英语词汇学课本翻译
英语词汇学 concatenation
英语词汇学concatenation 【释义】concatenationn.一系列相互关联的事，连结【短语】1concatenation operator串连运算子;并置运算符2concatenation motor链系电念头;串级电念头3String Concatenation字符串连接;注意字串接合;字符串衔接4Concatenation Operators并置运算符;运算符;位拼接运算符;位并接操作符5concatenation character翻译6Virtual Concatenation虚级联;虚拟级联;虚拟复联7Matrix Concatenation矩阵串联;矩阵连接8string concatenation operator字符串串连运算子【例句】1Avoid using concatenation strings in code.避免在代码中使用连接字符串。
2Binding Parameters vs.String concatenation.绑定参数vs.字符串拼接。
3The simplest example is the concatenation of strings.最简单的示例是字符串串联。
4It returns a concatenation of the path formed using LHS and RHS.它将返回使用lhs和rhs形成的路径的串联值。
5For any given string,the correct value is the concatenation of.对于任意给定的字符串，正确值是由下列值并置而成的。
6The only difference is that concatenation is used instead of addition.惟一的差别是，这里使用的是并置（concatenation），而不是相加（addition）。
《英语词汇学》
《英语词汇学》课程编号：10190370课程名称：英语词汇学English Lexicology学分：2学时：32一.目的与任务1.课程性质：选修2．课程类别：专业基础课3．任务：《英语词汇学》以帮助学生扩大词汇量，有效运用英语词汇；更深入的理解词义，更有效的组织划分和贮存词汇；增强学生对词义和用法的了解，使学生准确使用英语词汇尤其是英语习语；使学生掌握使用参考书的技能，增加解决问题的能力和学习英语的有效性；提高学生的语言接受能力和语言使用能力为教学任务。
二.教学内容及学时分配（理论学时+实验学时）第一单元英语词汇概说（2学时）一、词、词汇、词汇学二、当代英语词汇的现状三、本书各个单元简介第二单元英语基本构词法（2学时）一、词缀法二、复合法三、转化法第三单元其他构词方法（2学时）一、缩略法二、逆生法三、拟声法第四单元词的意义（4学时）一、词的意义二、词的理据三、词义的分类四、词义的分析第五单元词的语用意义（2学时）一、语用意义的定义二、语用意义的特点三、语用意义的分类四、语用意义的交际功能第六单元词义的关系（2学时）一、同义关系二、反义关系三、多义关系四、同形异义关系五、下义关系六、分类关系七、部分整体关系第七单元词义的变化（2学时）一、词义演变的原因二、词义演变的方式三、词义的转移四、词义演变的过程五、词义演变的趋势第八单元英语词汇的来源（1学时）一、英语词汇发展的历史二、英语词汇的词源成分第九单元主要英语国家的词汇特征（1学时）一、2l世纪英语的球土化二、英国英语三、美国英语四、加拿大英语的词汇五、澳大利亚英语的词汇六、新西兰英语的词汇七、南非英语的词汇第十单元英语词汇的新发展（2学时）一、新词和新词学习二、新词发展的原因三、英语新词的翻译第十一单元英语的搭配（2学时）一、什么是搭配二、搭配的理据三、搭配的基本类型四、搭配的特点五、常见搭配举例第十二单元英语成语（4学时）一、英语成语概述二、英语成语的特点三、英语成语的分类四、英语成语的翻译第十三单元英语词典的基本知识（1学时）一、英语词典的发展二、英语词典的分类三、英语词典的内容第十四单元词典使用（1学时）一、如何选择和使用英语词典二、介绍四部常用词典三、电子词典简介第十五单元英语词汇记忆方法（2学时）一、记忆概述二、心理词库三、英语词汇记忆方法四、三种容易记忆的英语单词五、英语单词记忆的新思路第十六单元英语词汇学习策略（2学时）一、学习策略概说二、英语词汇习得的基本步骤三、英语词汇习得中其他策略的运用四、课外阅读中词汇策略的运用五、英语专业四级考试的词汇策略运用——语法与词汇项目六、英语专业八级考试的词汇策略运用——写作项目三．考核与成绩评定考核形式：考查，考试方法：闭卷考试。
英语词汇学课本与译文
Introduction 绪论0.1 The nature and Domain of English lexicology 英语词汇学的定义及研究范围Lexicology is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words. 词汇学是语言学的一个分支，研究词汇的起源和意义。
English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages. 英语词汇学研究英语词汇的形态结构、词的对应及其语义结构、词义关系、词的历史演变、词的构成及词的用法等。
English lexicology is a theoretically-oriented course. 英语词汇学是一门理论性课程。
It is chiefly concerned with the basic theories of words in general and of English words in particular. 该课程主要论述词汇学的基本理论，特别是英语词汇的理论知识。
However, it is a practical course as well, for in the discussion, we shall inevitably deal with copious stocks of words and idioms, and study a great many usage examples. 但是，英语词汇学也是一门实践性课程，在该书的论述中，我们将遇到大量的词汇和习语，学习大量词汇用法实例。
《英语词汇学》知识点归纳-（最新版）
English Lexicology(英语词汇学)Lexicology（词汇学）: is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words.The Nature and Scope of English lexicology：English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages.The subjects that English Lexicology correlated with and extent to：English Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology(形态学), semantics(语义学), etymology(词源学),stylistics（文体论）and lexicography(词典学) The reason for a student to study English lexicology：According to the textbook, English Lexicology will definitely be beneficial for students of English.A good knowledge of morphological structures of English words and rules of word-formation will help learners develop their personal vocabulary and consciously increase their word power. The information of the historical development and the principles of classification will give them a deeper understanding of word-meaning and enable them to organize, classify and store words more effectively. The understanding and their sense relations will gradually raise their awareness of meaning and usage, and enable them use words more accurately and appropriately. A working knowledge of dictionaries will improve their skills of using reference books and raise their problem-solving ability and efficiency of individual study.Chapter 1--Basic concepts of words and vocabularyWord（词的定义）: A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. (1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity (3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that can function alone in a sentenceSound and meaning（声音与意义）: almost arbitrary, “no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself”Sound and form（读音和形式）:不统一的四个原因（1）the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans,which does not have a separate letter to represent each other （2）the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years （3）some of the difference were creates by the early scribes（4）the borrowings is an important channel of enriching the English vocabularyVocabulary（词汇）: all the words in a language make up its vocabularyClassification of English Words：By use frequency:basic word stock&nonbasic vocabularyBy notion:content words&functional wordsBy origin:native words&borrowed wordsThe basic word stock（基本词汇）: is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language. Though it constitute a small percentage of the EV, it is the most important part of vocabulary.The Fundamental Features of the Basic Word Stock(基本词汇的特征):1)All-National character（全民通用性most important）2)Stability（相对稳定性）3)Productivity（多产性）4)Polysemy（多义性）5)Collocability（可搭配性）没有上述特征的words:(1)Terminology(术语) (2)Jargon（行话）(3)slang（俚语）(4)Argot（暗语）（5）Dialectal words(方言) (6) Archaisms（古语）(7) Neologisms（新词语）:Neologisms means newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings.(email)Content words/notional words实词(cloud, run walk, never, five, frequently) and functional words/empty words虚词(on, of, and, be, but)Native Words and Borrowed WordsNative words（本族语词）: known as Anglo-Saxon words (50,000-60,000), are words brought to Britain in the 5th century by the Germanic tribes. (mainstream of the basic word-stocks).Two other features:(1)neutral in style (2)frequent in useBorrowed words/Loan words（外来语词）: words taken over from foreign languages.(80% of modern EV)4 Types of loan words:1) denizens(同化词): (shirt from skyrta(ON))2) aliens（非同化词/外来词）:are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling (kowtow (CH)磕头)3) translation loans(译借词):按其他语言方式组成英语long time no see (from China)4) semantic loans（借义词）：they are not borrowed with reference to the form,but their meanings are borrowedChapter 2 the development of the English VocabularyThe Indo-European Language Family(印欧语系)The Eight Groups in Indo-European Family of Languages（8大印欧语群）The Eastern set:（1）The Balto-slavic Group（波罗的-斯拉夫语族）：Russian,Bulgarian,Polish,Czech etc.（2）The Indo-Iranian Group（印度-伊朗语族）：Hindi,Bengali,Persian etc.(3)The Armenian Group（亚美尼亚语族）：Armenian.(4)The Albanian Group（阿尔巴尼亚语族）：Albanian.The Western set:(5)The Hellenic Group（古希腊语族）：Greek.(6)The Italian Group（意大利语族）：Latin ,Romance languages(French,Italian,Spanish, portuguese,Romanian) etc.(7)The Celtic Group（凯尔特语族）：Irish,Welsh,Breton etc.(8)The Germanic Group（日耳曼语族）：Flemish,German,Dutch,Scandinavian(Norweigian, Swedish,Danish,Icelandic) etc.The Three Stages of Development of the English Vocabulary:1 Old English (450-1100) (vocabulary 50,000 to 60,000):was I high inflected language.2 Middle English (1150-1500):retaines much fewer inflections3 Modern English (1500-up to now): in fact more than 25% of modern E words come almost directly from classical languages. In Modern E, words endings were mostly lost with just a few expections.English has evolved from a synthetic language(Old English) to the present analytic language.Modes of Vocabulary Development(词汇的发展模式):1)creation创造新词：the formation of new words by using the existing materials,namely toots,affixes and other elements.(最重要方式)2)semantic change旧词新义:does not increase the number of word forms but create many more new useages of the words.3) borrowing借用外来词:constitute merely 6 to 7 percent of all new wordsReviving words or obsolete words also contributes to the growth of English vocabulary though quite insignificant.Chapter 3 Word Formation IMorpheme(词素):the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words Allomorph(词素变体): is a different variant form of a morpheme，differ in phonological and spelling form, but at the same in function and meaningType of Morpheme(词素的分类)（1）Free Morphemes（自由词素）: have complete meaning in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself. (independent).（2）Bound Morpheme(粘着语素): A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand by itself. Bound Morpheme includes two types: (1) bound root(粘附词根) (2)Affix(词缀)Affixes can be put into two groups:1)Inflectional affixes (屈折词缀):affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional,thus known as inflectional morphemes.2)Derivational affixes(派生词缀): A) prefix: A prefix comes before words. B)suffix:An adjective suffix（形容词后缀）that is added to the stem, whatever class is belongs to , the result will be an adjective.Free Morpheme =free root（自由词根）Morpheme(词素)Bound root prefixbound derivationalaffix suffixinflectionalRoot and stem（词根和词干）The differences between root and stem:A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectional morphemes,can be further analyzed, it sometimes could be a root.Chapter 4 Word-Formation II(构词法)1.Affixation词缀法（Derivation派生法）：the formation of words by adding word-formaing or derivational affixes to stem.（1）Prefixation(前缀法)：It's the formation of new words by adding a prefixes to stems.1)Negative prefixes(否定前缀): un-,non-,in-,dis,a- ,il-,ir-,im-,etc.disobey(not obey)2)Reversative prefixes（逆反前缀）: un-,de-，dis- etc. unwrap(open)3) Pejorative prefixes: mis（贬义前缀）：mis-，mal-, pseudo- etc.misconduct(bad behaviour)4) Prefixes of degree or size(程度前缀)：arch-,extra-,hyper-,macro-,micro-,mini-,out-,over-,sub-,super-,sur-,ultra-,under-,ect. overweight5) Prefixes of orientation and attitude（倾向态度前缀）:contra-,counter-,anti-,pro- etc.anti-nuclear6)Locative prefixes（方位前缀）:extra-,fore-,inter-,intra-,tele-,trans-, etc. extraordinary(more than ordinary)7) Prefixes of time and order（时间和顺序前缀）:fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re- etc. monorail(one rail)8) Number prefixes（数字前缀）:uni-，mono-, bi-，di-, tri-,multi-，poly- ，semi-，etc.bilingual(concerning two languages)9) Miscellaneous prefixes（混杂前缀）：auto-, neo-, pan-, vice-.vice-chairman(deputy chairman)(2)Suffixation（后缀法）: It's the formation of a new word by adding suffixes to stems.1)noun suffixes 2)adjective suffixes 3)Adverb suffixes 4)verb suffixespounding复合法（also called composition）Compounding: is the formation of new words by joining two or more stemsCompounds are written in three ways: solid连写(airmail)，hyphenated带连字符(air-conditioning)and open分开写(air force, air raid)Formation of compounds（复合词的形式）（1）noun compounds ：e.g. : air + plane = airplane,flower + pot = flower pot（2）adjective compounds ：e.g. acid + head = acid-head（3）verb compounds ：e.g. house + keep = housekeep3.Conversion转类法Conversion: is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class.（功能转换，又叫零派生.functional shift/zero-derivation）4.Blending拼缀法Blending : is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. e.g: motor + hotel = motel, smoke + fog = smog, formula + translation = FORTRAN5.Clipping截短法Clipping:is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead.e.g. plane from airplane, phone from telephone. 四种形式：1).Front clippings删节前面(phone from telephone)2).Back clippings删节后面(dorm from dormitory)3).Front and back clippings 前后删节(flu from influenza)4).Phrase clippings 短语删节(pop from popular music)6.Acronymy首字母缩写法Acronymy:is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms.（1）Initialism（首字母缩写词法）: initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter. e.g.: BBC(for British Broadcasting corporation)（2）Acronym（首字母拼音法）:Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word. E.g.:TEFL(teaching English as a foreign language)7.Back-formation（逆生法，逆构词）Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. It’s the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes. (greed from greedy)8.Words From Proper Name(专有名词转成法):Names of people, places, book, and tradenames (e.g.: sir watt siemens(人名) -- watt（瓦特，电功率单位）Chapter 5 Word MeaningThe meanings of “Meaning” (“意义”的意义)Reference(所指):It is the relationship between language and the word. It is the arbitrary and conventional. It is a kind of abstraction, yet with the help of context, it can refer to something specific.Concept（概念）:which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition(认识),reflecting the objective world in the human mind.Sense（意义）:It denotes the relationship inside the language. ‘The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language.’Motivation(理据)：It accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.1) Onomatopoeic motivation（拟声理据）:words whose sounds suggest their meaning, for these words were creates by imitating the natural sounds or noises. Knowing the sounds of the words means understanding the meaning. E.g.: bang, ping-pong, ha ha. 2)Morphological motivation （形态理据）:multi-morphemic words and the meaning of many are the sum total of the morphemes combines. E.g.: airmail, miniskirt .例外：black market, ect.3)Semantic motivation（词义理据）：refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word. E.g:the foot of the mountain(foot)4)Etymological motivation （词源理据）:the history of the word explains the meaning of the word. E.g:pen-featherTypes of meaning(词义的类别)1.Grammatical Meaning（语法意义）:indicates the grammatical concept or relationships (becomes important only in actual context)2.Lexical Meaning （词汇意义）(Lexical meaning and grammatical meaning make up the word-meaning)Lexical meaning has 2 components内容: Conceptual meaning(概念意义) and associative meaning(关联意义)1）Conceptual meaning(概念意义): also known as denotative meaning(外延意义) is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning.2）Associative meaning(关联意义):is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning.[4types:（1）Connotative（内涵意义）：the overtones or associations suggested by the conceptual meaning, traditionally known as connotations.(例如“母亲”经常与“爱”“关心”“温柔”联系起来)（2）Stylistic（文体意义）：many words have stylistic features, which make them appropriate for different contexts.（3）Affective（感情意义）：indicates the speaker’s attitude towards the person or thing in question.这种情感价值观分两类：褒义和贬义appreciative & pejorative （4）Collocative（搭配意义）：is the part of the word-meaning suggested by the words before or after the word in discussion.]Chapter 6 --Sense relation and semantic field（语义关系和语义场）Polysemy（多义关系）Two approached to polysemy（多义关系的两种研究方法）:1.diachronic approach(历时方法) ：from the diachronic point of view, polysemy is assumed to be the result of growth and development of the semantic structure of one and same word. First meaning is the primary meaning , the later meanings are called derived meanings.2. synchronic approach (共时方法) : synchronically, polysemy is viewed as the coexistence of various meanings of the same word in a certain historical period of time.基本意义是central meaning , 次要意义是derived meaning.Two processes of development（词义的两种发展类型）:1.radiation（辐射型）：is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands atthe centre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rayes.(e.g: face, neck)2.concatenation（连锁型）:is the semantic process in which the meaning of a wordmove gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until there is not a sign of connection between the sense that is finally developed and that which the term had at the beginning.(e.g:treacle)3.In radiation, each of the derived meaning is directly connected to the primarymeaning. In concatenation, each of the later meaning is related only to the preceding one like chains. Though the latest sense can be traced back to the original, there is no direct connection in between.4.They are closely related, being different stages of the development leading topolysemy. Generally, radiation precedes concatenation. In many cases, the two processes work together, complementing each other.Homonymy（同形同音异义关系）:words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling.Types of homonyms(同音同形异义关系的类别)1）Perfect homonyms（完全同音同形异义词）：words identical both in sound and spelling, but different in meaning.2)Homographs（同形异义词）:words identical only in spelling, but different in sound and meaning.(最多最常见)3）Homophones（同音异义词）：words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning.Origins of homonyms (同形同音异义词的来源)1）change in sound and spelling ：(eare-ear, lang-long, langian-long)2）borrowing (feria-fair, beallu-ball, baller-ball )3）Shortening(缩略): (ad-advertisement,)The differentiation of Homonyms from Polysemes（同音同形异义词和多义词的区别)：1)The fundamental difference : Homonymy refers to different words which happen to share the same form and polysemy are the one and same word which has several distinguishable meanings.2)One important criterion is to see their etymology(词源)：Homonymys are from different sources. Polysemant is from the same source.3)The second principle consideration is semantic relatedness(语义关联): The various meanings of polysemant are correlated and connected to one central meaning. Meanings of different homonymys have nothing to do with one another. In dictionaries, a polysemant has its meaning all listed under one headword whereas homonyms are listed as separate entries.Rhetoric features of homonyms(同形同音异义词的修辞特色)：As homonyms are identical in sound or spelling, particularly homophones, they are often employed to create puns for desired effect of, say, humor, sarcasm or ridicule.Synonymy (同义关系): one of two or more words in the English language which have the same or very nearly the same essential meaning .Types of Synonymy(同义词的类别) :(1)Absolute synonyms（完全同义词）：also known as complete synonyms are wordswhich are identical in meaning in all aspects, i.e. both in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, including conceptual and associative meanings.[ Absolute synonyms are restricted to highly specialized vocabulary in lexicology. ](2)relative synonyms（相对同义词）:also called near-synonyms are similar or nearly thesame in denotation, but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees ofa given quality.(e.g: change/alter/vary, stagger/reel/totter, strange/odd/queer,idle/lazy/indolent)Sources of synonyms(同义词的来源) :1)Borrowing（借词）：最重要的来源(room-chamber, foe-enemy, help-aid, leave-depart, wise-sage, buy-purchase)2)Dialects and regional English （方言和地区英语）3)Figurative and euphemistic use of words （单词的修饰和委婉用法）:occupation/profession-walk of life, dreamer--star-gazer, drunk-elevated, lie-distort of fact.4)Coincidence with idiomatic expressions（与习惯表达一致）:win-gain the upper hand, decide-make up one’s mind, finish-get through, hesitate-be in two minds, help-lend one a hand.Discrimination of Synonyms(1)difference in denotation外延不同. Synonyms may differ in the range and intensity ofmeaning.(rich-wealthy, work-toil, want-wish-desire)(2)difference in connotation内涵不同. By connotation we mean the stylistic and emotivecolouring of words. Some words share the same denotation but differ in their stylistic appropriateness. (借词：answer-respond, storm-tempest, wood-forest, handy-manual, unlike-dissimilar, homely-domestic, fleshy-carnal.中性词：policeman-constable-bobby-cop, ask-beg-request. 古语词、诗歌：ire/anger, bliss-happiness, forlorn-distresses, dire-dreadful, list-listen, enow-enough, save-expect, mere-lake ) (3)difference in application. Many words are synonymous in meaning but difference inusage in simple terms. They form different collocations and fit into difference sentence patterns. (allow sb. to do sth.- let sb. do sth. / answer the letter-reply to the letter)Antonymy (反义关系) :it is concerned with semantic opposition. Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning.Types of Antonyms:1)contradictory terms (矛盾反义词): these antonyms truly represent oppositeness of meaning. 特点：①The assertion of one is the denial of the other. ②Such antonyms are non-gradable. They cannot be used in comparative degrees and do not allow adverbs of intensity like “very” to qualify them . (e.g: single/married)2)contrary terms（对立反义词）: antonyms of this type are best viewed in terms of a scale running between two poles or extremes.(e.g: old/young, rich/young, big/small) The two opposites are gradable and one exists in comparison with the other.3)relative terms（关系反义词）：this type consists of relational opposites.（parent/child, husband/wife, employee/employer, sell/buy, receive-give）Some of the characteristics of antonyms(反义关系的特点):1)antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition(语义对立)2)a word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym3)antonyms differ in semantic inclusion（语义内涵）4)contrary terms are gradable antonyms，differing in degree of intensity, so each has its own corresponding opposite.(hot/warm: hot-cold/warm-cool)The use of antonyms（反义词的使用）1）Antonyms are helpful and valuable in defining the meaning of words.2)To express economically the opposite of a particular thought for the sake of contrast.(e.g :now or never, rain or shine, friend or foe敌友，weal and woe哀乐)3）To form antithesis(对比法) to achieve emphasis by putting contrasting idea together. (proverbs and sayings: easy come , easy go./ more haste, less speed.)Hyponymy(上下义关系): Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. The meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word. For example, a cat is hyponym of animalSuperordinate and Subordinate (上义词和下义词)：use subordinates which are concrete and precise ,presenting a vivid verbal picture before the reader. Superordinates which convey only a general and vague idea.Semantic Field(语义场)Viewing the total meaning in this way is the basis of field theory.e.g.(apple, pear, peach, date, mango, orange, lemon, etc. make up the semantic field of ‘fruits’)The semantic field of the same concept may not have the same members in different language.e.g.(aunt in English, may means “父亲的姐姐，妈妈的姐姐，父亲哥哥的妻子” in Chinese.(122)Chapter 7 Changes in Word Meaning词义的演变Vocabulary is the most unstable element of a language as it is undergoing constant changes both in form and content. Comparatively the content is even more unstable than the form.Types of Changes (词义变化的种类)1.Extension /generalization(词义的扩大): is the name given to the widening of meaning which some words undergo. It is a process by which originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized.(e.g: manuscript, fabulous, picture, mill, journal, bonfire, butcher, companion)2.Narrowing/ specialization(词义的缩小)：is the opposite of widening meaning. It is a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense.In other words, a word which used to have a more general sense becomes restricted in its application and conveys a special meaning in present-day English.(e.g: deer, corn, garage, liquor, meat, disease, poison, wife, accident, girl). [ when a common word is turned into a proper noun, the meaning is narrowed accordingly. ]3.Elevation /amelioration(词义的升华):refers to the process by which words rise from humble（粗陋的）beginnings to positions of importance. [nice, marshal, constable, angel, knight, earl, governor, fond, minister, chamberlain ]4.Degradation / pejoration(词义的降格):A process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to used in derogatory（贬损的）sense.[boor, churl, wench, hussy, villain, silly, knave, lewd, criticize, lust ]5.Transfer(词义的转移): Words which were used to designate指明one thing but later changed to mean something else have experienced the process of semantic transfer. Causes of Semantic Change(词义变化的原因)1.Extra-linguistic factors(词义演变的语言外部因素):1) Historical reason(历史原因)：Increased scientific knowledge and discovery, objects, institutions, ideas change in the course of time. E.g: pen, car, computer.2 )Class reason(阶级原因)：The attitude of classes have also made inroads into lexical meaning in the case of elevation or degradation.3) Psychological reason(心理原因)：the associated transfer of meaning and euphemistic use of words are often due to psychological factors. Such slow, humble and despised occupations take more appealing names is all due to psychological reasons.2.Linguistic factors（语言内部原因）：the change of meaning may be caused by internal factors with in the language system.1)shorting缩略:gold-gold medal, gas-coal gas, bulb-light bulb, private-private soldier2)borrowing借用:deer-animal-beast3)analogy类推:Chapter 8 Meaning and Context 词义和语境Context in its traditional sense refers to the lexical items that precede or follow a given word. Modern linguists have broadened its scope to include both linguistic and extra-linguistic contexts.Two types of context（语境的种类）1. Extra-linguistic context/ Non-linguistic situation（非语言语境）：In a broad sense, context includes the physical situation as well, which embraces the people, time, place, and even the whole cultural background. (look out, weekend, landlord )2.Linguistic context/ grammatical context(语言语境)：In a narrow sense, it refers to the words, clauses, sentences in which a word appears. It may cover a paragraph, a whole chapter and even the entire book.分为两类：1) Lexical context（词汇语境）：It refers to the word that occurs together with the word in question. (e.g: paper, do)2) Grammatical context（语法语境）：It refers the situation when the meaning of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs. (e.g: become)The role of context(语境的作用)1.Elimination of ambiguity(消除歧义)1）Ambiguity due to polysemy or homonymy.2）Grammatical structure can also lead to ambiguity如何消除歧义？——①extend the original sentence ②alter the context a little2.Indication of referents(限定所指)如何限定所指？——①with clear context ②with adequate verbal context3.Provision of clues for inferring word-meaning (提供线索以猜测词义)1)definition2)explanation3)example4)synonymy5)antonymy6)hyponymy（上下义关系）7)relevant details8)word structureChapter 9 English Idioms 英语习语Idioms（习语的定义）: are expressions that are not readily understandable from their literal meaning of individual elements. In a broad sense, idiom may include colloquialisms （俗语）, Catchphrases（标语）,slang expressions （俚语）,proverbs（谚语）,etc. They form an important part of the English vocabulary.Characteristics of Idioms（英语习语的特点）1.Semantic unity （语意的整体性）：words in the idiom they have lost their individual identity. Their meanings are not often recognizable in the meaning of the whole idiom.The semantic unity of idioms is also reflected in the illogical relationship between the literal meaning of each of the idiom.2.Structural stability(结构的稳定性):the structure of an idiom is to a large extent un changeable.1) the constituents of idioms cannot be replaced2) the word order cannot be inverted or changed3) the constituents of idioms cannot be deleted or added to, not even an article.4) many idioms are grammatically unchangeableThe fixity of idiom depends on the idiomaticity.习语性表达习惯Classification of Idioms（英语习语的分类）1. idioms nominal in nature 名词性习语(white elephant累赘物)2 .idioms adjectival in nature形容词性习语（as poor as a church mouse）3 .idioms verbal in nature 动词性习语（look into）4 .idioms adverbial in nature副词性习语（tooth and nail 拼命）5 .sentence idioms 句式习语（never do things by halves）Use of idioms（习语的使用）1.Stylistic features（文体色彩）：1）colloquialisms（俗语）2）slang （俚语）3）literary expressions（书面表达）The same idiom may show stylistic differences when it is assigned（指派）different meanings.2.Rhetorical features(修辞色彩)1) phonetic manipulation （语音处理）：（1）alliteration头韵法（2）rhyme尾韵法2）lexical manipulation（词法处理）（1）reiteration（duplication of synonyms）同义词并举[scream and shout]（2）repetition 重复[out and out]（3）juxtaposition (of antonyms) 反义词并置[here and there]3.figures of speech（修辞格）（1）simile明喻（2）metaphor暗喻（3）metonymy换喻/以名词代动作：live by one’s pen（4）synecdoche提喻/以部分代整体：earn one’s bread（5）Personification拟人法（6）Euphemism委婉语：kick the bucket(die)（7）hyperbole 夸张：a world of troubleVariations of idioms(习语的变异形式)：1.addition增加2.deletion删除3.replacement替换4.position-shifting位置转移5.dismembering分解Chapter 10 English Dictionaries 英语字典Dictionary: presents in alphabetical order the words of English, with information as to their spelling ,pronunciation, meaning, usage , rules and grammar, and in some, their etymology（语源）.Types of dictionaries(词典的种类):1.Monolingual & bilingual dictionaries（单语词典和双语词典）：最早的词典都是双语的(1).Monolingual dictionary: is written in one language (LDCE, CCELD). The headword or entries are defined and illustrated in the same language.(2).Bilingual dictionary: involve two languages (A New English-Chinese D, A Chinese-English D)2.Linguistic and Encyclopedic dictionaries（语文词典与百科词典）（1）Linguistic dictionary: aim at defining words and explaining their usages in the language (spelling, pronunciation, meaning, grammatical, function, usage and etymology etc.)可以是单语或是双语的（2）Encyclopedic dictionary:1）encyclopedia (百科全书):is not concerned with the language per se（本身）but provides encyclopedic information. Concerning each headword (not pronunciation, meanings, or usages) but only information.2）Encyclopedic Dictionaries: have the characteristics of both linguistic D and encyclopedia (<Chamber’s Encyclopedic English Dictionary>)3.Unabridged, desk and pocket dictionaries(大型词典、案头词典、袖珍词典)（1）Unabridged D: basic information about a word——its origin, meaning, pronunciation, cognates(同词源的),usage, grammatical, function, spelling, hyphenation,。
英语词汇学
英语词汇学《英语词汇学》Page184～204（全册翻译完毕）2009年04月01日 09:54Page184～204Etymology词源学Lexicology词典学Ultimately最终Survey调查第十章英语词典词典对英语说者最重要的意义在于是按照字母顺序展示英语单词的书本，还有关于他们拼写发音意义用法语法规则的记录，在某些词典中，还有他们的词源。
它和词典学紧密相关，词典学处理相同的问题：形式，意义，词汇单位的用法和起源。
尽管我们关心的不是编辑字典，然而关于词典的知识肯定能对词典的使用有所帮助，并且最终帮助我们运用英语单词。
在本章，我们将大略探索不同类型的词典，检查他们的内容和特征，并且讨论如何有效的使用字典。
Intermediate中间的10.1字典的种类10.1.1单语和双语词典单语词典是用一种语言写成的词典。
中心词或词条被用同一种语言定义和描述。
单语词典发展晚因为早期的词典都是双语的。
单语词典的目标人群是普通本土读者或第二语言的外国学者，他们到达了中阶或高阶水平。
LDCE和cceld在英国出版都是单语词典。
双语词典涉及两种语言。
主要词条通常都是用同一种语言定义和说明，附带翻译，象是牛津高级进阶词典，朗满当代英语进阶词典。
或者中心词用另一种语言定义，或者给出他们的外语等价物，很好的例子是新英汉词典和类似的。
另一种双语词典是汉英词典，在其中汉语被翻译成英语。
EncyclopedicEncyclopedia百科全书Per se本身BritannicaVelocity速度Ting定定Chamber房间Coverage覆盖Institution惯例Likely可能10.1.2语言和百科全书词典语言词典针对词语的定义和解释他们的用法。
他们通常涵盖以下领域象是拼写，发音，意义，语法功能，用法和词源等等。
这些词典可以双语也可以单语。
百科全书词典可以分为百科全书和百科全书式词典。
一本百科全书不是关心语言自身而是提供关于每个中心词的百科全书式信息。
Chapter One(A) 英语词汇学课程简介
兼任 湖北省学位委员会评议组成员、华中师范大学学位 委员会第3、4届委员、教育部人文社科基地华中师大语言 与语言教育研究中心兼职研究员。学术兼职包括全国专业 英语研究会理事、中南地区外语教学法研究会副理事长、 湖北省翻译者协会副会长、武汉欧美同学会常务理事等。 被邀担任教育部全国本科教学评估专家和教育部出国留学 基金语言学评审专家。同时担任上海外语教育出版社教育 部"十五"规划项目英语专业教材编写委员会委员，重庆出 版社中西部英语专业系列教材编写委员会委员。 主讲 英语词汇学、文体学、语义学等理论课程。从事语 言学和应用语言学方面的研究，并对话语篇章、语用、语 言与文化等有浓厚的兴趣。
近年来，汪榕培教授在中国古典文学英译和中西 文化比较等方面取得了突破性的进展，先后完成 了 《英译老子》、《英译易经》、 《英译陶诗》、 《英译诗经》、《英译庄子》、 《英译邯郸记》 《英译汉魏六朝诗三百首》、 《英译牡丹亭》、 《英译孔雀东南飞· 木兰诗》、等译著， 并撰写了一系列相关的论文，出版了专著《比较 与翻译》和《陶渊明诗歌英译比较研究》，得到 国内外学者的高度重视。他目前正在继续进行典 籍英译研究工作，兼任苏州大学、大连理工大学 博士生导师。
What we shall learn in ish lexicology is more than to learn to remember new words，but it will make you powerful in learning new words. 有人误认为词汇学就是“学词汇”。
4.所有作业，独立完成，不能抄袭 ，否则扣分。
Chapter One
The Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabulary
英语词汇学引论 术语翻译
Abberbation 缩写；缩略Ablative case 夺格（即第五个或工具格）Absolute synonym 绝对同义词Accusative case 直接宾格Acronym 首字母缩略词Aderbial clause of concession 让步状语从句Affix 词缀Affixation 词缀法Alien 外国词Alliteration 头韵Alphabetical order 字母表顺序Amelioration 进化Analogy 类比Analytic language 分析性语言Anthropomorphic 拟人化的Antonym 反义词Antonymy 翻译关系Approach to 方法Archaism 古词Arbitrary 任意的Argot 黑话Autosemantic 词本身有独立意义的Base 词基Back-formation 逆成法Bilingual 双语的Blend 拼缀词Blending 拼缀法Borrowed word 借词Borrowing 借词Bound morpheme 粘着形位Briton 布立吞人Capitalization 大写Case 格Classical element 古典成分Clipping 缩短法Collocability 词的搭配能力Collocation 词的搭配Colloquialism 口语词Colloquial style 口语语体Combining form 构词成分Complementaries 互补性反义词Complex word 复合词Compound 合成词Compound word 合成词Compounding 合成法Concatenation 连锁型语义演变过程Conjugation 动词变位Connotative meaning 内含意义Context 语境Contraries 相对性反义词Conventional 约定俗成的Converging sound-development 语音发展的一致性Conversion 转类法Conversives 换位性反义词Cosmopolitan character 国际性Dative case 与格（第三格）De-adjectival 由形容词转变而来的Declension 名词、形容词等的变格Degradation of meaning 意义的降格Denizen 外来词Denominal nouns :abstract 纯名词表示抽象意义Denominal nouns :concrete 纯名词表示具体意义Denotative meaning 外延意义Derivative antonym 派生反义词Deterioration 退化Deverbal noun 由动词派生的名词Diachronic approach 历时分析法Diachronic dictionary 历史语言学词典Diachrony 历时分析Dialect 方言Double genitive case 双生格Doublets 两词一组的同义词Elevation of meaning 意义的升格Encyclopaedic dictionary 百科全书词典Entry 词条Etymology 词源学Euphemism 委婉语Euphony 语音的和谐悦耳Existing word 现行的词Exocentric word 离心结构合成词Extension of meaning 意义的扩大Figure of speech 修饰手段Figurative use 比喻用法Foreign element 外来语成分Formal word 书面词Form-word 虚词Free from 自由形式Free morpheme 自由形位Free phrase 自由词组French element 法语成分Full conversion 完全转类法Full word 实词Functional word 虚词Generalization 一般化Genitive case 生格（第二格）General dictionary 一般性词典Glossary 难词Headword 词目Homoform 同语法形式异义词Homograph 同形异音异义词Homonym 同音异义词；同形异义词；同音同形异义词Homonymy 同音、同形、同音同形异义词的研究Homophone 同音异形异义词Hybrid 混合词Hyponym 下意词Hyponymy 上下意关系Idiom 习语Idiomatic phrase 惯用语词组Imperative sentence 祈使句Indo-European family 印欧语系Inflected language 曲折性语言Informal word 口语词Jargon 行话Latin element 拉丁语成分Leveled inflections 曲折变化弱化Linguistic context 语言语境Literal use 字面用法Loan-word借词Locative case 位置格Locative prefix 表示地点的前缀Lost inflections 曲折变化消失Main stress 主重音Medium-sized dictionary 中型词典Metaphor隐喻Middle English 中古英语Miscellaneous prefix 混合型前缀Monosemy 一词单意Morpheme 形位Morphology 词法Motivation 理据Multilingual 用多种语言表达的；多语的Narrowing of meaning 意义的缩小Native element 本族语成分Native word 本族语词Negative prefix 表示否定的前缀Neo-classical 新古典主义的Neologism 新词New word 新词Nominative case 主格Nonce word 临时造的词Non-linguistic context 非语言语境Notional word 实词Number prefix 表示数目的前缀Obsolete word 费词Official language 官方语言Old English 古英语Onomatopoeia 象声词Open 分开写的Orthographic criterion 正字法标准Part of the speech 词类Partial conversion 部分转类法Pejorative prefix 表示贬义的前缀Pahatic communion 交际性谈话Phonetics 语音学Phonology 音位学Phraseological idiom 熟语Physiology 生理学Pocket dictionary 小型词典Polarity 对立性Polysemic character 一词多义性Polysemy 一词多义Popular 通俗的Possessive case 所有格Preciseness 精确性Prefix 前缀Prefixation 前缀法Private prefix 表示反义的前缀radiation 放射型的语义演变过程reduplicative compound 或者reduplicative(s )重叠合成词reference 语词所指涵义referent 语词所指事物relative synonym 相对同义词repetition 重复representative work 代表作reversative prefix表示反义的前缀rhyme 韵脚richness丰富性root 词根root antonym词根反义词Scandinavian element 斯堪的纳维亚语成分Secondary stress次重音Semantic borrowing(s)义借词Semantics语义学Semiotic triangle三角关系符号学理论Sense-shift语义转换Shade of meaning意义的（细微）差别Shortening缩短法(the)sign theory of Saussure索绪尔符号理论Signified（借助符号进行交际的）事物的概念或涵义Signifier代表事物的概念或涵义符号Simile明喻Slang俚语solid(合成词中两个词）连起来写的special dictionary专门性词典specialization 特殊化Spelling拼写Stem词干Stylistics文体学Suffix后缀Suffixation后缀法(the)superordinate (term)上义词Survival(s)(vestiges)保留下来的词Sychronic approach共时分析法Sychronic dictionary共时语言学词典Synchrony共时分析Synesthetic（产生）联觉的Synecdoche提喻法Synonym同义词Synonymy 同义关系Synsemantic 与其他词连用时才有意义的Teutonic language条顿（日耳曼）语言The Angles,Saxons and Jutes盎格鲁人撒克逊人，朱特人The Norman conquest 诺曼征服英国Translation-loans译借词Triplets三词一组的同义词Unabridged dictionary 大型（无任何删节的）词典Variety (语言的）变体Word-class 词类Word -formation word-building 构词法Word-forming ability 构词能力Word-stock词汇Working language 工作语言。
英语词汇学教程第三版中文翻译
英语词汇学教程第三版中文翻译1、Most cities in the country have introduced “Clean Air Zones”whereby factories and households are only allowed to burn smokeless fuel.在全国大部分城市都有“洁净空气区”因此工厂和家庭只能燃烧无烟燃料。
2、He knows that the pursuit of social status can consume vast amounts of his time and effort. 他知道，追求社会地位可以消耗大量的时间和精力。
3、The doctors are at a loss because so far no medicine has been found to inhibit the spread of the disease.医生们正在进行损失，因为到目前为止，没有任何药物能抑制疾病的传播。
4、We see many special education directors trying to maintain the qualityof their programs with much less money and much smaller staff.我们看到许多特殊教育董事试图保持他们的节目的质量以少得多的钱和更少的工作人员。
5、People there are told it is their patriotic duty to support the na t ional cconomy by buying their own products. 人们有人告诉他们，通过购买自己的产品来支持国民经济是他们的爱国义务。
6、Darwin' s thinking both drew upon and transcended the conventional ideas of his time.达尔文的思想是借鉴和超越他的时代的传统观念。
- 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
- 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
- 3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。
《英语词汇学》教材全解析导入0.1英语词典学的本质和范围词典学是语言学的分支。
追寻词语的源头和意义。
英语词典学针对英语词汇的语形结构和等义词进行探索和研究，还有他们的语义结构，关系，历史发展，形式和用法。
英语词典学是一门理论课程。
它主要研究词汇总体的词汇理论和具体的词汇理论。
然而，它同样是一门实践课程，我们将不可避免的接触丰富的词汇和短语，并且研究大量的用法实例。
自然，将会涉及大量的练习。
02.英语词典学是语言学的分支，但是它也包括其他的学科，例如形态学，语义学，词源学，文体论，词语编纂。
每种在自己的范围之内形成学科。
形态学是研究词语形式结构的语法分支，主要通过词素结构的使用。
这是词典学主要关心的问题，因为我们将讨论词语和词语形式的变声，检查词素是如何构成词汇，词汇是如何构成句子的。
词源学传统上是用来研究词语结构和意义的起源和历史。
现代英语是来源于早年的日尔曼语族的一些语言，词汇相当少。
我们将研究这小的词汇量是如何变得庞大，并且解释词汇形式和意义上已经发生的变化。
语义学是研究不同语言等级含义的学科：词汇，句法，发声，演讲等等。
但是词典学将集中在词汇等级上。
意义和语感关系的类型如意义分歧，同名歧义，同义重复，反义词组，上下位关系和语义场都属于语义研究的范围，构成词典学的重要组成部分。
文体论是对文体的研究。
他是关注在特定环境中表达特殊效果的语言要素的选择，存在于研究领域的是：词汇，音韵学，句法学，笔迹学，我们将集中在词汇，和词汇文体价值的探索上。
词典编纂和词典学承担相同的问题：形式，意义，词汇的起源和用法，但是他们有实用上的差别。
一个词典编纂者的任务是记录使用的语言以便去把词语的真实面貌展现给读者，提供权威参考；而词汇学研究者是要获得关于词汇的知识和信息以便去增长他们的词汇知识和语言使用的能力。
尽管英语词汇学覆盖宽泛的学术领域，我们的任务却是明确的和一致的。
那就是在不同的方面和不同的角度研究英语单词。
0.3研究方法通常有两种研究词汇的方法，就是限时研究和历时研究。
从限时的观点看，词汇可以用现实的观点来研究，不管可能会发生的变化。
例如，wife现在意思是“已婚女人，特别是相对她的丈夫而言”。
这是现在的意思。
它还有一个过时的意思“女人”，只保留在“助产士”“家庭主妇”这些词语中。
但是，如果我们采用历时的观点，我们将历史的看词语，在形式也意义方面看它的源头和发展。
在这个观点上，wife是由古代英语形式wif进化而来，意思是“妇女”，但是他后来在发展的过程中变成专指现代意义“一个结婚的女人”。
我们在英语词汇的语言研究中，尽管我们的重点是在词语的限时描述上，我们同样需要历时的方法作为补充。
因为关于词汇历史发展的认识将可能能给我们的语言研究很大的帮助。
0.4课程的目标和意义。
语言研究涉及读音，语法和词汇的研究。
词汇已经被证明是特别重要并且一定是最难的。
在词语和结构之间关系的讨论中，wilkins断言。
“没有语法很少能表达，没有词汇什么也不能表达。
”词典学家macarthy回应了相同的结论，就是无论语法学的多好，无论他掌握读音多么成功，没有表达广泛意思的词汇，语言的交流就不能行之有效的发生。
在交流中词汇的定位需要继续的词汇理解。
由于英语词典学处理英语词汇问题。
这门课程显然是很有益的。
Echo回应Call for需要beneficialSynchronic限时的Diachronic历时的DisregardObsolete过时的Midwife接生婆Perspective观点Evolve进化Inquiry询问Consistent一致的Acquire获得Pragmatic实用的Genuine picture真实画面Authoritative有权威的Whereas然而Awareness知道Stylistic valuePhonology音韵学Graphology笔迹学Concentrate专心Lexis词汇Syntax句法Utterance发声Discourse演说Lexical level词汇级别Polysemy意义分歧Homonymy同名歧义Synonymy同义重复Antonymy反义词组Hyponymy上下位关系Semantic field语义场Tribe族Explain解释Morpheme词素Construct组成Inflection变音Discipline学科Embrace包括Academic学校的Morphology形态学Semantics语义学Etymology词源学Stylistics文体论Lexicography词语编纂学Theoretically orientedCopious丰富的Domain范围Lexicology词典学Inquire询问Investigate调查Morphological语形学Equivalent相等的关于英语单词的形态结构和词语形式规律的认识将帮助研究者提高他们的个人词汇量和有意识的增长他们的词汇能力。
历史发展的信息和分类原则将给他们更深的词义理解，能使他们更有效的组织，分类和储存词汇。
词汇语义结构的理解，意义和感觉关系的理解将逐渐提高他们意义和用法的认识，并且能使他们用词更准确和适度。
词典的应用知研究者在语言运用中的接受能力和丰富的技巧，如同在语言产生中一样。
Language processingLanguage productionProductiveWorking knowledgeMorphological形态学Consciously有意识的Sense词义Efficiency效率Ultimately最后终于Receptive善于接受Process处理As long as只要，既然语言老师将发现词汇学对他们更有用。
拥有一定的词汇学知识，他们能处理教学材料，特别是那些与词汇相关的更加专业。
他们能用更有效的方法去选择和组织材料。
例如，他们能逐渐讲授词形规则提升学生对词语结构的认识，以便他们能更快的学习新词，记得更好。
他们能更好的使用意义关系去组织词汇，向学生解释词汇和说明意义。
他们对词典的知识对他们的学习和教学同样有用，一两本好的词典加上使用技巧将给教师轻松，自信和效率。
EaseInvaluableInterpret解释（特别＝翻译）Sense relation意义关系Page6～10第一章词汇的基本概念在我们尝试具体讨论之前，有必要去澄清一些关于词和词汇的基本概念。
词语word是一个难以捉摸的概念，需要在开始就认真关注。
发音和意义之间的关系，声音和形式之间的关系，词语和词汇之间的关系，同样需要一些讨论。
另外，我们将注意一些关于词汇分类的共识的规则，并且在本章一定程度上研究每类词语。
Clarify澄清Elusive难以捉摸的Notion概念Outset开始Recognise认出Criteria标准1.1一个词是什么？词语是什么？这个问题已经在许多年代占据了语言学家的注意。
尽管已经提出了很多的定义，没有一个是最好的。
学者们仍然没有在词语的定义上达成一致。
当我们谈起一个词语，我们倾向于根据视觉条件来思考。
在这个角度，一个词可以被定义为水平印或者写在纸面上的字母的有意义的集合体。
当根据口语定义的时候，词被看成是一个发音或发音的集合，是由人的发音器官自由的发出的。
根据语义学家的意见，一个词是一个意义单位。
语法学家，则认为一个词是在句中起作用的自由形式。
等等。
总结起来，词语的定义包含以下几点：（1）一个最小的自由形态（2）一个发音的集合体（3）一个意义单位（4）能独自影响句子的形式因此，我们能说“词语是语言最小的自由形式，拥有固定的声音和意义以及句法作用。
”词语可以是简单词或者合成词，然而全部必须服从这些标准。
Man和fine是简单词，但是他们都有读音，意义和句法意义。
每个都能单独出现在句子中。
自然他们都是词。
也有像是misfortune和management这样的复合词，他们都是多音节词，可以用来作主语，宾语和预示性词语。
尽管misfortune可以被进一步分为mis和fortune，前者不能作为词单独使用。
相似的，management可以被分成manage和ment，但是后者不能自由使用。
Blackmail能被分为black指示“被邮局运送的东西”，然而当它们放在一起，组合形式意味着“强迫，利用不光彩的秘密要人送钱或行动作为答复。
”因此blackmail是一个不同的词。
Comply服从Polysyllabic多音节的Predictive预测Denote指示Compel强迫Compulsion强迫Concealment隐藏Discreditable丢脸的Free formVisual term视觉条件Voluntarily自由的Vocal发音SemanticistComprise包含Minimal最小的Unity统一Syntactic句法的1.2读音和意义词语是一个符号，代表着世界上其他的事物。
每种世界文化已经赞成一定的读音将代表一定的人，事，地方，特性，过程，行动，当然是在语言系统之外。
这种象征性的联系几乎总是主观的，并且“在代表事物和思想的声音和实际的事物和思想之间没有法定关系。
”一只狗被称作“狗”，并不是因为那读音和三个字母能自动的指示那讨论中的动物。
它只是象征性的。
它们之间的关系是约定俗成的，因为同种语言的人们赞成用一串声音说那动物。
在不同的语言中相同的概念可以用不同的声音表达。
Woman，在德语中是frau，在法语中是femme。
在中国话中是funu。
另一方面，相同的读音也表示不同的意义，如mi：t用来表示会议，肉和边界。
骑士和夜晚，尽管代表不同的事物，仍然有相同的读音。
AutomaticallySymbolic象征Arbitrary主观的In question讨论中Cluster一群Mete边界Consequently因此1.3读音和形式通常认为，自然语言的书写形式是口语形式的书写记录。
自然书写形式应该和口语形式相一致。
换而言之，发音应该和形式相一致。
这在英语中是相当正确的在早期也就是古代英语中。
那时候的口语比今天更忠实的代表书面语。
随着语言的发展，越来越多的不同出现在口语和书面语之间。
内因是因为英语字母表采用罗马字母，罗马字母没有独立的字母代表每个读音，因此一些字母代表两个读音或者组合在一起发音。
Alphabet字母表另一个原因是发音比拼写的变化快，在一些时候还拉开了距离。
在最近五百年里，尽管口语发音已经出现了显著的变化，却没有相应的拼写变化。
第三个原因是一些早期的书写员发明了一些不同。
在早年拼写差别不是问题，因为人们不常看印刷体，而且拼写不像今天这样固定。
结果，没人能够肯定一些英语词汇该如何拼写。
有时候人们故意把拼写改变为一条直线或者只是为了方便识记。