语言学第二章习题
语言学第二章习题答案参考
一、名词解释：1、符号：符号是一个社会全体成员共同约定用来表示某种意义的记号或标记，符号的构成包括两个方面的形式和意义，形式是符号的外壳，是可以被人的感觉器官感知的，具有物质性。
意义是符号形式所代表的内容。
符号的最大特征是形式和意义的联系完全是社会成员约定俗成的，由社会习惯决定的。
2、符号的任意性：语言符号的任意性是就语言符号的音与义的相互关系来说的。
语言的声音和意义之间没有必然的、本质的联系，他们之间的结合是不可论证的，完全是社会约定俗成的，这是语言符号最大的特点。
3、语言符号的系统性：所谓系统，是指同类事物按一定的关系组成的整体。
语言符号系统是说语言符号中的要素，并不是杂乱无章的堆积在一起，而是按照一定的秩序组织起来，形成一个有机的整体；系统中的各个要素之间存在着种种规律性的联系，并且彼此相互制约。
语言符号系统可以概括为：语言是一种分层装置，这种装置靠组合和替换来运转。
4、组合关系：又叫句段关系，是指符号组合起来的关系，不同的结构单位按照线性的顺序组合起来的关系。
5、聚合关系：又叫联想关系，是指在语言组合结构的某一位置上能够互相替换的几个具有相同作用的符号之间的关系，简单的说，语言符号的类聚（类别）关系。
二、判断题1、语言符号具有任意性的特点，我们平时说话用什么样的语音代表什么样的意义是自由的，因此，如果我们愿意，把“袜子”说成“鞋子”也可以。
答：错。
原因：①符号是一个社会全体成员共同约定用来表示某种意义的记号或标记。
语言符号音与义的结合是社会约定俗成的。
“鞋子”和“袜子”的音义结合是社会约定俗成的，不能把“袜子”说成是“鞋子”。
②语言符号的任意性是就语言符号的音与义的相互关系来说的。
语言的声音和意义之间没有必然的、本质的联系，他们之间的结合是不可论证的，完全是社会约定俗成的，“鞋子”和“袜子”的音和义是社会约定俗成的，不能把“袜子”说成是“鞋子”。
③语言符号是任意性与强制性的辨正统一，强制性是指语言符号一旦进入交际，也就是某一语言形式与某一种意义结合起来，表示某一特定的对象以后，对使用的人来说就有强制性，即只有接受的权利，没有随意更改的权利。
语言学第二单元参考答案
Chapter 2 Speech Sounds1.phonetics: the study of how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. It can be divided into three main areas of study—articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics andperceptual/auditory phonetics.articulatory phonetics:the study of the production of speech sounds, or the study of how speech sounds are produced/made.phonology: the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.speech organs: those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech, also known as ‗vocal organs‘.voicing: the vibration of the vocal folds. When the vocal folds are close together, the airstream causes them to vibrate against each other and the resultant sound is said to be ‗voiced‘. When the vocal folds are apart and the air can pass through easily, the sound produced is said to be ‗voiceless‘. International Phonetic Alphabet: a set of standard phonetic symbols in the form of a chart (the IPA chart), designed by the International Phonetic Association since 1888. It has been revised from time to time to include new discoveries and changes in phonetic theory and practice. The latest version has been revised in 1993 and updated in 1996.consonant: a major category of sound segments, produced by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction.vowel: a major category of sound segments, produced without obstruction of the vocal tract so that air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or the nose.manner of articulation:ways in which articulation of consonants can be accomplished—(a) the articulators may close off the oral tract for an instant or a relatively long period; (b) they may narrow the space considerably; or (c) they may simply modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other.place of articulation:the point where an obstruction to the flow of air is made in producing a consonant.Cardinal Vowels: a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.semi-vowel: segments that are neither consonants nor vowels, e.g. [j] and [w].vowel glide: vowels that involve a change of quality, including diphthongs, when a single movement of the tongue is made, and triphthongs, where a double movement is perceived.coarticulation: simultaneous or overlapping articulations, as when the nasal quality of a nasal sound affects the preceding or following sound so that the latter becomes nasalized. If the affected sound becomes more like the following sound, it is known as ‗anticipatory coarticulation‘; if the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is ‗perseverative coarticution‘.phoneme: a unit of explicit sound contrast. If two sounds in a language make a contrast between two different words, they are said to be different phonemes.allophone: variants of the same phoneme. If two or more phonetically different sounds do not make a contrast in meaning, they are said to be allophones of the same phoneme. To be allophones, they must be in complementary distribution and bear phonetic similarity.assimilation: a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound, a term often used synonymously with ‗coarticulation‘. If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, it is called ‗regressive assimilation‘; the converse process, in which a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, is known as ‗progressive assimilation‘.Elsewhere Condition: The more specific rule applied first. It is applied when two or more rules are involved in deriving the surface form from the underlying form.distinctive features: a means of working out a set of phonological contrasts or oppositions to capture particular aspects of language sounds, first suggested by Roman Jacobson in the 1940s and then developed by numerous other people.syllable: an important unit in the study of suprasegmentals. A syllable must have a nucleus or peak, which is often the task of a vowel or possibly that of a syllabic consonant, and often involves an optional set of consonants before and/or after the nucleus.Maximal Onset Principle: a principle for dividing the syllables when there is a cluster of consonants between two vowels, which states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda.stress: the degree of force used in producing a syllable. When a syllable is produced with more force and is therefore more ‗prominent‘, it is a ‗stressed‘ syllable in contrast to a less prominent, ‗unstressed‘ syllable.intonation: the occurrence of recurring fall-rise patterns, each of which is used with a set of relatively consistent meanings, either on single words or on groups of words of varying length.tone: a set of fall-rise patterns affecting the meanings of individual words.2.1) voiced dental fricative 2) voiceless postalveolar fricative3) velar nasal 4) voiced alveolar stop/plosive5) voiceless bilabial stop/plosive 6) voiceless velar stop/plosive7) (alveolar) lateral 8) high front unrounded lax vowel9) high back rounded tense vowel10) low back rounded lax vowel3.1) [f]2) [ʒ]3) [j]4) [h]5) [t]6) [e]7) [ʉ]8) [ɶ]9) [ɔ]10) [u]4.1) On a clear day you can see for miles.2) Some people think that first impressions count for a lot.5. 1)Quite a few human organs are involved in the production of speech: the lungs, the trachea (or windpipe), the throat, the nose, and the mouth.（其他见课本２５－２６）5. 2)This is because gh is pronounced as [f] in enough, o as [ɪ] in women, and ti as [ʃ] in nation.5. 3)（见２９－３０，３１，３３）5. 4)Both phonetics and phonology study human speech sounds but they differ in the levels of analysis. （接下来见２４－２５）5. 5)Speech is a continuous process, so the vocal organs do not move from one sound segment to the next in a series of separate steps. Rather, sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors. For example, if a nasal consonant (such as [m]) precedes an oral vowel (such as [æ] in map), some of the nasality will carry forward so that the vowel [æ] will begin with a somewhat nasal quality. This is because in producing a nasal the soft palate is lowered to allow airflow through the nasal tract. To produce the following vowel [æ], the soft palate must move back to its normal position. Of course it takes time for the soft palate to move from its lowered position to the raised position. This process is still in progress when the articulation of [æ] has begun. Similarly, when [æ] is followed by [m], as in lamb, the velum will begin to lower itself during the articulation of [æ] so that it is ready for the following nasal.When such simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved, we call the process ‗coarticulation‘. If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamb, it is known as ‗anticipatory coarticulation‘. If the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is ‗perseverative coarticulation‘, as is the case of map.Assimilation is a phonological term, often used synonymously with coarticulation, which is more of a phonetic term. Similarly, there are two possibilities of assimilation: if a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it ‗regressive assimilation‘; the converse process, in which a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, is known as ‗progressive assimilation‘.Anticipatory coarticulation is by far the most common cause of assimilation in English. For example, ex. 1a. cap [kæp] can [kæn]b. tap [tæp] tan [tæn]ex. 2a. tent [tɛnt] tenth [tɛnθ]b. ninety [naɪnti] ninth [naɪnθ]ex. 2a. since [sɪns] sink [sɪŋk]b. mince [sɪns] mink [mɪŋk]In both exx. 1a and 1b, the words differ in two sounds. The vowel in the second word of each pair is ―nasalized‖ because of the influence of the following nasal consonant. In ex. 2,the nasal /n/ is ―dentalized‖ before a dental fricative. In ex. 3, the alveolar nasal /n/ becomes the velar nasal [ŋ] before the velar stop [k]. In this situation, nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are all instances of assimilation, a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.Assimilation can occur across syllable or word boundaries, as shown by the following:ex. 4a. pan[ŋ]cakeb. he can[ŋ] go nowStudies of English fricatives and affricates have shown that their voicing is severely influenced by the voicing of the following sound:ex. 5a. five past [faɪvpɑːst] > [faɪfpɑːst]b. has to [hæztə] > [hæstə]c. as can be shown [əzkənbɪʃəʊn] > [əskənbɪʃəʊn]d. edge to edge [ɛʤtəɛʤ] > [ɛʧtəɛʤ]The first column of symbols shows the way these phrases are pronounced in slow or careful speech while the second column shows how they are pronounced in normal, connected speech. It indicates that in English fricatives and affricates are devoiced when they are followed by voiceless sounds. This however does not occur with stops and vowels.5. 6)The word teller is formed by adding a suffix -er to the base word tell to form a new word. We are all familiar with the rule that governs the allophones of the phoneme /l/: when preceding a vowel, it is [l] and when following a vowel it is [ɫ]. However, in teller it has a vowel both before and after it, so how do we decide that it should be pronounced as [l], not [ɫ]?We notice that tell is a monosyllabic word while teller is disyllabic. In a polysyllabic word, we follow the Maximal Onset Principle (MOP) for the division of syllable. By MOP, the /l/ must be placed in the onset position of the second syllable instead of the coda position of the first syllable. Thus, the phoneme /l/ is realized as it should be before the vowel in the second syllable. The same is true with telling, falling, and many others. We can see from this that the phonological structure of a complex word is often different from its morphological structure, i.e. how the word is formed. In word-formation it is tell + -er while in syllable structure it is [te+lə].6.In some dialects of English the following words have different vowels, as shown by the phonetic transcription. Based on these data, answer the questions that follow.1) All the sounds that end the words in column A are voiceless ([-voice]) consonants and all the sounds that end the words in column B are voiced ([+voice]) consonants.2) All the words in column C are open syllables, i.e. they end in vowels.3) The two sounds are in complementary distribution because [ʌɪ] appears only before voiceless consonants and [aɪ] occurs before voiced consonants and in open syllables.4) (a) [lʌɪf] (b) lives [laɪvz]5) (a) [traɪl] (b) [bʌɪk] (c) [lʌɪs] (d) [flaɪ] (e) [maɪn]6) /aɪ/ [ʌɪ] / _____[–voice][aɪ] in other places7.As far as orthography is concerned, there are four variants: in-, im-, ir-, and il-, but closer scrutiny shows that in- may be pronounced as [ɪŋ] before velar consonants, so there are five groups of words according to their variation on pronunciation:(1) [ɪn]: inharmonic, ingenious, inoffensive, indifferent, inevitable, innumerable[ɪn] or [ɪŋ]: incomprehensible, incompetent, inconsistent[ɪm]: impenetrable, impossible, immobile[ɪl]: illiterate, illegal, illogical[ɪr]: irresponsible, irresistible, irregularIt is clear that the first sound of the base word governs the distribution of the variants, because the final consonant of the prefix in- must assimilate to the first segment of the base word. As a result of this, we find [ɪm] before labial consonants like [m] or [p], [ɪl] before the lateral [l], [ɪr] before [r]. When the first consonant of the base word is the velar consonant [k], it is [ɪŋ] in rapid speech and [ɪn] in careful speech. In all other cases [ɪn] is always the case. Assuming an underlying form /ɪn/, the rule for the prefix in- looks roughly like this (in the simplest notation):(2) /ɪn/ → {[ɪn], [ɪŋ]} / _____[velar][ɪm] / _____[labial][ɪl] / _____ [l][ɪr] / _____[r][ɪn] in other placesThis rule system could be further simplified if we eliminate the first rule, as the realization [ɪŋ] is actually optional. Unlike the other rules, this variation is due to a more general mechanism of assimilation in fast speech, which happens naturally. For example, in conference is also often pronounced as [ɪŋkɒnfərəns] in fast speech, and the nasal in thank and think is also realized as a velar.We can test these rules by looking at other base words which can take the prefix in-, such as correct, moveable, legible, rational, and adequate. When prefixed, they are respectively pronounced [ɪn]correct (or [ɪŋ]correct), [ɪm]moveable, [ɪl]legible, [ɪr]rational, and [ɪn]adequate, which further support the rules above.(Based on Plag, 2003: 200-18.In Old English, there are no voiced fricative phonemes. All voiced variants, which appear only between voiced sounds, are allophones of their voiceless counterparts.The rule can be stated as follows:fricatives → [+voice] / [+voice]_____[+voice][–voice] in other places。
语言学第二章练习题讲课讲稿
语言学第二章练习题讲课讲稿语言学第二章练习题Chapter 2 Phonology1. What are the two major media of communication? Of the two, which one is primary and why?Two major media of communication are speech and writing, Of the two, speech is primary. The reasons are as follows.1)From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. Thewriting system of any language is always “invented’ by its users to recordspeech when the need arises.2)In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in termsof the amount of information conveyed.3)Speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mothertongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school.4)For modern linguists, spoken language reveals more true features of humanspeech while written language is only the “revised” record of speech.2. What is voicing and how is it caused?Voicing is a quality of speech sounds. It is caused by the vibration of the vocal cords.3. Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ.When we use a simple set of symbols in our transcription, itis called broad transcription. Narrow transcription is the use of more specific symbols to show phonetic details.In broad transcription, the symbol [ l ] is used for the sound [ l ] in words leaf [ li:f] and feel [fi:l]. The [l] in [ li:f] , occurring before a vowel, is called clear [ l ]. The [ l ] in [fi:l] occurring in the end of a word or before another consonant , is called dark [ l ].And in narrow transcription the diacritic tilde [~] is used to indicate it. 4．How are the English consonants classified?English consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of manner of articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation.In terms of manner of articulation, it can be classified into stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, glides and nasals. In terms of place of articulation, it can be classified into bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar and glottal.5. What criteria are used to classify the English vowels?According to the place of the tongue, vowels can be distinguished as front, central and back. According to the openness of the mouth, vowels can be classified into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels., semi-open vowels and open vowels. According to the shape of the lips, all the front vowels and the central vowel can are unrounded vowels and all the back vowels are rounded vowels.6. Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound descriptions:1) voiced palatal affricative [ d? ]2) voiceless labiodental fricative [f ]3) voiced alveolar stop [ g ]4) front close short [ i ]5) back semi-open long [ ?: ]6) voiceless bilabial stop [ p ]Give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds1)[ d ] voiced alveolar stop2)[ l ] voiced alveolar liquid3)[ t? ] voiceless palatal affricate4)[ w ] voiced bilabial glide5)[ u ] back close short6)[ ae ] front open7. How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? Who do you think will be more interested in the difference between, say, clear [ l ] and dark [ l ] , aspirated [ p] and unaspirated [p] , a phonetician or a phonologist ? why? Phonology and phonetics differ in their approach and focus. Phonology aims at discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. Phonetics is of a general nature and it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages.The difference between clear [l] and dark [ l ] is what the phoneticians are interested in . For the phonologists, these two sounds are fundamentally the same ,since they have one and the same function in communication , in distinguishing between words and meanings despite their difference in pronunciation.8. What is a phone? How is it different from a phoneme？How are allophones related to a phoneme?A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. A phoneme is a phonological unit. It is a unit that is distinctive , abstract and it is the smallest unit. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. For example, in the word leaf [ li:f]and the word deal [di:l] , / l / is onephoneme and the [l] in [li:f] is clear, the [ l ] in [di:l] is dark. They are all allophones of the phoneme /l/.9. Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule, and the deletion rule.Sequential rules are the rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language. For example, if a word begins with a [ l ] or [ i ], then the next sound must be a vowel. Thus, [ lbik ] [ ilkb ] are impossible in English. They have violated the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemesThe assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying’ a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. For example, the [ i:] sound is nasalized in words like bean, green and team. This is because in all these sound combination the [ i:] sound is followed by a nasal [n ] or [ m].The deletion rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. For example, in the pronunciation of such words sign, design, there is no [ g ] sound although it is represented in spelling by the letter g10. What are the suprasegmental features ? How do the major suprasegmental features of English function in conveying meaning?The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasemental features include stress, intonation and tone. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of vocal cords. Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, especially in alanguage like English. Intonation has four tones.: the falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rise tone, the rise-fall tone. When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings.杨晓娅唐明李克燕谢江兰李佳卉2011级英语二班。
语言学第2章习题.doc
Chapter 2：PhonologyI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1.Voicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in both Chinese and English.2.If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning, they are said to be in complementary distribution.3. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning.4.English is a tone language while Chinese is not.5.In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.6.In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.7.Articulatory phonetics tries to describe the physical properties of the stream of sounds which a speaker issues with the help of a machine called spectrograph.8.The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas: the throat, the mouth and the chest.9.Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing.10.English consonants can be classified in terms of place of articulation and the part of the tongue that is raised the highest.11.According to the manner of articulation, some of the types into which the consonants can be classified are stops, fricatives, bilabial and alveolar.12.Vowel sounds can be differentiated by a number of factors: the position of tongue in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels.13.According to the shape of the lips, vowels can be classified into close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels and open vowels.14.Any sound produced by a human being is a phoneme.15.Phones are the sounds that can distinguish meaning.16.Phonology is concerned with how the sounds can be classified into different categories.17. A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning.18.When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a phonemic contrast.19.The rules governing the phonological patterning are language specific.20.Distinctive features of sound segments can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:21． A ____ refers to a strong puff of air stream in the production of speech sounds.22．A___________ phonetics describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ.23．The four sounds /p/,/b/,/m/ and /w/ have one feature in common, , they are all b_______ sounds.24． Of all the speech organs, the t ____ is the most flexible, and is responsible for varieties of articulation than any other.25．English consonants can be classified in terms of manner of articulation or in terms of p_______ of articulation.26．When the obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction audibly released and the air passing out again is called a s________.27．S_________ features are the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments. They include stress, tone, intonation, etc.28．The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called s____ rules. 29．The transcription of speech sounds with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription while the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called n_________ transcription.30．When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as i_________.31．P___________ is a discipline which studies the system of sounds of a particular language and how sounds are combined into meaningful units to effect linguistic communication.32．The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important cavities: the pharyngeal cavity, the o_______ cavity and the nasal cavity.33．T_______ are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords and which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.34．Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are two kinds of stress: word stress and s_________ stress.III.There are four choices following each of the statements below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:35． Of all the speech organs, the _______ is/ are the most flexible.A. mouthB. lipsC. tongueD. vocal cords36．The sounds produced without the vocal cords vibrating are ____ sounds.A. voicelessB. voicedC. vowelD. consonantal37．__________ is a voiced alveolar stop.A. /z/ C. /k/B. /d/ D./b/38． The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by phoneme,thus making the two phones ____________. A. identical B. same C.exactly alike D. similar“ copying a”feature of a sequential39．Since /p/ and /b/ are phonetically similar, occur in the same environments and they can distinguish meaning, they are said to be ___________.A. in phonemic contrastB. in complementary distributionC. the allophonesD. minimal pair40．The sound /f/ is _________________.A. voiced palatal affricateB. voiced alveolar stopC. voiceless velar fricativeD. voiceless labiodental fricative41. A ____ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintaining the highest position.A. backB. centralC. frontD. middle42.Distinctive features can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called ____________.A. phonetic componentsB. immediate constituentsC. suprasegmental featuresD. semantic features43.A(n) ___________ is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit, a collection of distinctive phonetic features.A. phoneB. soundC. allophoneD. phoneme44． The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the ____ of that phoneme.A. phonesB. soundsC. phonemesD. allophonesSuggested answers to supplementary exercisesI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:16.F 17.T 18.F 19.T 20.TII. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:21. Aspiration23. bilabial 24. tongue25. place26. stop27. Suprasegmental 28. sequential 29. narrow 30. intonation31. Phonology 32. oral 33. Tone 34. sentenceIII.There are four choices following each of the statements below. Mark the choice that can best completethe statement:IV. Define the terms below:45. phonology 46. phoneme48. international phonetic alphabet49. intonation 50. phonetics 51. auditory phonetics52. acoustic phonetics 53. phone 54. phonemic contrast 55. tone 56.minimal pairV. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:57.Of the two media of language, why do you think speech is more basic than writing？58.What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels？59.What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics？60.Illustrate with examples how suprasegmental features can affect meaning.61.In what way can we determine whether a phone is a phoneme or notSuggested answers to supplementary exercisesIV. Define the terms below:45.phonology: Phonology studies the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.46.phoneme: The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit of distinctive value. But it is anabstract unit. To be exact, a phoneme is not a sound; it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.47.allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.48.international phonetic alphabet: It is a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.49.intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.50.phonetics: Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with allthe sounds that occur in the world' s languages51.auditory phonetics: It studies the speech sounds from the hearer's point of view. It studies how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.52.acoustic phonetics: It studies the speech sounds by looking at the sound waves. It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.53.phone : Phones can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning.54.phonemic contrast: Phonemic contrast refers to the relation between two phonemes. If two phonemescan occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning, they are in phonemic contrast.55.tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.56.minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occursin the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary: 57. Of the two media of language, why do you think speech is more basic than writing？1)In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.2)In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount ofinformation conveyed.3)Speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later at school.58. What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels？1)Vowels may be distinguished as front, central and back in terms of the position of the tongue in the mouth.2)According to how wide our mouth is opened, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels.3)According to the shape of the lips, vowels are divided into rounded vowels and unrounded vowels.4)The English vowels can also be classified into long vowels and short vowels according to the length of the sound.59. What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics？They differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified. Phonology, on the other hand, is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.60. Illustrate with examples how suprasegmental features can affect meaning.1)The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning, such as `import and im`port. The similar alternation of stress also occurs between a compound noun and a phrase consisting of the same elements. A phonological feature of the English compounds, is that the stress of the word always falls on the first element and the second element receives secondary stress, for example: `blackbird is a particular kind of bird, which is not necessarily black, but a black `bird is a bird that is black.2)The more important words such as nouns, verbs adjectives , adverbs,etc are pronounced with greater force and made more prominent. But to give special emphasis to a certain notion, a word in sentence that is usually unstressed can be stressed to achieve different effect. Take the sentence “ Heis driving my car. ”for example. To emphasize the fact that the car he is driving is not his, or yours, but mine, the speaker can stress thepossessive pronoun my, which under normal circumstances is not stressed.3)English has four basic types of intonation, known as the four tones: When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings. Generally speaking, the falling tone indicates that what is said is a straight-forward, matter-of-fact statement, the rising tone often makes a question of what is said, and the fall-rise tone often indicates that there is an implied message in what is said.61. In what way can we determine whether a phone is a phoneme or not？A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning. If it does, the two sounds then represent different phonemes.。
胡壮麟.语言学第二章题
胡壮麟《语言学教程》（修订版）测试题——第二章：语音您所查看的帖子来源于考研加油站考研论坛() Chapter 2 Speech SoundsI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. Pitch variation is known as __________ when its patterns are imposed on sentences.A. intonationB. toneC. pronunciationD. voice2. Conventionally a __________ is put in slashes (/ /).A. allophoneB. phoneC. phonemeD. morpheme3. An aspirated p, an unaspirated p and an unreleased p are __________ of the p phoneme.A. analoguesB. tagmemesC. morphemesD. allophones4. The opening between the vocal cords is sometimes referred to as __________.A. glottisB. vocal cavityC. pharynxD. uvula5. The diphthongs that are made with a movement of the tongue towards the center are known as __________ diphthongs.A. wideB. closingC. narrowD. centering6. A phoneme is a group of similar sounds called __________.A. minimal pairsB. allomorphsC. phonesD. allophones7. Which branch of phonetics concerns the production of speech sounds?A. Acoustic phoneticsB. Articulatory phoneticsC. Auditory phoneticsD. None of the above8. Which one is different from the others according to places of articulation?A. [n]B. [m]C. [ b ]D. [p]9. Which vowel is different from the others according to the characteristics of vowels?A. [i:]B. [ u ]C. [e]D. [ i ]10. What kind of sounds can we make when the vocal cords are vibrating?A. VoicelessB. V oicedC. Glottal stopD. ConsonantII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Suprasegmental phonology refers to the study of phonological properties of units larger than the segment-phoneme, such as syllable, word and sentence.12. The air stream provided by the lungs has to undergo a number of modification to acquire the quality of a speech sound.13. Two sounds are in free variation when they occur in the same environment and do not contrast, namely, the substitution of one for the other does not produce a different word, but merely a different pronunciation.14. [p] is a voiced bilabial stop.15. Acoustic phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.16. All syllables must have a nucleus but not all syllables contain an onset and a coda.17. When pure vowels or monophthongs are pronounced, no vowel glides take place.18. According to the length or tenseness of the pronunciation, vowels can be divided into tense vs. lax or long vs. short.19. Received Pronunciation is the pronunciation accepted by most people.20. The maximal onset principle states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the coda rather than the onset.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. Consonant sounds can be either __________ or __________, while all vowel sounds are __________.22. Consonant sounds can also be made when two organs of speech in the mouth are brought close together so that the air is pushed out between them, causing __________.23. The qualities of vowels depend upon the position of the __________ and the lips.24. One element in the description of vowels is the part of the tongue which is at the highest point in the mouth. A second element is the __________ to which that part of the tongue is raised.25. Consonants differ from vowels in that the latter are produced without __________.26. In phonological analysis the words fail / veil are distinguishable simply because of the two phonemes /f/ - /v/. This is an example for illustrating __________.27. In English there are a number of __________, which are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions.28. __________ refers to the phenomenon of sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors.29. __________ is the smallest linguistic unit.30. Speech takes place when the organs of speech move to produce patterns of sound. These movements have an effect on the __________ coming from the lungs.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Sound assimilation32. Suprasegmental feature33. Complementary distribution34. Distinctive featuresV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. What is acoustic phonetics?（中国人民大学，2003）36. What are the differences between voiced sounds and voiceless sounds in terms of articulation?（南开大学，2004）VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. Write the symbol that corresponds to each of the following phonetic descriptions; then give an English word that contains this sound. Example: voiced alveolar stop [d] dog. （青岛海洋大学，1999）(1) voiceless bilabial unaspirated stop(2) low front vowel(3) lateral liquid(4) velar nasal(5) voiced interdental fricative以下内容跟帖回复才能看到==============================Key:I.1~5 ACDAA 6~10 DBABBII.11~15 TTTFF 16~20 TTTFFIII.21. voiced, voiceless, voiced 22. friction23. tongue 24. height25. obstruction 26. minimal pairs27. diphthongs 28. Co-articulation29. Phonemes 30. air streamIV.31. Sound assimilation: Speech sounds seldom occur in isolation. In connected speech, under the influence of their neighbors, are replaced by other sounds. Sometimes two neighboring sounds influence each other and are replaced by a third sound which is different from both original sounds. This process is called sound assimilation.32. Suprasegmental feature: The phonetic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features; these are the phonological properties of such units as the syllable, the word, and the sentence. The main suprasegmental ones includes stress, intonation, and tone.33. Complementary distribution: The different allophones of the same phoneme neveroccur in the same phonetic context. When two or more allophones of one phoneme never occur in the same linguistic environment they are said to be in complementary distribution.34. Distinctive features: It refers to the features that can distinguish one phoneme from another. If we can group the phonemes into two categories: one with this feature and the other without, this feature is called a distinctive feature.V.35.Acoustic phonetics deals with the transmission of speech sounds through the air. When a speech sound is produced it causes minor air disturbances (sound waves). Various instruments are used to measure the characteristics of these sound waves.36.When the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiceless; consonants [p, s, t] are produced in this way. But when the vocal cords are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeatedly pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration effect. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiced. [b, z, d] are voiced consonants.VI.37.Omit.。
语言学课后答案第2章
1.phonetics: the study of how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. It can be divided into three main areas of study—articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics andperceptual/auditory phonetics.articulatory phonetics: the study of the production of speech sounds, or the study of how speech sounds are produced/made.phonology: the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur. speech organs: those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech, also known as ‗vocal organs‘.voicing: the vibration of the vocal folds. When the vocal folds are close together, the airstream causes them to vibrate against each other and the resultant sound is said to be ‗voiced‘. When the vocal folds are apart and the air can pass through easily, the sound produced is said to be ‗voiceless‘.International Phonetic Alphabet: a set of standard phonetic symbols in the form of a chart (the IPA chart), designed by the InternationalPhonetic Association since 1888. It has been revised from time to time to include new discoveries and changes in phonetic theory and practice. The latest version has been revised in 1993 and updated in 1996. consonant: a major category of sound segments, produced by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction.vowel: a major category of sound segments, produced without obstruction of the vocal tract so that air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or the nose.manner of articulation: ways in which articulation of consonants can be accomplished—(a) the articulators may close off the oral tract for an instant or a relatively long period; (b) they may narrow the space considerably; or (c) they may simply modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other.place of articulation: the point where an obstruction to the flow of air is made in producing a consonant.Cardinal Vowels: a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.semi-vowel: segments that are neither consonants nor vowels, e.g. [j] and [w].vowel glide: vowels that involve a change of quality, including diphthongs, when a single movement of the tongue is made, and triphthongs, where a double movement is perceived. coarticulation: simultaneous or overlapping articulations, as when the nasal quality of a nasal sound affects the preceding or following sound so that the latter becomes nasalized. If the affected sound becomes more like the following sound, it is known as ‗anticipatory coarticulation‘; if the sou nd shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is ‗perseverative coarticution‘.phoneme: a unit of explicit sound contrast. If two sounds in a language make a contrast between two different words, they are said to be different phonemes.allophone: variants of the same phoneme. If two or more phonetically different sounds do not make a contrast in meaning, they are said to be allophones of the same phoneme. To be allophones, they must be in complementary distribution and bear phonetic similarity. assimilation: a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound, a term often used synonymouslywith ‗coarticulation‘. If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, it is called ‗regressive assimilation‘; t he converse process, in which a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, is known as ‗progressive assimilation‘.Elsewhere Condition: The more specific rule applied first. It is applied when two or more rules are involved in deriving the surface form from the underlying form.distinctive features: a means of working out a set of phonological contrasts or oppositions to capture particular aspects of language sounds, first suggested by Roman Jacobson in the 1940s and then developed by numerous other people.syllable: an important unit in the study of suprasegmentals. A syllable must have a nucleus or peak, which is often the task of a vowel or possibly that of a syllabic consonant, and often involves an optional set of consonants before and/or after the nucleus.Maximal Onset Principle: a principle for dividing the syllables when there is a cluster of consonants between two vowels, which states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda.stress: the degree of force used in producing a syllable. When a syllable is produced with more force and is therefore more ‗prominent‘, it is a ‗stressed‘ syllable in contrast to a less prominent, ‗unstressed‘ syllable. intonation: the occurrence of recurring fall-rise patterns, each of which is used with a set of relatively consistent meanings, either on single words or on groups of words of varying length.tone: a set of fall-rise patterns affecting the meanings of individual words.8.In Old English, there are no voiced fricative phonemes. All voiced variants, which appear only between voiced sounds, are allophones of their voiceless counterparts.The rule can be stated as follows:fricatives → [+voice] / [+voice]_____[+voi ce][–voice] in other places2.1) voiced dental fricative2) voiceless postalveolar fricative3) velar nasal4) voiced alveolar stop/plosive5) voiceless bilabial stop/plosive6) voiceless velar stop/plosive7) (alveolar) lateral8) high front unrounded lax vowel9) high back rounded tense vowel10) low back rounded lax vowel3.1) [f]2) [ʒ]3) [j]4) [h]5) [t]6) [e]7) [ʉ]8) [ɶ]9) [ɔ]10) [u]4.1) On a clear day you can see for miles.2) Some people think that first impressions count for a lot.5. 1)Quite a few human organs are involved in the production of speech: the lungs, the trachea (or windpipe), the throat, the nose, and the mouth. The pharynx, mouth, and nose form the three cavities of the vocal tract. Speech sounds are produced with an airstream as their sources of energy. In most circumstances, the airstream comes from the lungs. It is forced out of the lungs and then passes through the bronchioles and bronchi, a series of branching tubes, into the trachea. Then the air is modified at various points in various ways in the larynx, and in the oral and nasal cavities: the mouth and the nose are often referred to, respectively, as the oral cavity and the nasal cavity.Inside the oral cavity, we need to distinguish the tongue and various parts of the palate, while inside the throat, we have to distinguish the upper part, called pharynx, from the lower part, known as larynx. The larynx opens into a muscular tube, the pharynx, part of which can be seen in a mirror. The upper part of the pharynx connects to the oral and nasal cavities.The contents of the mouth are very important for speech production. Starting from the front, the upper part of the mouth includes the upper lip, the upper teeth, the alveolar ridge, the hard palate, the soft palate (or the velum), and the uvula. The soft palate can be lowered to allow air to pass through the nasal cavity. When the oral cavity is at the same time blocked, a nasal sound is produced.The bottom part of the mouth contains the lower lip, the lower teeth, the tongue, and the mandible.At the top of the trachea is the larynx, the front of which is protruding in males and known as the ―Adam‘s Apple‖. The larynx contains the vocal folds, als o known as ―vocal cords‖ or ―vocal bands‖. The vocal folds are a pair of structure that lies horizontally below the latter and their front ends are joined together at the back of the Adam‘s Apple. Their rear ends, however, remain separated and can move into various positions: inwards, outwards, forwards, backwards, upwards and downwards.5. 2)This is because gh is pronounced as [f] in enough, o as [ɪ] in women, and ti as [ʃ] in nation.5. 3)In the production of consonants at least two articulators are involved. For example, the initial sound in bad involves both lips and its final segment involves the blade (or the tip) of the tongue and the alveolar ridge. The categories of consonant, therefore, are established on the basis of several factors. The most important of these factors are: (a) the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract, and (b) where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstruction ofair. The former is known as the Manner of Articulation and the latter as the Place of Articulation.The Manner of Articulation refers to ways in which articulation can be accomplished: (a) the articulators may close off the oral tract for an instant or a relatively long period; (b) they may narrow the space considerably; or (c) they may simply modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other.The Place of Articulation refers to the point where a consonant is made. Practically consonants may be produced at any place between the lips and the vocal folds. Eleven places of articulation are distinguished on the IPA chart.As the vowels cannot be described in the same way as the consonants, a system of cardinal vowels has been suggested to get out of this problem. The cardinal vowels, as exhibited by the vowel diagram in the IPA chart, are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.The cardinal vowels are abstract concepts. If we imagine that for the production of [@] the tongue is in a neutral position (neither high nor low, neither front nor back), the cardinal vowels are as remote as possible from this neutral position. They represent extreme points of a theoretical vowel space: extending the articulators beyond this spacewould involve friction or contact. The cardinal vowel diagram (or quadrilateral) in the IPA is therefore a set of hypothetical positions for vowels used as reference points.The front, center, and back of the tongue are distinguished, as are four levels of tongue height: the highest position the tongue can achieve without producing audible friction (high or close); the lowest position the tongue can achieve (low or open); and two intermediate levels, dividing the intervening space into auditorily equivalent areas (mid-high or open-mid, and mid-low or close-mid).5. 4)Both phonetics and phonology study human speech sounds but they differ in the levels of analysis. Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. Imagine that the speech sound is articulated by a Speaker A. It is then transmitted to and perceived by a Listener B. Consequently, a speech sound goes through a three-step process: speech production, sound transmission, and speech perception.Naturally, the study of sounds is divided into three main areas, each dealing with one part of the process: Articulatory Phonetics is the study of the production of speech sounds, Acoustic Phonetics is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, and Perceptual or Auditory Phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.In phonology we normally begin by analyzing an individual language, say English, in order to determine its phonological structure, i.e. which sound units are used and how they are put together. Then we compare the properties of sound systems in different languages in order to make hypotheses about the rules that underlie the use of sounds in them, and ultimately we aim to discover the rules that underlie the sound patterns of all languages.5. 5)Speech is a continuous process, so the vocal organs do not move from one sound segment to the next in a series of separate steps. Rather, sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors. For example, if a nasal consonant (such as [m]) precedes an oral vowel (such as [æ] in map), some of the nasality will carry forward so that the vowel [æ] will begin with a somewhat nasal quality. This is because in producing a nasal the soft palate is lowered to allow airflow through the nasal tract. To produce the following vowel [æ], the soft palate must move back to its normal position. Of course it takes time for the soft palate to move from its lowered position to the raised position. This process is still in progress when the articulation of [æ] has begun. Similarly, when [æ] isfollowed by [m], as in lamb, the velum will begin to lower itself during the articulation of [æ] so that it is ready for the following nasal.When such simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved, we call the process ‗coarticulation‘. If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamb, it is known as ‗anticipatory coarticulation‘. If the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is ‗perseverative coarticulation‘, as is the case of map.Assimilation is a phonological term, often used synonymously with coarticulation, which is more of a phonetic term. Similarly, there are two possibilities of assimilation: if a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it ‗regressive assimilation‘; the converse process, in which a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, is known as ‗progressive assimilation‘.Anticipatory coarticulation is by far the most common cause of assimilation in English. For example,ex. 1a. cap [kæp] can [kæn]b. tap [tæp] tan [tæn]ex. 2a. tent [tɛnt] tenth [tɛn̪θ]b. ninety [naɪnti] ninth [naɪn̪θ]ex. 2a. since [sɪns] sink [sɪŋk]b. mince [sɪns] mink [mɪŋk]In both exx. 1a and 1b, the words differ in two sounds. The vowel in the second word of each pair is ―nasalized‖ because of the influence of the following nasal consonant. In ex. 2, the nasal /n/ is ―dentalized‖ before a dental fricative. In ex. 3, the alveolar nasal /n/ becomes the velar nasal [ŋ] before the velar stop [k]. In this situation, nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are all instances of assimilation, a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.Assimilation can occur across syllable or word boundaries, as shown by the following:ex. 4a. pan[ŋ]cakeb. he can[ŋ] go nowStudies of English fricatives and affricates have shown that their voicing is severely influenced by the voicing of the following sound: ex. 5a. five past [faɪvpɑːst] >[faɪfpɑːst]b. has to [hæztə] >[hæstə]c. as can be shown [əzkənbɪʃəʊn]> [əskənbɪʃəʊn]d. edge to edge [ɛʤtəɛʤ] >[ɛʧtəɛʤ]The first column of symbols shows the way these phrases are pronounced in slow or careful speech while the second column shows how they are pronounced in normal, connected speech. It indicates that in English fricatives and affricates are devoiced when they are followed by voiceless sounds. This however does not occur with stops and vowels.5. 6)The word teller is formed by adding a suffix -er to the base word tell to form a new word. We are all familiar with the rule that governs the allophones of the phoneme /l/: when preceding a vowel, it is [l] and when following a vowel it is [ɫ]. However, in teller it has a vowel both before and after it, so how do we decide that it should be pronounced as [l], not [ɫ]?We notice that tell is a monosyllabic word while teller is disyllabic. In a polysyllabic word, we follow the Maximal Onset Principle (MOP) for the division of syllable. By MOP, the /l/ must be placed in the onset position of the second syllable instead of the coda position of the first syllable. Thus, the phoneme /l/ is realized as it should be before the vowel in the second syllable. The same is true with telling, falling, and many others. We can see from this that the phonological structure of a complex word is often different from its morphological structure, i.e. how the word isformed. In word-formation it is tell + -er while in syllable structure it is [te+lə].6.In some dialects of English the following words have different vowels, as shown by the phonetic transcription. Based on these data, answer the questions that follow.1) All the sounds that end the words in column A are voiceless ([-voice]) consonants and all the sounds that end the words in column B are voiced ([+voice]) consonants.2) All the words in column C are open syllables, i.e. they end in vowels.3) The two sounds are in complementary distribution because [ʌɪ] appears only before voiceless consonants and [aɪ] occurs before voiced consonants and in open syllables.4) (a) [lʌɪf] (b) lives [laɪvz]5) (a) [traɪl] (b) [bʌɪk] (c) [lʌɪs] (d) [flaɪ] (e) [maɪn]6) /aɪ/ [ʌɪ] / _____[–voice][aɪ] in other places7.As far as orthography is concerned, there are four variants: in-, im-, ir-, and il-, but closer scrutiny shows that in- may be pronounced as [ɪŋ] before velar consonants, so there are five groups of words according to their variation on pronunciation:(1) [ɪn]: inharmonic, ingenious, inoffensive, indifferent, inevitable, innumerable[ɪn] or [ɪŋ]: incomprehensible, incompetent, inconsistent[ɪm]: impenetrable, impossible, immobile[ɪl]: illiterate, illegal, illogical[ɪr]: irresponsible, irresistible, irregularIt is clear that the first sound of the base word governs the distribution of the variants, because the final consonant of the prefix in- must assimilate to the first segment of the base word. As a result of this, we find [ɪm] before labial consonants like [m] or [p], [ɪl] before the lateral [l], [ɪr] before [r]. When the first consonant of the base word is the velar consonant [k], it is [ɪŋ] in rapid speech and [ɪn] in careful speech. In all other cases [ɪn] is always the case. Assuming an underlying form /ɪn/, the rule for the prefix in- looks roughly like this (in the simplest notation):(2) /ɪn/ → {[ɪn], [ɪŋ]} / _____[velar][ɪm] / _____[labial][ɪl] / _____ [l][ɪr] / _____[r][ɪn] in other placesThis rule system could be further simplified if we eliminate the first rule, as the realization [ɪŋ] is actually optional. Unlike the other rules, this variation is due to a more general mechanism of assimilation in fast speech, which happens naturally. For example, in conference is also often pronounced as [ɪŋkɒnfərəns] in fast speech, and the nasal in thank and think is also realized as a velar.We can test these rules by looking at other base words which can take the prefix in-, such as correct, moveable, legible, rational, and adequate. When prefixed, they are respectively pronounced [ɪn]correct (or[ɪŋ]correct), [ɪm]moveable, [ɪl]legible, [ɪr]rational, and [ɪn]adequate, which further support the rules above.(Based on Plag, 2003: 200-1)。
语言学2章测试题及答案
语言学2章测试题及答案一、选择题（每题2分，共20分）1. 语言学的主要研究对象是什么？A. 语言的起源B. 语言的结构C. 语言的演变D. 语言的使用答案：B2. 下列哪项不是语言学的分支学科？A. 语音学B. 语法学C. 心理学D. 语义学答案：C3. 索绪尔认为语言符号是由哪两部分组成的？A. 语音和语义B. 符号和意义C. 能指和所指D. 形式和内容答案：C4. 语言的最小意义单位是什么？A. 音素B. 词C. 语素D. 句子5. 语言的交际功能不包括以下哪一项？A. 信息传递B. 情感表达C. 思维工具D. 艺术创作答案：C6. 语言的规范性主要体现在哪个方面？A. 发音B. 语法C. 词汇D. 所有选项答案：D7. 语言的多样性主要体现在哪些方面？A. 语言结构B. 语言使用C. 语言发展D. 所有选项答案：D8. 语言的演变不包括以下哪一项？A. 语音变化B. 词汇变化C. 语法变化D. 语言消亡答案：D9. 以下哪种现象不属于语言接触？B. 融合C. 分化D. 同化答案：C10. 语言的标准化通常不涉及以下哪一项？A. 发音规范B. 词汇规范C. 语法规范D. 语言的起源答案：D二、填空题（每题2分，共20分）1. 语言学研究的两个主要对象是______和______。
答案：语言；言语2. 索绪尔将语言符号分为______和______。
答案：能指；所指3. 语言的三个基本功能包括______、______和______。
答案：表达功能；交际功能；思维功能4. 语音学研究的是______和______。
答案：语音的产生；语音的感知5. 语用学研究的是______和______。
答案：语境；意义6. 语言的演变包括______、______和______。
答案：语音变化；词汇变化；语法变化7. 语言的接触现象包括______、______和______。
答案：借用；融合；同化8. 语言的多样性表现在______、______和______。
语言学概论,章节测试 第二章
第二章语言的物质载体——声音一、单项选择题1.下列关于语音性质的表述中，不正确的是A.语音使语言成分物质化B.生理属性是语音的本质属性C.语音和语义联系在一起D.语音有民族性和地域性【解析】B 本题考查语音的本质属性。
语音的本质属性是社会属性，而不是生理属性。
2.下面各项中，属于被动发音器官的是A.唇B.硬腭C.软腭D.小舌【解析】B 本题考查被动发音器官。
在人类的发音器官中，有些是能够活动的，如嘴唇、舌头、软腭、小舌、下腭等，叫作“主动发音器官”；有些则不能活动，如牙齿、齿龈、硬腭等，叫作“被动发音器官”。
3.音素是A.最小的语言单位B.最小的语言类型单位C.最小的音义结合体D.从音质角度划分出来的最小语音单位【解析】D 本题考查音素的含义。
音节及其他大大小小的语音单位，切分到最后就是音素，或者说所有语音单位从最底层算起都是由音素组成的。
所以音素是最小的语音单位。
4.汉语音节zhang有A.一个音素B.两个音素C.三个音素D.四个音素【解析】C 本题考查音节的划分。
从音素角度划分，汉语音节zhang 可以切分为辅音zh、元音a和辅音ng三个音素，故本题正确答案为C。
5.下列关于元音和辅音的表述，正确的一项是A.发辅音声带不振动，发元音声带振动B.辅音大多是乐音，元音则都是乐音C.发辅音口腔气流有阻碍，元音则没有D.发辅音口腔肌肉不紧张，元音则紧张【解析】C 发辅音口腔气流有阻碍，元音则没有，其他项错误。
6.[i]是A.前低不圆唇元音B.后高不圆后元音C.前高不圆唇元音D.后低圆唇元音【解析】C [i]是前高不圆唇元音。
7.下列各项中都是不圆唇元音的组是A.[i，u]B.[e，o]C.[o，y]D.[a，α]【解析】D 本题考查舌面元音的发音特征，根据舌面元音舌位图可知，[a]是前低不圆唇元音，[α]是后低不圆唇元音。
故本题答案为D。
A、B.C三项中，[u]、[o]、[y]都是圆唇元音，可排除。
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第二章语言是符号系统一、填空题1.任何符号都包括形式和意义两个方面，语言符号的形式是语音（声音）。
2.语言符号音和义之间的结合是社会成员约定俗成的，它们之间没有必然的联系。
3.语言是一种分层装置，这种装置靠组合和替换来运转的。
4.语言的底层是一套音位，上层是音义结合的符号和符号的序列。
5.语言符号具有任意性和线条性的特点。
6.语言系统中的所有符号，既可以同别的符号组合，又可以被别的符号替换，符号之间的这两种关系就是组合关系和聚合关系。
7.人类的语言能力具体表现为抽象思维的能力和灵活发音的能力。
8.语言的结构系统是由语音、词汇、语义、语法四要素构成的。
9.人类之所以具有语言而其他动物没有，是因为人类具有抽象思维能力和灵活发音能力。
二、判断题1．任何一种符号都包括内容和意义两个方面。
（×）2．人们看到远处冒起浓烟就知道可能是发生了火灾，因此可以说浓烟是发生火灾的符号。
（×）3.语言符号具有任意性的特点，因此如果我们愿意，我们也可以把“苹果”说成“梨子”。
（×）4.儿童在中国长大就会说汉语，在英国长大则会说英语，这说明人类具有学习语言的本能。
（×）5．从本质上看，语言其实是一种符号系统。
（√）6．语言符号具有任意性的特点，就是说我们平时说话用什么样的语音代表什么样的意义是自由的，不受任何约束。
（×）7．语言符号可以拆卸拼装，重复使用。
（√）8．语言符号系统是由大大小小的单位随意构成的。
（×）9．通过符号的任意性特点，我们可以解释为什么人类社会有各种各样的语言。
（√）10．语言系统是由不同层级构成的，低一级的单位少，组成高一级后数量翻番。
（√）11．鹦鹉、八哥都会说话，有的甚至还会背古诗，可见，动物也有语言能力。
（×）12．语言是人类和其他动物相区别的标志之一。
（√）13．动物掌握“语言”是先天的本领，人类掌握语言则需要后天的学习。
（√）14．符号，简单地说，就是征候。
（×）15．符号和自己所代表的事物之间具有必然的联系。
（×）16．语言符号音与义的结合是任意的，所以对于使用的人来说没有强制性。
人们可以自由地用一个音节或几个音节表示一个意思。
（×）17．组合关系和聚合关系是语言系统中的两种根本关系。
（√）18．语言符号存在于组合关系和聚合关系之中，构造符号的音位和意义不存在这两种关系。
（×）19．语言和说话的关系是一般和个别的关系。
（√）三、单选题1.语言符号的任意性特点说明了（ D ）。
A．语言是人类最重要的交际工具B．语言是人类的思维工具C．语言具有组合关系和聚合关系D．语言是一种特殊的社会现象2.语言符号层级性的核心是（ B ）。
A．以少驭多B．具有生成性C．语言比较复杂D．可以任意组合3.语言成分按线性次序组合起来所形成的关系是（ B ）。
A．层级关系B．组合关系C．聚合关系D．没有关系4.下列说法只有（ D ）不正确。
A．从音位到语素，这是语言分层装置里最关键的接合部B．文字和旗语都是在语言的基础上形成的C．语言是其他所有交际工具的基础D．语言符号不可以拆卸拼装，不具有生成能力5.鹦鹉、八哥会模仿人说话，这说明（ B ）。
A．动物和人一样也是具有语言能力的B．鹦鹉、八哥等的说话，只是对人类语言的一种机械模仿C．动物也能像人一样学会语言D．语言不是人和其他动物相区别的标志四、名词解释1.符号：就是指代某种事物的标记、记号，它是由一个社会的全体成员共同约定用来表示某种意义的标记和记号。
2.符号的任意性：是语言符号的本质特征之一，其含义是：语言符号的音义联系并非是本质的、必然的，而是由社会成员共同约定的。
一种意义为什么要用这种声音形式，而不用那种声音形式，这中间没有什么道理可言，完全是偶然的、任意的。
语言符号和客观事物之间也没有必然的联系。
3.组合关系：语言符号的组合方式是顺着时间的线条前后相续，好像一根链条，一个环节扣着一个环节，处于组合链中的两个符号或符号列之间构成的关系称为组合关系。
符号和符号的组合形成语言的结构，如主谓关系、动宾关系、偏正关系等都是具体的组合关系类型，是符号和符号组合而成的语言的结构类型。
4.聚合关系：语言系统中的任意两个或两个以上的符号，如果相互之间存在着一个共同特征，那么这两个或两个以上的符号就构成一个聚合群。
处于聚合群中的两个符号之间存在着可以用共同特征加以命名的聚合关系。
聚合关系分广义聚合关系和狭义聚合关系两种。
其中的狭义聚合关系是只在链条的某一环节上能够互相替换的符号之间所形成的功能聚合关系。
五、思考题1.如何理解“语言是一种符号系统”？从本质上看，语言也是一种符号，也有形式和意义两个方面，具有符号的一切特点。
语言的符号之间具有组合关系和聚合关系，通过组合和替换构成有组织、有条理的分层装置。
语言的底层是一套音位，包括几十个音位；上层是音义结合的符号和符号的序列，这一层又分语素、词、句子等若干级。
整个装置的奥妙就在于以少数有规则地组成多数，一级级翻番增量，这样连跳三级以后，就从几十扩大到无穷。
2.为什么语言和种族没有必然联系？语言能力和生理因素、心理因素有关，但语言不是一种生理现象，也不是一种心理现象，也不是遗传的，而是一种社会现象。
语言完全是在一种语言环境中后天获得的，所以语言和种族没有必然联系。
3.人类选择语音作为语言的形式，同其他形式相比，语音形式有什么特点？用声音作为语言符号形式的物质载体，有其自然属性的优势。
（1）声音形式使用起来最简便。
声音是每个人都能发出来的，本身没有任何重量，便于携带。
人走到哪里，它就能跟到哪里，张嘴就能说。
（2）声音形式的容量最大。
语言系统中几十个语音单位通过排列组合就可以把现实世界中的所有现象表达出来。
（3）声音形式的表达效果最好。
说话只是动嘴皮子，可以大声疾呼，也可以慢声细语，上下古今，喜怒哀乐，不管多复杂的道理、多动人的感情，都可以通过语音表达出来。
如果改用手势，效果就要差得多：远处看不清，暗处看不见；深奥的道理，细腻的感情，也难以用手势表达；而且做手势时还得把双手腾出来，影响劳动。
所以用声音做语言符号的材料有种种优越性，人类的祖先在长期发展过程中选用声音作为语言的形式。
4.为什么说语言符号的形式和意义之间没有本质联系？因为：语言符号中的形式和意义的结合完全是由社会约定俗成的。
如汉语中为什么把“用两条腿走路、会说话、会制造工具和使用工具的动物”这样的意义和ren这个语音形式结合起来，完全是由社会的习惯所决定的。
如果我们的祖先不把这类动物叫做ren，而叫别的，也完全可以。
早在两千多年前，我国著名的哲学家荀子就说过：“名无固宜，约之以命，约定俗成谓之宜，异于约谓之不宜。
名无固实，约之以命实，约定俗成谓之实名。
”5.为什么人类会有如此多样的语言？人类社会有多达5千多种语言，为什么有如此多样的语言，是因为人类创造语言时在选择语音形式表达意义、内容方面的不一致，因而形成了不同语言。
由于语言具有社会属性，不是自然的，语音形式和意义内容之间没有必然、本质的联系。
选择什么样的语音形式来表达什么样的意义完全取决于社会成员，因此世界上的语言才如此多样。
6.说话和语言有什么区别？（1）语言不等于说话，也不等于说出来的话。
说话是对语言的运用，是运用语言跟人们交流思想的行为，本身不等于语言。
（2）语言是看不见的，它存在于所说的话语中。
7.为什么说语言符号在所有符号中是最重要、最复杂的一种？（1）语言符号是声音和意义的结合体，是说的和听的。
语言符号的形式选择的是声音，即语音，而不是色彩、线条等形式。
人类之所以选择语音作为语言符号的外在形式，主要是因为语音符号本身具有突出的优点：一方面，语音是人类发音器官发出来的声音，发音器官人人都有，随时可以使用。
因此人们可以在任何地方使用语音形式表达意义内容，不需要任何附加设备，使用非常简单、方便。
另一方面，语音的容量非常大，一种语言一般只要几十个音就可以任意排列组合，来表达思想。
而且用嘴说话还不影响手脚的活动，在劳动的过程中，有声的语言不会因为距离和光线而影响交际沟通。
所以人类语言一开始就是有声语言，而不是无声的手势之类的。
（2）一般符号的构成比较简单，而语言符号却是非常复杂的，分为不同的层级。
语言符号可以说是人类创造的最为复杂的符号体系。
符号单位最多，可以分为音位层和符号层，符号层又分为语素、词、句子三层，每一层次都有相当数量的符号单位。
而其他的符号则非常简单，如十字路口的红绿灯，只有红绿黄三种色彩的变化；军营的军号通过长短音的组合表示不同的意义，构成也比较简单。
（3）一般符号构成简单，因而只能表达有限的内容，而且这些内容是简单而固定的。
如红绿灯，其中的红灯表示禁止通行，绿灯表示可以通行，黄灯表示预备。
语言符号则可以表达丰富多彩的意义，如人类任何复杂的思想以及思想感情的微妙之处，都可以通过语言表达出来。
能够细腻地表达人类思想感情，除了语言符号，别的符号不可能做到。
（4）语言符号具有以少驭多的生成机制，具有生成新的结构的能力，具有生成性和开放性的特点。
一般符号表达的意义是固定的，因而不能生成新的意义，使用者不可能在使用过程中灵机一动，生成新的创造。
而语言符号则可以表达无尽的意义、内容，可以由较少的单位组合成较多以致无穷的单位。
语言符号的生成性是其他符号远远不及的。
8.语言符号的系统性表现在哪些方面？（1）语言符号是个系统，是分层的层级体系。
音位—语素—词—句子，这是语言的层级装置；几十—成千—成万—无穷，这是语言这个层级装置提供的效能。
语言层级装置中的低一层的单位比高一层的单位少得多，高一层的单位都是低一层单位按照一定的规则组合而成的。
这个装置的奇妙在于以少数有规则地组合成多数，一级级增量翻番，这样连跳三级之后，就从几十扩大到无穷。
句子虽然无穷，但是句子里所用的材料却仍在几千个语素的范围之内。
新句子是现有材料的新组合，而新组合有一定的规则可循，这就使人们随意造出句子，而听者也能正常理解。
（2）语言符号系统中有两种根本关系：组合关系和聚合关系。
每个符号都处在既可以和别的符号组合，又可以被别的符号替换这两种关系之中。
符号和符号组合起来的关系称为组合关系。
符号和符号的组合形成语言的结构。
在链条的某一环节上能够互相替换的符号具有某种相同的作用，它们自然地聚集成群，它们之间的关系就是聚合关系。
不但语言符号（语素、词）处在组合关系和聚合关系这两种关系之中，而且构成符号的音位和意义也处在这两种关系之中。
如北京话中和an 有组合关系的有b,p,m,f,d,t,n,l等，由于这些音能在相同的语音结构位置上出现，因此构成一个聚合——声母。
在声母的这个聚合中，还可以根据发音部位或发音方法构成小的聚合。