单位（如数量、重量等）表示的反映贸易规模的指标。
它可以剔除价格波动的影响，是世界贸易组织和大多数国家采用来衡量贸易规模的指标。
6.对外贸易依存度：是一个国家在一定时期内进出口贸易值与该国同期国民（国内）生产总值（GNP、GDP）的对比关系。
是衡量一个国家国民经济发展对对外贸易依赖程度的一个指标，可细分为进口与出口对外依存度7.过境贸易（Transit Trade）指贸易货物在运输途中经过一国国境，这些货物既不在该国销售，该国也不参与到贸易当中，只是供给交通的便利，并收取少量费用。
8.转口贸易（EntreportTrade）转口贸易是指一国(或地区)进口某种商品不是以消费为目的，而是将它作为商品再向别国出口的贸易活动。
9.国际分工(XXX)：是指世界各国(地区)之间的劳动分工，是各国生产者通过世界市场形成的劳动联系，也是国际贸易和各国（地区）经济联系的基础。
它还是各国民经济发展到一定阶段，国民经济内部分工超越国家界限发展的结果，同时也是生产社会化向国际化发展的趋势。
10.资源禀赋：是指一国自然拥有地各种生产要素（通常指土地、劳动、资本）的数量。
11.要素密集度(Factor Intensity)指产品出产中某种要素投入比例的大小，如果某要素投入比例大，称为该要素密集度程度高。
《国际贸易》期末考试名词解释汇总
17.产品生命周期理论（Theory of product life cycle）：其基本涵义可以通俗地理解为“从摇篮到坟墓”(Cradle-to-Grave)的整个过程。是产品的市场寿命，即一种新产品从开始进入市场到被市场淘汰的整个过程。
4.重商主义(‘Mercantilism)：核心观点是：认为财富就是货币，货币即财富；财富的直接源泉来自于流通领域；一个国家必不可少的财富是金银等贵金属，金银是国家财富的唯一形态，是衡量国家富裕程度的惟一尺度。
5.要素禀赋（Factor endowment）：指一国所拥有的各种生产要素的总量，既包括先天存在的自然资源（如土地、矿产），也包括后天获得的资源（如资本和技术），是一个绝对量的概念。
9.外部规模经济（External economics of scale）：指由于整个产业的产出水平增加而导致每个厂商的平均成本下降。即外部规模经济的实现只依赖于产业规模，而不是单个厂商的规模。
10.内部规模经济（Internal economics of scale）：指由于单个厂商自身规模扩大和产出水平增加而导致的平均成本下降。
48.普惠制税（Generalized System of Preferences，GSP）：是联合国体制下的一项贸易优惠制度，安排发达国家给予来自发展中国家的商品（主要是制成品和半制成品）普遍的、非歧视的、非互惠的进口税率。其目的是为了发展中国家增加出口收益和促进工业化。
国际贸易名词解释英文简答论述期末考试复习资料
国际贸易》英文名词解释International Trade（国际贸易）International trade is the international exchange of goods and services between countries. This type of trade gives rise to a world economy, in which prices, or supply and demand, affect and are affected by global events.Free Trade （自由贸易）The main idea of free trade is that supply and demand factors, operating on a global scale, will ensure that production happens efficiently. Therefore, nothing needs to protect or promote trade and growth because market forces will do so automatically.Protectionism （贸易保护主义）In contrast, protectionism holds that regulation of international trade is important to ensure that markets function properly. Advocates of this theory believe that market inefficiencies may hamper the benefits of international trade and they aim to guide the market accordingly.Production Possibilities Curve /Frontier（生产可能性曲线/ 边界）A Production Possibilities Frontier is a graph that shows the various combinations of output that the economy can possibly produce, given the available factors of production and the existing technology .Opportunity Cost（机会成本）Opportunity Cost means whatever must be given up to obtain some item.Supply Curve（供给曲线）A Supply Curve is a graph that shows the relationship between the price of a good and the quantity supplied.Demand Curve （需求曲线）A Demand Curve is a graph that describes the relationship between the price of a good and the quantity demanded.Excess Supply Curve （出口供给曲线）Because Excess Supply is a situation in which quantity supplied is greater than quantity demanded, Excess Supply Curve can be defined as a graph that depicts the relationship between the price and the available quantity for export of a product. Excess Supply Curve can be derived from subtracting a supply curve with a corresponding demand curve.Excess Demand Curve （进口需求曲线）Because Excess Demand is a situation in which quantity demanded is greater than quantity supplied, Excess Demand Curve can be defined as a graph that depicts the relationship between the price and the desirable quantity for import of a product. Excess Demand Curve can be derived from subtracting a demand curve with a corresponding supply curve.Consumer Surplus（消费者剩余）Consumer Surplus means a buyer' s willingness to pay minus the amount the buyer actually pays. Consumer surplus measures the benefit to buyers of participating in a market.Producer Surplus （生产者剩余）Producer Surplus is the amount a seller is paid for a good minus the seller ' s cost. Producer surplus measures the benefit to sellers of participating in a market.Economies of Scale（规模经济）Economies of Scale means the property whereby the long-run average cost falls as the quantity of output increases.Diseconomies of Scale（规模不经济）Diseconomies of Scale means the property whereby the long-run average cost rises as the quantity of output increases.Constant Returns to Scale（规模报酬不变）Constant Returns to Scale means the property whereby the long-run average cost stays the same as the quantity of output changes.Indifference Curve（无差异曲线）Indifference Curve is a curve that shows consumption bundles that give the consumer the same level of satisfaction.The Gravity Model（引力模型）In its basic form, the gravity model assumes that only size and distance（经济规模和距离） are important for trade in the following way ：Tij = A x Yi x Yj /Dij两国之间的贸易规模与经济规模成正比，与两国之间的距离成反比。
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《国际贸易》英文名词解释International Trade(国际贸易)International trade is the international exchange of goods and services between countries. This type of trade gives rise to a world economy, in which prices, or supply and demand, affect and are affected by global events.Free Trade（自由贸易）The main idea of free trade is that supply and demand factors, operating on a global scale, will ensure that production happens efficiently. Therefore, nothing needs to protect or promote trade and growth because market forces will do so automatically.Protectionism（贸易保护主义）In contrast, protectionism holds that regulation of international trade is important to ensure that markets function properly. Advocates of this theory believe that market inefficiencies may hamper the benefits of international trade and they aim to guide the market accordingly. Production Possibilities Curve /Frontier(生产可能性曲线/边界)A Production Possibilities Frontier is a graph that shows the various combinations of output that the economy can possibly produce, given the available factors of production and the existing technology . Opportunity Cost(机会成本)Opportunity Cost means whatever must be given up to obtain some item. Supply Curve(供给曲线)A Supply Curve is a graph that shows the relationship between the price of a good and the quantity supplied.Demand Curve (需求曲线)A Demand Curve is a graph that describes the relationship between the price of a good and the quantity demanded.Excess Supply Curve（出口供给曲线）Because Excess Supply is a situation in which quantity supplied is greater than quantity demanded, Excess Supply Curve can be defined as a graph that depicts the relationship between the price and the available quantity for export of a product. Excess Supply Curve can be derived from subtracting a supply curve with a corresponding demand curve. Excess Demand Curve（进口需求曲线）Because Excess Demand is a situation in which quantity demanded is greater than quantity supplied, Excess Demand Curve can be defined as a graph that depicts the relationship between the price and the desirable quantity for import of a product. Excess Demand Curve can be derived from subtracting a demand curve with a corresponding supply curve. Consumer Surplus(消费者剩余)Consumer Surplus means a buyer’s willingness to pay minus the amount the buyer actually pays. Consumer surplus measures the benefit to buyersof participating in a market.Producer Surplus (生产者剩余)Producer Surplus is the amount a seller is paid for a good minus the seller’s cost. Producer surplus measures the benefit to sellers of participating in a market.Economies of Scale(规模经济)Economies of Scale means the property whereby the long-run average cost falls as the quantity of output increases.Diseconomies of Scale(规模不经济)Diseconomies of Scale means the property whereby the long-run average cost rises as the quantity of output increases.Constant Returns to Scale(规模报酬不变)Constant Returns to Scale means the property whereby the long-run average cost stays the same as the quantity of output changes. Indifference Curve(无差异曲线)Indifference Curve is a curve that shows consumption bundles that give the consumer the same level of satisfaction.The Gravity Model(引力模型)In its basic form, the gravity model assumes that only size and distance(经济规模和距离) are important for trade in the following way：Tij = A x Yi x Yj /Dij两国之间的贸易规模与经济规模成正比，与两国之间的距离成反比。
Service Outsourcing(服务外包)Service outsourcing occurs when a firm that provides services moves its operations to a foreign location.(服务外包是指一个企业将原本由自己提供的服务转移给国外供应商。
)Mercantilism(重商主义)Belief that nation could become rich and powerful only by exporting more than it imported.Mercantilists measured wealth of a nation by stock of precious metals it possessedAbsolute Advantage(绝对优势)A nation has absolute advantage over another nation if it can produce a commodity more efficiently. When one nation has absolute advantage in production of a commodity, but an absolute disadvantage with respect to the other nation in a second commodity, both nations can gain by specializing in their absolute advantage good and exchanging part of the output for the commodity of its absolute disadvantage.Comparative Advantage(比较优势)Even if one nation is less efficient than (has absolute disadvantage with respect to) the other nation in production of both commodities, there is still a basis for mutually beneficial trade.Production Possibilities(生产可能性)The production possibility frontier (PPF) of an economy shows themaximum amount of a goods that can be produced for a fixed amount of resources.Factor Endowment (要素禀赋)the overall amount of productive factors , such as capital, labor, and land, available to one nation.Factor Abundance（要素丰裕度）There are two ways to define factor abundance. One way is in terms of physical units(i.e., in terms of the overall amount of capital and labor available to each nation). Another way is in terms of relative factor price(i.e., in terms of the rental price of capital and the price of labor time in each nation).Factor Intensity (要素密集度)In a world of two commodities (X and Y) and two factors (labor and capital), at any given wage-interest, we say that commodity Y is capital intensive if the capital-labor ratio (K/L) used in the production of Y is greater than K/L used in the production of X.Heckscher-OhlinTheorem(H-O定理)An economy is predicted to export goods that are intensive in its abundant factors of production and import goods that are intensive in its scarce factors of production.(一个国家将出口密集使用其相对丰富要素的商品，进口密集使用其相对稀缺要素的商品。