《耶鲁大学开放课程—哲学：死亡》(Open Yale course—Philosophy：Death)课程目录及下载地址(不断更新
耶鲁大学开放课程—哲学：死亡.05.Open.Yale.course—Philosophy：Death.DivX-YYeTs人人影视 [字幕转换助手
因为自由意志的内涵就是
Because the notion of free will was that
即使我再次处在相同的地点
even if I was in the very same spot again,
尽管决定论这个词有些术语化
determinism being a bit of philosopher's jargon
如果我们以某种方式
for when it's true of these laws that
设定了一个物体或者一个系统
or a physical--or a system--
阐述这个论证
goes like this,
这是就我们在上节课结束时讲到的内容
and this is where we were at the end of last time.
以上的观点是
The thought is that,
自由和被决定
there's a kind of incompatibility
所以 我们得到一个结论
So--a conclusion--
我们不是纯粹的物理系统
We are not a purely physical system.
要解释我们有自由意志这一事实
To explain the fact that we've got free will,
反驳者会说
so the objection goes,
耶鲁大学开放课程—哲学：死亡.10.Open.Yale.course—Philosophy：Death.DivX-YYeTs人人影视 [字幕转换助手
to continue to exist?
当然 我们更会这样问
Now, of course, we're going to ask most particularly,
这样一个东西如果肉体不死的话
what would it be for a thing like that
会是什么样呢
它可以做某些特殊事情
a body that can do certain special tricks,
并按特定的方式运作
a body that can function in certain ways
如此这般 我们就将其称之为人
that we associate with being a person,
是完完全全同一个吗
who is standing in front of you lecturing to you now?
现在这个人能活过这周末吗
Will that person survive the weekend?
我当然希望活过这周末
I certainly expect to survive the weekend.
幸存一段时间 对我来说意味着什么
what is it for me to survive, period?
举个大家都熟悉的例子
Take the more familiar hum-drum case.
今天我站在这里给你们讲课
Here I am lecturing to you today,
so there's no good reason
可以证明这一额外实体的存在
耶鲁大学开放课程—哲学：死亡.15.Open.Yale.course—Philosophy：Death.DivX-YYeTs人人影视 [字幕转换助手
But think of the various periods during the night
的各个不同时段
in which you are in a deep, deep dreamless sleep.
你并没有在思考
You're not thinking.
我们是不是只能说我死了
do we have to then say I'm dead?
那似乎是定义死亡的最自然的方式
Well, that may seem to be the most natural way to define death,
但不可取
but it's not an acceptable approach.
So we need to revise our account of what it is
一个人死亡的具体含义
on the physicalist picture to say that you're dead.
死亡到底意味着什么
What is it to be dead?
不可能只是不再运行人体功能
之前我们区分了肉体的死亡
Previously, we distinguished between the death of my body
和作为人的死亡
{\c
现在我们来着重研究作为人的死亡
let's focus on my death as a person.
如果我没有运行人体功能
If I'm not P-functioning,
On Judgment Day, God resurrects the dead.
耶鲁大学开放课程—哲学：死亡26OpenYalecourse—Philosophy：
耶鲁大学开放课程—哲学：死亡26OpenYalecourse—Philosophy：.txt每天早上起床都要看一遍“福布斯”富翁排行榜，如果上面没有我的名字，我就去上班。
谈钱不伤感情，谈感情最他妈伤钱。
我诅咒你一辈子买方便面没有调料包。
上次我们讲到自杀的道德问题Last time we turned to questions about the morality of suicide,我提到了两个and I started with two arguments that我称为草率随性的观点I called quick and dirty arguments.我认为公平地讲I suppose it would have been fairer to say它们其实都是神学观点that they were really theological arguments,或者说是某种程度上采用了神学前提的or they were moral arguments that used, in part,道德观点theological premises.我觉得至少这种I suggested that, at least if we look at them草率随意的观点in their quick and dirty versions,不足以说明问题they were inadequate,如果我们想仔细研究and if we're going to make a more careful argument自杀的道德问题about the morality of suicide,我们需要一些更系统化的we need to turn to a more systematic view道德理论about the contents of morality.我们需要根据We need to look at suicide基本的道德准则来评判自杀in terms of the basic moral principles.这不是我们有机会仔细探讨的事情Now, that's not something we've got the chance to do in detail,但我们至少能讲清楚but I think we can at least say enough一些基本的道德准则about a couple of basic approaches to the contents of morality,或是基本的道德尺度or the basic moral rules,让我们有个概念知道to get the beginnings of an understanding of更仔细地研究自杀的道德问题what might emerge about the morality of suicide会得到什么if we were to do that more carefully.先不谈自杀问题So, holding off on suicide for the moment,我们先问一下let's ask ourselves,是什么决定了一个行为what is it that makes an action是否符合道德morally acceptable or morally forbidden?毋庸置疑This is, unsurprisingly,不同道德理论对此存在争议something that different moral theories disagree about.但至少有一个要素或特征是所有But there's at least one factor or one feature that all,或者说大部分道德理论所接受的or almost all, moral theories agree about.那就是行为造成的后果很关键And that is that the consequences of your action matter.我们或许可以或许不可以That is, we might or might not只把行为的后果当作道德评判的标准think that consequences are the only things that are morally relevant 来考察行为是否道德when we think about the morality of your action,但行为造成的后果but surely it is one thing that's morally relevant--肯定是其中一个标准what are the consequences of your action going to be.因此下面我们从后果的角度So, let's think about the morality of suicide来思考自杀的道德问题with an eye towards consequences,因为我们讨论的是道德问题bearing in mind that since we're talking about a moral point of view 所以我们要考虑we need to take into account行为的后果对所有人造成的影响the consequences as they affect everybody.那么受自杀行为影响最大的人Now, the person who, of course, is most affected by suicide is,当然就是自杀者自己of course, the person who is killing themselves.似乎我们的第一印象很清楚And at first glance it might seem pretty clear自杀对其本人是不好的that the consequences of suicide are bad for that person.毕竟这个人之前活着而现在死了After all, the person was alive and now they're dead,我们通常将死亡造成的结果看做坏的and we normally would take death to be a bad result.假如我告诉你If I were to tell you,墙上有个开关"Oh, here's a switch on the wall.只要你按动开关If you were to flip the switch,一千个活着的人a thousand people who would otherwise be alive就会立即死亡would end up dead,"一般情况下你一定会同意you would normally take that to be a pretty compelling argument 不能按开关against flipping the switch.为什么呢因为结果是坏的Why? Because the result would be bad.为什么呢因为一千个人会死去Why? Because a thousand people would end up dead.也许一个人死亡的坏处Well, one person ending up dead并不比一千个人死亡的坏处更大isn't as bad as a thousand people ending up dead,但即便如此but for all that我们不是仍然可以说结果是坏的吗shouldn't we still say it's a bad consequence?由此我们不是可以说And as a result of that, shouldn't we say that无论结果在道德评判中的however far appeal to consequences goes作用有多大in terms of giving us our moral theory,我们难道不应认为从结果来看don't we have to say in terms of consequences,或者说考虑到结果or with regard to consequences,自杀是不道德的suicide is immoral?但先别急But not so quick!尽管死亡通常是坏事Even though it's true that normally death is a bad thing,但并非总是坏事it's not always a bad thing.我们在讨论死亡的主要坏处时This is the sort of thing that we've learned by thinking about 学习过这个问题what does the badness of death consist in.平常情况下Typical cases are ones in which死亡剥夺了人们the person's dying robs them of a chunk of life本来会有的幸福生活that would've been good for them overall,因此死亡对他们来说是坏事and because of that dying then is bad for them.但在我们后来的例子里But in the kinds of cases that we're thinking about,有理由自杀的那些例子里cases where suicide would be rationally acceptable,我们现在讨论那些自杀是否符合道德and we're now asking whether or not it's morally acceptable-- 在那些例子里至少在那些in those sorts of cases, at least the kind of paradigm examples 我们关注的例子里that we've been focused on,那些人死了会更好the person is better off dead.他们生不如死They're better off dead,生活给予他们的meaning that what life now holds out for them--也许并非一直是坏的although perhaps not negative through and through--但总的来说是坏的is negative on balance.总和是负数{\c他们最好不要再活下去they're not better off continuing to live.最好选择死亡They're better off dying.也就是说And that means, of course,死亡对他们来说不是坏事而是好事that dying isn't bad for them, but rather good for them,因此他们死亡造成的结果不是坏的and so their death is not a bad consequence,而是好的but rather a good consequence.假设你愿意相信有这种情况Provided that you're prepared to accept the possibility of cases 某些人早死比晚死in which somebody would be better off if their life ended sooner 会更好rather than later,我们便可得出结论we're led to the conclusion that--从道德上看from the moral point of view只关注于结果时as far as focusing on consequences goes--如果一个人自杀实际上the consequences might actually be good rather than bad结果可能是好的而不是坏的if the person were to kill themselves.或许他们能够They will free themselves, let's suppose,从痛苦中得到解脱of the suffering they would otherwise have to undergo.那么第一印象在说Well, that's--first glance said,从结果看自杀是错的consequences says suicide's wrong.第二个印象在说从结果看Second glance says, consequences says,自杀在某些情况下是对的as least in certain circumstances, suicide's right.当然第三印象便是Of course, third glance suggests,我们不能只关注自杀对we can't just focus on consequences for the person自杀者本人的影响who is contemplating suicide.因为从道德的角度出发Because from the point of view of morality应该考虑对所有人造成的影响we have to look at the consequences for everybody.哪些人会受到Who else might get affected这个人自杀的影响by the death or suicide of the person?我们最先想到的Well, the most obvious people for us to think about就是死者的家属和亲人at that point then are the family and loved ones--以及那些认识他the people who most directly know about并且关心他的人and care about the person who is contemplating suicide.然后我的印象快不够用了And again--I'm running out of glances,第一印象你会说but at first glance you might say,结果明显是坏的well, there the consequences are clearly bad.这个人自杀一般来讲When the person kills themselves that causes, typically,会对其家属和朋友a great deal of distress for the family造成沉重打击and friends of the person who has killed themselves.即便这是真的我们仍要问Even if that's true, we now have to ask,如何衡量这些结果how do the consequences weigh out?毕竟我们生存的世界没有一件事After all, we live in a world in which no single act typically只会导致好的结果has only good consequences,也没有一件事只会造成坏的结果or no single act has bad consequences and only bad consequences.我们的选择通常有利有弊Often our choices are mixed packages我们需要评估这样做或者那样做where we have to ask whether the good that we can do is greater than或者怎样做才能利大于弊the bad that we'd be doing with this act or that act or some third act. 但即便如此Even if there are, then,自杀对其家属negative consequences in terms of distress to the family,朋友或爱人的负面影响friends, and loved ones, of the person who kills themselves,仍可能超过that might still be outweighed对自杀者本人的好处by the benefit to the person himself or herself,如果自杀者if it was really the case死了真能更好的话that he or she would be better off dying.但值得注意的是But it's also worth bearing in mind当我们想到那些that insofar as we're thinking about people关心爱护他的人who love and care about the person who is considering dying,总的来说他们其实then they may actually overall, on balance,或许得到了解脱be relieved that the因他们的亲人不用再忍受痛苦了suffering of their loved one has come to an end.当然我们都很震惊和沮丧We will, of course, all be horribly distressed看到大自然that nature,或者说命运或者什么别的or the Fates, or what have you,导致人们面临的选择竟然是has brought it about that this person's choices或者杀死自己are now reduced to killing themselves on the one hand,或者继续活在病魔缠绕or continuing the terminal stages of some illness虚弱不堪的痛苦中where they're incapacitated and in pain.我们当然希望他有治愈的机会We will, of course, wish there was a serious prospect of a cure,重获健康的可能some chance of recovery,更希望他们从一开始就没生病wish they'd never gotten ill in the first place.而现在只有两个选择But given the limited choices,继续痛苦地活着continued suffering and pain, on the one hand,还是终结这种苦难的生活or having an end to that suffering and pain,如果这个人能理性地评估未来if the person can rationally assess their prospects并且合理地认为选择死亡会更好and reasonably come to believe they're better off dead,那么这一判断then that's a judgment会得到他们亲人的认可their loved ones can come to share as well.也许他们会懊恼They may well regret the fact--不止懊恼他们会咒骂more than regret, curse the fact--因为他们只有这些选择that these are the only choices they've got,但由于只有这些选择but still, given the limited choices they may agree,他们可能会同意结束痛苦会更好they may come to agree, better to put an end to the suffering. 所以当这个人自杀时And so when the person kills themselves,他们会支持这个决定they may second that choice.他们会说They may say,至少他不再忍受痛苦的折磨"At least they're not in pain and agony anymore."所以如果我们从结果的角度看So, if we look at it from the point of view of consequences-- 事实上有的道德观念认为in fact, suppose we had a moral view that said结果并不是衡量行为consequences aren't just one thing that was morally relevant 是否符合道德的唯一标准in thinking about what makes an action right or wrong.假设我们极端地认为Suppose we took the bold claim that结果是道德评判的唯一标准consequences are the only thing that's morally relevant.有一个道德观念便是如此There are moral views that take this position.我估计最著名的I suppose the best-known认为结果是道德评判的唯一标准example of this kind of consequence-only approach to morality 就是功利主义is utilitarianism.功利主义是一种道德学说Utilitarianism is the moral doctrine认为对与错that says right and wrong is取决于能否使a matter of producing所有人尽可能幸福as much happiness for everybody as possible,平等地计算每个人的幸福counting everybody's happiness equally.假如你无法获得幸福And when you can't produce happiness,那就至少应该将痛苦最小化then at least trying to minimize the misery and suffering,平等地计算每个人的痛苦counting everybody's misery and suffering equally.假设我们接受功利主义的立场So, suppose we accept this utilitarian position.我们可以对自杀的道德问题What conclusions would we come to得到怎样的结论then about the morality of suicide?我认为结论会是中立的I suppose the conclusion would be a kind of moderate one.一方面我们可以推翻极端的说法On the one hand, we'd be rejecting the extreme that says认为自杀绝对不符合道德suicide is never morally acceptable,因为要这样说because to say that,你就必须承认自杀总是you'd have to be claiming suicide always产生坏的结果has bad consequences overall.尽管这是经验之谈And that strikes me, although it's an empirical claim,但我不认可这种经验之谈it strikes me as a rather implausible empirical claim.因为很遗憾It's, sadly enough,很容易找出一个例子not too difficult to describe cases in which证明某人通过自杀the results may actually be better if the person kills themselves 以避免痛苦的折磨会更好rather than having their suffering continue.对其本人和家属都会更好It may be better for them and better for their family.另一方面也不应该On the other hand, we certainly wouldn't want--假如我们是功利主义者if we were utilitarians--我们也不应该走入另一个极端we also wouldn't want to go to the other extreme说自杀总是符合道德的and say suicide is always morally acceptable,因为要说自杀总是符合道德because, of course, to say that it's always morally acceptable就必须要说is to say that自杀的结果总是好的the consequences are never bad when you kill yourself.这点明显没有说服力And that's also pretty obviously an implausible thing to claim. 你们都很年轻很健康You guys are young, you're healthy,你们有光明的前途you've got a great future in front of you.如果你们自杀结果肯定是不好的If you were to kill yourself, the results wouldn't be good.自杀的结果肯定比The results would be worse overall不自杀的结果要坏than if you had refrained from killing yourself.因此功利主义的立场是中立的So, the utilitarian position is in the middle.它不认为自杀从来都是错的It doesn't say suicide's never acceptable,也不认为自杀从来都是对的doesn't say suicide is always acceptable.也许不出意料It says, perhaps unsurprisingly,它认为有些时候自杀是可接受的{\c这取决于现实情况it depends on the facts.取决于自杀的结果It depends on the results.取决于这个结果It depends on comparing the results of this action,和其它可能的结果的比较killing yourself, to the alternatives open to you.我们要问你真的生不如死吗We have to ask, is your life worse than nothing?有没有一些医疗手段Is there some medical procedure能够治愈你呢available to you that would cure you?如果有即使你现在过得生不如死If there is, and even if your life is worse than nothing,但就结果而言that still doesn't make it自杀仍然不是最好的选择the best choice in terms of the consequences.就结果而言医疗救治Getting medical help is a preferable choice是更好的选择in terms of the consequences.我们还可以想像We can even think of cases where假如你生不如死your life is worse than nothing,你死了会更好you'd be better off dead,而且任何医疗手段都无法治愈你and there is no medical alternative of a cure available to you, 但即便如此按照功利主义观点but for all that, it still isn't morally legitimate自杀仍然可能是不道德的to kill yourself in terms of the utilitarian outlook.因为一如既往Because, as always,我们还要考虑对他人造成的影响we have to think about the consequences for others.也许你的死亡对某些人And there may be others产生了非常不利的影响who'd be so adversely affected by your death其损害已经超过了that the harm to them outweighs你活着付出的代价the cost to you of keeping yourself alive.假设比如Suppose, for example,你的孩子们只有你一人抚养that you're the single parent of young children.在道德上你有义务抚养他们You've got a kind of moral obligation to look after them.如果你死了If you were to die,对他们来说会非常可怕they'd really have it horribly.毋庸置疑在这种情况下It's conceivable then, in cases like that,你自杀对孩子造成的痛苦the suffering of your children, were you to kill yourself,将超过你为孩子而活在世上would outweigh the suffering that you'd have to undergo所忍受的痛苦were you to keep yourself alive for the sake of your children. 因此这取决于实际情况So, it all depends on the facts.如果我们站在功利主义一边Still, if we accept the utilitarian position,我们会得到一个中立的结论we do end up with a moderate conclusion.在特定情况下自杀是符合道德的In certain circumstances suicide will be morally justified-- 大致说来就是在你死了会更好roughly speaking, in those cases where you're better off dead 并且对他人的影响不会过大的情况下and the effects on others aren't so great as to outweigh that. 那些就是典型的Those will be the paradigm cases in which从功利主义的角度来判断suicide makes sense or is legitimate,自杀是有意义的或者说是正当的例子morally speaking, from the utilitarian perspective.但当然这也不是说这时自杀But of course, that doesn't mean that suicide永远都符合道德is indeed ever morally legitimate.因为我们不一定必须Because we don't necessarily want接受功利主义的道德观to embrace the utilitarian theory of morality.大体上说当我们认为结果重要Utilitarianism is what you get, roughly speaking,而且只有结果重要时when we say consequences matter我们就得到了功利主义观点and they're all that matters.但大部分人倾向认为But most of us are inclined to think道德评判不应只关注结果that there's more to morality than consequences.大部分人倾向于认为Most of us are inclined to think that有些行为会导致坏的结果there are cases in which actions can have bad results--或者有些行为的结果是好的rather, actions can have good results and yet,但尽管如此仍然是不道德的for all that, be morally forbidden.或者说尽管有些行为结果是坏的Or actions could have bad results and yet,但仍然是道德的for all that, still be morally required.这并不是说结果对道德无关紧要{\c而是说结果it's to claim, rather, that consequences不是道德评判的唯一标准aren't the only thing that matters morally.结果可能因其它的道德标准而变得不重要Consequences can be outweighed by other morally relevant factors. 这是道德理论的一个分支Well, that's the position that's held义务论的观点by the branch of moral theory known as deontology.义务论者认为So deontologists say other除结果以外还有其它道德标准things matter morally besides consequences.要判断你的行为是否正确In deciding whether your action is right or wrong,你需要关注行为的结果you have to pay attention to the consequences,但还要关注一些别的事情but you have to pay attention to other things as well.什么事情呢不出所料What other things? Well, unsurprisingly,在这个领域不同的义务论者this is an area then in which different deontologists对这些其它的道德评判标准will disagree one to the next in terms of what else they want 抱有不同意见to add to the list of morally relevant factors.但有一个标准But there's one kind of additional factor是大部分义务论者that most of us in our deontological moods都同意的would want to add to the list,那就是无论如何我认为它and that's this--so one, at any rate, that's relevant I think, 和自杀话题直接相关most directly relevant for thinking about suicide.这个标准便是That factor is the factor不仅要关注行为的结果of not just what was the upshot of your action还要关注你如何达成这个结果{\c不仅是结果是什么not just what the results were,还有你达到这种结果的手段but what was your means of getting those results特别是and more particularly still,为了达到这个结果你是否必须伤害别人did you have to harm anybody to produce the results?大部分人认为伤害别人是不对的Most of us are inclined to think it's wrong to harm people,或者至少是无辜的人or at least innocent people.伤害无辜的人一定是错的It's wrong to harm innocent people即使这样做的结果是好的even if the results of doing that might be good.我特意强调无辜的人是因为Now, I threw in the qualification about innocent people because,我们大部分人倾向认为of course, it's also true that most of us are inclined to think that 自卫是正当的self-defense might be justified.伤害那些攻击你Harming people who are attacking you或者你的朋友or your friends或者你的同胞的人应该是正当的or your fellow countrymen--that may be legitimate.因此我们不是在说And so it's not as though we want to say伤害别人总是错的it's never legitimate to harm somebody.只要那些人有罪他们是侵略者{\c they're aggressors.在义务论中大部分人What most of us in our deontological moods都倾向认为are inclined to think is伤害无辜者总是不对的it's never legitimate to harm an innocent person.而且关键在于And the crucial point is即便这样做结果是好的that's true even if the results would be better.看一般情况下Look, there's no debate义务论者和功利主义者between deontologists and utilitarians about对不应伤害无辜者这点上没有争议harming innocent people in the normal case,因为正常情况下假设我because normally of course--you know, suppose I,举个例子用枪声结束这堂课to make an example--to end the class with a nice big bang,我拿着乌兹冲锋枪right--I brought my Uzi sub-machine gun.然后砰砰砰地杀了15个人I now take it and go rat-a-tat-tat, killing 15 of you.这不会是什么有好结果的事情Well, that would not be something that would have good results.很明显And so, clearly,功利主义者和义务论者the utilitarian is going都拒绝这种行为to reject that as well as the deontologist.他们看法一致They're in agreement about that.一般说来杀死无辜者的结果是坏的In the typical case, killing an innocent person has bad results,伤害他们是错误的毫无疑问harms them. It's wrong, full stop, we're done.但假如杀死无辜者But what should we say about cases会有好的结果又当如何where killing an innocent person has better results?现实中很难找到这样的例子In real life, it's hard to think of cases like that,但我们可以在but we can at least go"科幻实验室"里找到一个例子"Science-fictiony" And tell an example.这是个在伦理学中我最喜欢的例子So, here is one of my favorite examples in moral philosophy.假设有五个病人在医院快死了Suppose that we have five patients in a hospital who are going to die 都是因为各种器官损坏because of organ failures of one sort or another.一个人需要心脏移植One of them needs a heart transplant,另一个需要肾脏移植one of them needs a kidney transplant,还有人需要肝脏移植等等one of them needs a liver transplant, and so forth and so on.不幸的是由于排异问题Unfortunately, because of tissue incompatibilities,即使他们开始死亡even as they begin to die我们也无法用先死之人的器官we can't use the organs from the ones that have died来拯救剩下的人to save the others.与此同时约翰在医院进行例行体检Meanwhile, here in the hospital for a routine check-up is John.他非常健康John's perfectly healthy.在检查过程中你发现And as you're doing your exams on him you discover他的器官非常适合捐献给that he's exactly suitable to be an organ donor那五个病人for all five of the patients.你开始思考如果你能杀掉他And it occurs to you that if you were to find some way to kill him, 并且掩盖死因but cover up the cause of death让他看上去像死于突发疾病so it looked like he died of some unexpected freak seizure,你就能用他的器官去救那五个人you could then use his organs to save the five.这个人得到一个肾脏This one gets the kidney,另一个人得到另一个肾脏that one gets the other kidney,有人得到心脏that one gets the heart,有人得到肝脏有人得到肺that one gets the liver, and that one gets the lungs.所以你的选择大概是So your choice, roughly, is this.或者为约翰做完例行体检Just give John his routine medical exam,这样的话五个病人会死掉in which case the five other patients die,要么解剖了约翰or chop up John,杀死之后解剖了他kill him and chop him up,用他的器官救活五个病人using his organs to save the five patients.那么在这个器官移植的案例中Well, what should we say is the right thing to do我们怎么做是正确的the organ transplant case?就结果而言看起来In terms of consequences it looks as though,如果故事讲得没错if we tell the story right at least,杀死约翰似乎会更好the results would be better if we chop up John.毕竟是以一换五After all, it's one versus five.尽管约翰的死是很坏的结果And although the death of John is a horrible bad result,但五个人的死是更坏的结果the death of the five is a horrible bad result.因此杀死无辜的约翰And so the results would be better似乎会有更好的结果if we were to kill innocent John.好的假如有更多时间我们会讨论Well, if we had more time we could argue about结果是否真的会更好are the results really going to be better,这件事是不是真能发生或者什么is that a realistic story--what have you--是不是有些其它医学方面的问题are there other long-term effects on the healthcare profession 我们没有考虑周全that we haven't taken into account?但我们没时间考虑太多细节But we don't have time to really pursue this story in detail. 假设情况就是如此{\c杀死约翰结果会更好the results really would be better if we chopped up John.但这么做真的对吗Is that the right thing to do?也许功利主义者会说这么做没错Well, maybe utilitarianism says it's the right thing to do,但我们大多数人but it's precisely for that reason对此都会说that most of us would then say,还存在功利主义之外的道德原则you know, there's more to morality than what utilitarianism says. 那么这个反对理由是否成立Now, whether that objection is a good one是一个非常非常复杂的问题is a very, very complicated question,如果你想了解更多and if you want--if you'd like to pursue it--如果你想更深入地探讨它我建议你if you want to pursue it--then I invite you可以选择一门伦理学的导论课to take an introductory class in moral philosophy.就我们而言我们假设大部分同学For our purposes, let's just suppose that most of us都站在义务论一边are on board with the deontologists认为的确有超出功利主义之外的when they say there's more to morality道德标准than what the utilitarian has,这个例子就说明了这一点and this example brings it out.杀死无辜者是错的即使It's wrong to kill somebody who is innocent even though以一换五的结果是好的by hypothesis the results would be better--it's five to one.人有生存权有不被杀死的权利People have a right to life, a right not to be killed.在我们决定如何做符合道德时And that right weighs in when we're deciding要考虑这个权利what to do morally,所以杀死无辜者是错的so that it's wrong to kill an innocent person即使结果真的会更好even if the results really would be better.好吧假设我们同意这个观点All right, let's suppose we agree with that--accept that.其实在内容更丰富的伦理学课上Again, in a fuller class on moral philosophy我们还要问这个权利的基础是什么we'd have to ask ourselves what is the basis of that right,在义务论中人还有什么其它权利what other deontological rights do people have,这些权利的权重又是多少what exactly are the contours of that right?但现在我们只要问But here we can just ask,假设我们接受这种权利suppose we accept a right like that,它对自杀的道德问题有何影响what are the implications of that for the morality of suicide? 现在似乎我们只好说And now, it seems what we have to say is,自杀是错的suicide is wrong.自杀是不道德的Suicide is morally unacceptable.因为当我自杀时Because when I kill myself,我就杀了一个人well, I'm killing somebody.我刚才不是说根据义务论者的说法And didn't we just say as deontologists杀死一个无辜者that killing an innocent person--现在我就是无辜者and I'm an innocent person--杀死无辜者是不道德的killing an innocent person is morally wrong?那么我就是所以杀死我不道德Well, I'm a person. So, killing me is morally wrong.再回头说什么And it's not really any help to come back and say,看我们已经假设了but look, we've stipulated that this is a case他死了会更好也无济于事where the person is better off dead.如果他自杀总体来讲结果会更好The results will really be better overall if he kills himself. 好的这没错也许这是对的Yeah, that's right. Maybe that is right.但无关紧要因为义务论者认为It doesn't matter--because as deontologists we said生存的权利已经超越了所有结果the right to life is so powerful it outweighs consequences.就像说杀死约翰不对Just as it was wrong to chop up John,。
耶鲁大学开放课程—哲学：死亡.26.Open.Yale.course—Philosophy：Death.DivX-YYeTs人人影视
不同道德理论对此存在争议something that different moral theories disagree about.
但至少有一个要素或特征 是所有But there's at least one factor or one feature that all,
作用有多大in terms of giving us our moral theory,
我们难道不应认为 从结果来看don't we have to say in terms of consequences,
或者说考虑到结果or with regard to consequences,
自杀是不道德的suicide is immoral?
学习过这个问题what does the badness of death consist in.
平常情况下Typical cases are ones in which
死亡剥夺了人们the person's dying robs them of a chunk of life
本来会有的幸福生活that would've been good for them overall,
就会立即死亡would end up dead,"
一般情况下你一定会同意you would normally take that to be a pretty compelling argument
不能按开关against flipping the switch.
为什么呢 因为结果是坏的Why? Because the result would be bad.
耶鲁大学公开课《死亡》详细笔记
PHIL 176 Death Professor Shelly Kagan（第一课没什么实质内容，可以略过）教授在第一课列举了这门课将要讨论的一些问题：1．人能否幸免于死2．人是什么？“我”是什么？3．有没有来生？4．自杀一定是恶的吗？……然后他摆出了自己的观点：1．不存在灵魂2．永生并不是好事情3．对死亡的恐惧是很正常的4．自杀在特定情境下有可能是理性的，并且在道德上是正当的……他希望通过这门课：学生能够自己独立思考。
他不是要灌输给学生这些观点，而是要引导学生运用自己的理性，无论是支持还是反对这些观点，都要有合理的根据，给出论证。
第二课要回答“我能否幸免于死”“我死后我是否还存在”，就需要先回答：“我”是什么？或人是什么？什么叫“幸免于死”？什么叫“活着”？一个人过了一段时间仍然是这个人，这是怎么一回事？……反驳：有人认为这个问题是混淆概念造成的，根本毫无意义，因为1．如果“死亡”的意思是生命的结束的话，那么2．“是否来生”就相当于“生命结束之后是否还有生命”，这就好比“碗里的饭吃完后碗里还有饭吗”，那么3．“是否有来生”或“我能否幸免与死”的答案当然就是否定的（因为很明显这些提问自相矛盾），这能从问题里直接得到答案。
△回应：1．如果，“死亡”指的是身体的死亡（即一系列的生理过程）；那么，2．之前的问题将变成“我的身体死后我是否还存在”，这和“生命结束之后是否还有生命”不同，不能从提问中直接得到答案。
YYets3．所以，在这个意义上提问和回答“我能否幸免与死”是有意义的。
要回答“我能否幸免于死”（在上面的那个理解下），就需要先弄清楚：“我”是什么？“我”是什么东西组成的？或者人是什么？人由什么组成？一般来说，有两种主流观点：一、二元论(Dualism)◎1．人是由身体和心灵（灵魂）两部分组合而成严格说来，人的本质是灵魂，它与某具肉身密切联系着；“我”就是指我的灵魂，尽管与我的身体紧密联系着。
2．身体和心灵是完全不同的两种东西，身体是物质的，灵魂是非物质的（不是由原子、分子构成的）3．心灵指挥身体，“身体反作用于心灵”4．死亡就是指身体的死亡，灵魂离开肉体（?）二、物理主义(Physicalism)○1．人只有身体，尽管2．这个身体能够实现多种功能3．人就是一个物理对象，一个纯物质的存在4．谈论心灵，实际上就是谈论大脑（或大脑的功能），正如微笑就是特殊的肌肉运动5．死亡就是指身体丧失了正常功能第三课二元论与物理主义的分歧：是否存在灵魂？证明事物存在的方法：1．通过五感获得的经验证据来证明但是，灵魂是非物质的（如果二元论正确的话），我们无法通过感官来感觉到灵魂。
耶鲁大学开放课程—哲学：死亡.14.Open.Yale.course—Philosophy：Death.DivX-YYeTs人人影视 [字幕转换助手
But it's possible, i suggested,
我们其实不应关注这个问题
that we really shouldn't focus on the question,
即如何才能活下来
what does it take for me to survive?
而应该关注
保持人格完全一样
that my personality stay identical.
我不必保持完全一样的
It's not that I have to keep all
信仰 愿望 和记忆
exactly the very same beliefs, desires, and memories.
But rather,
"我在乎的是什么
"what is it that I care about?
什么活下来才有意义"
What is it that matters in survival?"
因为从逻辑上讲
Because it's possible, logically speaking,
要注意一点 回想一下
To see that, recall the fact that
根据人格同一性的人格理论
according to the personality view, as a theory of personality identity,
是同一个人的关键不在于
the crucial point isn't
而是带有相同的人格活下来
but having the same personality?
耶鲁大学开放课程—哲学：死亡.25.Open.Yale.course—Philosophy：Death.DivX-YYeTs人人影视
,但后来又好了but you recover.
,你重新过上有价值的生活You're going to return to a life that's worth having.
,你的生活从值得过下去where you go from a life worth living
,变成不值得过下去to a life not worth living
,并且一直持续下去and it stays there.
,但假如不是这样But suppose instead,
,情况是这样的we have a situation like this.
,不值得过下去的日子的唯一方法the later chunk not worth living,
,如果这段日子足够短at least if that chunk's small enough--
,假设是这样的suppose it was like this
,你会说 这么早自杀不合情理you'd say it doesn't make sense to kill yourself this early.
,代表你生活的起落沉浮about your life doing better or worse,
,每个都标注了and noted for each one of them,
,在哪个时间点 如果有的话at what point, if ever,
,自杀也许是合理的选择suicide might be a reasonable choice.
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《耶鲁大学开放课程—哲学：死亡》(Open Yale course—Philosophy：Death)
简介
课程类型：哲学
课程介绍：
这次讲课的教授是个大仙．他那么＂朴素＂，我是说他的坐姿那么朴素，因为人类自古就是那样坐的，盘腿坐．不过他是盘腿坐在讲台上，这就不是很朴素了，因为古代没有桌子，大家都坐在地上。
我大学的时候，美国老师屁股一扭坐在课桌或讲台上，我们这些有着“师道尊严”的中国人是很“友邦惊诧”的，但时间长了就习惯了。
英国人不这样，他们总那么严谨严肃，有点象中国人——但千万别真的以为英国人象中国人，与其说英国人与中国人象，不如说美国人与中国人更象一些：都很粗俗豪放，并且中国与美国越
来越象了。
这老师穿着鞋子直接盘腿坐在讲台上，还好他穿的球鞋很白很干净，不太碍眼。
他长得有点象撒达姆大叔，还满脸胡须，但他个子很小，所以他要坐在桌子上才能显眼一些，台下据说有150-180名学生，是个大教堂，要我个子那么小我也“坐”桌子上。
他常说，we are sitting here to ...，确实彼此都“坐着”，很平等。
相比古代的大师，比如柏拉图或佛都是如此随意开讲座谈生死的吧。
看着他那样手舞足蹈的乱说一气，我觉得很舒服。
这大叔一定是个很怪的人，这从一开课就看出来了。
不过不会特别怪，因为这里毕竟是耶鲁，我是说，假如他有精神病啊什么的偏差，心理学院的老师们肯定就早就派上用场了。
他一上来就说，别管我叫什么什么“教授”，我喜欢听你们叫我shelly。
从他的简历看，他应该是个伦理学专家，写过一些这方面的书籍。
今天香港著名艺人肥姐逝世，这就是活生生的死亡。
死亡对普通人意味着什么？死亡对哲学家又意味着什么？实际上讲死亡的哲学就是在讲哲学家们如何看待死亡。
当然不同的哲学家可以有不同的死亡哲学，哲学不是科学，随便说随便假设。
我还没有看文字稿子，大约听了一遍，中间漏了一部分，发现shelly多数时间在讲自己是个什么样的人，一直到结束。
还好，我只是来学英语的，否则不气死我了。
后来看稿子，发现中间有一段是介绍这门概论课的核心是什么，说，其中前半期会是行而上学性质的，后半期将涉及价值理论，当然都围绕死亡展开。
其
中他的一句话很有趣，大家都觉得死亡bad，那么，起码对于死者，他死了就不存在了，还有什么“好”“坏”呢？还有自杀，理性与道德之间怎么划分。
其他方面我们经常能想到的死亡话题，他一一否定，说我们都不谈，真的那些才是我真正关心的，看来我走错课堂了，不过为了学英语过一遍吧。
从这些课堂上看，美国人的课堂是非常开放的，思想的开放，没有老师有灌输的倾向，尽管老师不说，你也知道他们其实是在与你“交流”，帮助你思考，帮助你学会辩论的技巧，以及哲学地思考问题。
老师与学生是友好平等的，很平和，人显得“很正常”。
我知道这些耶鲁的老师很可能都是故意挑出来的，但是真的能够感受到一些明显与中国不太一样的东西，我喜欢耶鲁。
——选自苏三博客
课程主讲人：Professor Shelly Kagan
课程内容
1 课程介绍 Course introduction
2 人的本质： 二元论与物理主义 The nature of persons: dualism vs. physicalism
3 灵魂存在与否的论证 ( 一) Arguments for the existence of the soul, Part I
4 柏拉图对话录《斐多篇》介绍，灵魂存在与否的论证 (二) Introduction to Plato's Phaedo; Arguments
for the existence of the soul, Part II
5 灵魂存在与否的论证 (三) ：自由意志与濒死体验 Arguments for the existence of the soul, Part III: Free will and near-death experiences*
6 灵魂存在与否的论证 (四) ：柏拉图，第一部分 Arguments for the existence of the soul, Part IV; Plato, Part I
7 柏拉图 (二) ：灵魂永恒与否的论证 Plato, Part II: Arguments for the immortality of the soul
8 柏拉图 (三) ：灵魂永恒与否的论证（续） Plato, Part III: Arguments for the immortality of the soul (cont.)7
9 柏拉图 (四) ：灵魂永恒与否的论证（续） Plato, Part IV: Arguments for the immortality of the soul (cont.)
10 Personal identity, Part I: Identity across space and time and the soul theory1
11 Personal identity, Part II: The body theory and the personality theory
12 Personal identity, Part III: Objections to the personality theory
13 Personal identity, Part IV; What matters?
14 What matters (cont.); The nature of death, Part I
15 The nature of death (cont.); Believing you will die
16 Dying alone; The badness of death, Part I
17 The badness of death, Part II: The deprivation account
18 The badness of death, Part III; Immortality, Part I
19 Immortality Part II; The value of life, Part I
20 The value of life, Part II; Other bad aspects of death, Part I
21 Other bad aspects of death, Part II
22 Fear of death
23 How to live given the certainty of death
24 Suicide, Part I: The rationality of suicide
25 Suicide, Part II: Deciding under uncertainty
26 Suicide, Part III: The morality of suicide and course conclusion
学校介绍：
耶鲁大学（Yale University）,旧译“耶劳大书院”，是一所坐落于美国康乃狄格州纽黑文市的私立大学，始创于1701年，初名“大学学院”（Collegiate School）。
耶鲁大学是美国历史上建立的第三所大学，今为常青藤联盟的成员之一。
在 2007英国泰晤士专上教育增刊（Times Higher Education Supplement）的世界大学排名，耶鲁大学在总平均排名与剑桥、牛津大学并列世界第二。
美国普林斯顿评论（Princeton Review）在2006把耶鲁大学在全美最难进的大学里排第二。
开放课程介绍：
越来越多的美国著名学府将课程的视频或者材料放在网上，这种开放性课程也受到了大家的欢迎。
最近耶鲁大学在周二也推出了自己的开放性课程，全部是比较受欢迎的本科课程，主要包括教学大纲，题目汇总以及其他的课程相关材料，同时课程的音频和视频文件也包括在内。
毫无疑问，这一举动极大地方便了全球其他地方的学生能够接触到美国高等学府的课程，大家可以到Open Yale Courses的 站点查看。
值得提到的一点是，所有的课程材料都采用了Creative Commons的Attribution-Noncommercial-Share Alike 3.0协议。
因此所有的使用者都可以下载，分享这些材料，甚至对所有的课程材料进行演绎，只要不是用于商业用途，并且署名为Yale。
友情奉献
世界顶级大学开放课程的博客/。