《现代英语词汇学概论》----解析(张韵斐)

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影响英语词汇发展的重要因素

影响英语词汇发展的重要因素

影响英语词汇发展的重要因素2019-07-08摘要作为世界上应⽤范围最为⼴泛的语⾔,英语的词汇发展过程受到许多因素的影响。

本⽂从环境、历史、宗教、价值观和风俗习惯等⼏个⽅⾯分析了它们对英语词汇的发展所起的重要作⽤,并⽤举例的⽅式列出了相关的英语词汇的引⼊、变迁和发展过程,以了解词汇的发展规律,掌握词汇发展⽅向。

关键词词汇发展环境历史宗教价值观风俗习惯中图分类号:H319.3 ⽂献标识码:A DOI:10.16400/ki.kjdkz.2015.02.066Important Factors Affecting the Development of English VocabularyHUANG Xianping(Yingkou Vocational and Technical College, Yingkou, Liaoning 115000)Abstract As the world's most extensive range of applications of the language, the English vocabulary development process is affected by many factors. In this paper, several aspects of the environment, history, religion, values and customs,such as analysis of the important role they played in the development of English vocabulary and are listed by way of example related to the introduction of English vocabulary, the process of change and development in order to understand the development of the law of vocabulary, master the vocabulary development.Key words vocabulary development; environment; history; religion; value; customs0 引⾔据统计,当今世界以英语为母语的国家有英国、美国、爱尔兰、加拿⼤、澳⼤利亚、新西兰、南⾮和加勒⽐海诸国。

Lecture1《英语词汇学》第一章教案

Lecture1《英语词汇学》第一章教案

Lecture1《英语词汇学》第一章教案Self IntroductionName: ZHENG JiaqinProfessional tile: Associate ProfessorAcademic degree: Bachelor?s degreeCellular phone: 135********E-mail:jiaqinzheng1966@/doc/9510006114.html, Ways of MarkingClassroom attendance20%Assignments 20%Final test60%Text Book:《现代英语词汇学概论》张韵斐主编,北京师范大学出版社,2004-10出版◆R eference books:1. 《现代英语词汇学》-新版(陆国强, 2002, 上海:上海外语教育出版社)2.《英语词汇学教程》(汪榕培,卢晓娟,1997,上海: 上海外语教育出版社)Leture 1讲授题目:1. A Brief Introduction to the Course---English Lexicology2. The Development ofEnglish Vocabulary所属章节:《现代英语词汇学概论》第1章计划学时:2 periods教学方法:传统讲授法参考资料:《英语词汇学教程》、《英语词汇学》教学目的和要求:通过本单元的学习,学生对英语词汇学的研究对象、性质、特点以及英语语言的发展进程等基本知识有了一定的了解。

IntroductionWhat is linguistics?Generally speaking, linguistics can be defined as the scientificstudy of language. To be more exact, linguistics studies the general principles upon which all human languages areconstructed and operate as systems of human communication.LEXICOLOGY1.The term lexicology contains two Greek morphemes: “lexikon”and “logie”; the former means “word or phrase”, while the latter “learning or the study of”.2. The literal meaning is the “science of the word”.3. It is the study of the signification/meaning and application/uses of words.4. Lexicology is a branch of linguistics inquiring into the origins and meanings of words ( WNWD-Webster?s New World Dictionary of the American Language ).THE FIVE SUB-BRANCHES OF LEXICOLOGY 1.Semantics: the study of the meanings of words and other parts of language.2.Etymology: studies the meanings, origin and history of individual words and their development.3. Historical lexicology: studies from a historical point of viewthe development of vocabulary4. Phraseology(成语学): mainly deals with set expressionsand idioms.5. Lexicography: studies the writing and making ofdictionaries.English lexicologyEnglish lexicology deals with English words, their origin, meaning, morphological structures, semantic structures, sense relations , idioms, historical development, formation and usages.The Nature of English LexicologyEnglish lexicology is a theoretically-oriented course. It is chiefly concerned with the basic theories of words in general and of English words in particular. However, it is a practical course as well, for in the discussion, we shall inevitably deal with copious stocks of words and idioms, and many usages examples. Naturally, there will be a large quantity of practice involved.THE AIMS OF THIS COURSEOffer an insight into the origin and development of the Englishvocabulary.Give a systematic description of the English vocabulary.Discuss the problems of word-structure and word-formation Study the use of English words , their meanings and changes in meaning, their sense relations.THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE COURSEDevelop your personal vocabulary and consciously increase your wordpower (active vocabulary).Understand word-meaning and organize, classify and store words moreeffectively.Raise your awareness of meaning and usages, use words more accurately and appropriately.Develop your skills and habits of analyzing and generalizinglinguisticphenomena in your learning experiences.Ultimately improve your receptive and productive skills in languageprocessing as well as language production.TWO APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF ENGLISHLEXICOLOGYA synchronic approach is an approach to the study of a language at one period of time,A diachronic approach is an approach to the study of the change in a language that took place over a period of time.There are two approaches to the study of words, namely synchronic and diachronic. From a synchronic point of view, words can be studied at a point in time, disregarding whatever changes might be taking place. For example the word …wife? now means ……a married woman, esp. in relation to her husband??. This is the current meaning.It has an obsolete meaning …woman?, which is only preserved in midwife, housewife, Bathwife, etc. However if we take a diachronic perspective, we will consider the word historically, looking into its origin and changes in form and meaning. In this light, the word …wife? evolved from the old English … wif ?, meaning … woman?, but later it became specialized in the course of development to the modern meaning …a married woman?.TWO APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF ENGLISHLEXICOLOGYModern linguistics is mainly synchronic, focusing on the present-day language (English words), but we need the diachronic approach as a supplement, for a knowledge ofhistorical development of the vocabulary will definitely be of great help to us in our language study.Questions and Tasks1. What is lexicology?2. What is the nature and scope of English lexicology?3. Why should a student of English study English lexicology?。

初中英语教学论文 扎实基础,全面提高—谈如何提高初中学生的英语成绩 (2)

初中英语教学论文 扎实基础,全面提高—谈如何提高初中学生的英语成绩 (2)

扎实基础,全面提高——谈如何提高初中学生的英语成绩 内容摘要:本文根据多年在教学一线的工作经验,从词汇积累、语法知识、阅读指导、优化非智力因素等方面进行分析,强调了初中英语教学基础学习的重要性,论证了如何解决学生学习上的问题和思想上的问题,在如何提高初中学生英语成绩方面提出了一些建议,强调只有扎实巩固基础,才能全面提高英语成绩。

关键字:初中英语教学;词汇教学;阅读指导;非智力因素多年来,我一直从事初中毕业班英语教学,我校虽是一所农村中学,但是在每年初中升高中的考试中,英语平均分均居前三名,下面谈谈我是如何进行英语教学的。

一、加强基础知识的学习,培养学生学英语的兴趣(一)重视词语的积累在英语学习中,词汇是构成语言的基本要素。

词汇是英语学习的基础,它就象建高楼大厦用的砖块一样,有了相当数量的砖,才能建起相应规模的楼。

学英语也是如此,没有足够的词汇就不能有效地进行听、说、读、写,词汇教学的成败决定了外语教学的成败。

所以要抓词汇教学重点,注意词汇教学方法多样化,多方面实施相应的词汇教学策略,从而提高词汇教学的有效性。

在提高英语词汇教学方面,我是从以下几方面实施的:1.培养学生学习英语的兴趣,让学生由“厌学”转变为“乐学”(1)用实物、图片、手势等直观法引入词汇兴趣是促进学生主动学习的重要因素,是学习的动力和教学取得成功的前提和保证,而直观教具的使用恰恰能激起学生学习的动机。

直观教学能起到“催化剂”的作用。

在词汇教学中,教师利用实物、图片、幻灯片等一系列辅助教具及手势、动作表情引入新单词,不仅能吸引学生的注意力,还能使他们积极参与,使他们获得成功的满足感,提高学习兴趣。

此外,通过此方法,可以使学生把实物,动作直接和英语联系起来,培养学生用英语思维的习惯。

(2)通过谜语教学词汇猜谜语也是激发学生学习兴趣的一种好方法,有了兴趣,再积极参与,从而听、说、读、写等方面的能力得到提高,最终把单词牢牢记住。

有些单词采用谜语形式来猜测,会达到事半功倍的效果,而且久而久之便也提高了学生的理解力。

英语词汇学对英语词汇学习的启示

英语词汇学对英语词汇学习的启示

万方数据英语词汇学对英语词汇学习的启示作者:孔令然作者单位:哈尔滨师范大学刊名:职业技术英文刊名:ZHIYE JISHU年,卷(期):2011(1)1.张韵斐现代英语词汇学概论 20042.索绪尔;高名凯普通语言学教程 19933.Howard Jackson;Etienne ze.words Meaning and Vocabulary An Introduction to Modern English Lexicology 20001.郭志艳.GuoZhiyan公选课英语词汇学元认知学习策略研究[期刊论文]-吉林工商学院学报2010,26(5)2.王连柱.WANG Lian-zhu词汇学视角下的大学英语词汇教学[期刊论文]-河南职业技术师范学院学报(职业教育版)2009(4)3.汪榕培《英语词汇学》--国外英语词汇学著作述评之二[期刊论文]-外语与外语教学2001(6)4.ZHOU Fang The Different Indication of the Same Words in Different Contents between Different Cultures[期刊论文]-科技致富向导2011(4)5.刘旭亮把英语词汇学知识引入大学英语公外教学初探[期刊论文]-海外英语(中旬刊)2010(1)6.唐年青从隐喻的和词汇学的视角探讨“V-ed”的多义性[学位论文]20057.孙振亮运用词汇学理论指导英语教学[期刊论文]-和田师范专科学校学报2009(4)8.朱伟伟.Zhu Weiwei英语词汇学在高职高专英语词汇教学中的运用[期刊论文]-空中英语教室(新教师教学)2010(9)9.汪榕培《词,意义和词汇:现代英语词汇学引论》--国外英语词汇学著作述评之一[期刊论文]-外语与外语教学2001(5)本文链接:/Periodical_zyjs201101012.aspx。

词汇学名词解释(张韵斐主编版)

词汇学名词解释(张韵斐主编版)

词汇学名词解释(张韵斐主编版)名词解释1,word:fundamental units of speech and hacing a mininum, free form.it is a unity of sound and meaning,capable of performing a given syntactical function.2,morpheme:the minimal meaningful unit of the english language,possesses both sound and meaning.the morpheme is not divisible or analyzable into smaller forms.An allomorph(词素变体)is any of the various form of a morpheme.3,freemorpheme:is one that can stand by itself as a complete utterance.4,bound morpheme:cannot exist on its own,mit must appear with at least one other morpheme.5,roots and affixes:a root is the basic unchangeable part of a word,and it conveys the main lexical meaning of the word.Affix is a collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme.6,inflectional affixes and derivational affixes:An inflectional affix serves to express such meanings as plurality,tense,and the comparative or superlative degree.it does not form a new word with new lexical meaning when it is added to another word. inflectional affixes have only thier particular grammatical meaning.derivational affixes are subdivided into prefixes and suffixes,which are used to related to the formation of new words.7,free root and bound root:Free root can stand alone as woeds and provide the language with a basis for the formation of new words.Bound root cannot appear as woeds in modern English, although they were once words,nor can they be used to form new words.8,hybrid:a hybrid is a word made up of elements from two or more different language.9,compounding/composition:it is a word-formation process consisting of joining two or more bases to form a new unit,a conpound word.10,word-formation rule:the rules of word-formation define the scope and methods whereby speakers of a language may create new words.11,initialisms and acronyms:Initialism is a type of shortening,using the first letters of wors to form a proper name,a technical term , or a phrase. Acronyms are words formed from the initial letters of the name of an organization or a scietific term.12,polysemy:it means a single word having several or many meanings.13,homonyms:homonyms are words different in meaning,but identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in spelling or sound.14,syonyms:words which nearly the same denotative meaning are syonyms,and the relationship between them is one of synonymy.15,antonymy:words that are opposite are antonyms.16,huponymy:it is the relationship which obtains between specific and general lexical item. 17,blending:it is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by combining the meanings and sounds of two words , one of which is not in its full form or both of which are notin their full forms.18,back-formation: it is a term used to refer to a type of word-formation by which a shorter word is coined by the deletion of a supposed affix from a longer form already present in the language.19,reduplication:it is a minor type of word-formation by a compound word which is created by the repetition of one word like go-go.20,grammatical meaning and lexical meaning:Grammatical meaning is indispensable in determining the position a word occupies in a sentence.it consists of word-class and inflectional paradigmlexical meaning is that aspect of sense proper to the word as a lexical item.21,semantic field theory:it is concerned with the vocabulary of a language as a system of interrrelated lexical networks. 22,linguistic context:three main types of linguistic context are the lexical,grammatical and vorbal context in its broad sense. 23,extra-linguistic context/context of situation:(1)the actual speech situation in which a word(or an utterance,or a speech event)occurs.(2)The entire cultural back ground agaicst ehich a word ,or an utterance or a speech eventhas to be set.24,clipping:deletion of one or more syllables from a word (usually a noun),which is also available in its full form.词语辨析1 Plains /pleinz/ a large strentch of flat landPlanes /pleinz/ aeroplane2 row / r?u/ a neat line (of people or things) side by sideRow /rau/ uproar,noisy distuibance3 sound / saund/ n. PronounceSound / saund/ adj. Healthy4 waist /weist/ the narrow part of the human body between the ripes and the hips.Waste /weist/ a useless or profitless spending.Compound words(1) 1 someone who writes songs. Songwriter2 someone who cleans windows. Window-cleaner3 the race for arms. Arms race4 the train in the morning. Morning train5 gold mine6 sunbathing7 dirt cheap8 sun-tanned(2)1 a drop of rain ; the bed for flowers2 impermeable to air ; as green as sew3 a remark that is meant well ; a person that behaves well4 houses ruined by war5 one who designs computer ; one who baths in the sun6 steam powers or operates engine ; an engine prevents fire7 the worm produces silk ; ;the gas produces light8 one who writes by hand ; one who finds fault9 a ship that goes across oceans ; people who love peace10 one who teaches language ; one who sits with the babaies11 boys bred in country1 knee-deep2 lifelike3 snow-white4 nation-wide5 shoulder-high6 pitch-dark/black7 carefree 8 soundproof 9 fireproof 10 lifelong填空Reject 拒绝;退回,摈弃n.不合格产品Refuse 拒绝做某事Decline 谢绝帮助Rapid 瞬间的Fast 快速的Range/fury 狂怒Indignation 义愤近义词反义词Fair-dark empty-full faint-loud low-high gloomy-bright sad-joyful/cheerful dark-bright rough-soft/gentle decline-accept/rise peculiar-common/average light-dark/heavy fresh-stale/faded thin-fat/thick wild-domestic/garden dull-interesting/clever deep-shallow/surface seldom-often hard-easy/soft over-under scarce-plentiful backward-forward总分关系。

《现代英语词汇学》(新版)复习

《现代英语词汇学》(新版)复习

英语词汇学复习的内容:.一、考试题形式分为:Ⅰ.选择题(20分):完全是考书中的理论与例子的结合,即知识点等。

1-9cahptersⅡ.填空(30分):考定义概念。

1-10chaptersⅢ.(20分)习语英译汉:教材中汉语部分idioms: 习语的特点Ⅳ.(10分) 论述题:第三章为主Ⅴ. 树形图(依据上下义关系作图)(20分):第二、六章二、教材内容简介陆国强编著:《现代英语词汇学》(新版),上海外语教育出版社,2003年7月第一章词的概述;第二章词的结构和词的构成方式;第三章词的理据;第四章词的语义特征;第五章词义的变化;第六章词的语义分类;第七章词的联想与搭配;第八章英语习语;第九章美国英语;第十章词的使用和理解;第十一章词汇衔接;第十二章词汇衔接和语篇连贯。

教学内容是: 词形结构构词法, 词法特点及分类, 词义转换, 英文习语, 美式英语, 词汇及文学风格, 英语词汇学, 词汇学研究方法及其新的发展方向等方面的理论与研究动态。

《现代英语词汇学教材》以现代语言理论为指导,以英语词汇为研究对象。

主要内容有单词的结构、构词法、单词的意义及词义关系、英语词汇的构成、词义的历史演变、成语及词典知识。

本课程可以使学生比较系统地掌握英语词汇的知识,比较深入地了解英语词汇的现状及历史演变过程,并能对现代英语词汇发展的趋势和所出现的现象作出分析和解释,提高运用英语的能力。

本课程特别强调和重视研究生广泛阅读英语词汇学、语言学、语义学、词源学方面的书籍,以教师精讲、学生宽学为目的。

本课程的教学目的, 在于指导学生用现代语义学和语法学的有关理论分析研究现代英语词汇现象, 揭示现代英语词汇规律。

要求学生通过英汉词汇的对比研究, 探讨英语词汇教学规律, 指导英语语言实践, 不断提高对现代英语词汇的理解, 应用和研究能力。

主要参考书汪榕培,《英语词汇学研究》,上海外语教育出版社,2000年4月第一版王文斌,《英语词汇语义学》,浙江教育出版社,2001年6月第一版汪榕培、卢晓娟编著:《英语词汇学教程》,上海外语教育出版社,1997年10月第1版.汪榕培主编:《英语词汇学高级教程》,上海外语教育出版社,2002年11月张韵斐:《英语词汇学》北京师范大学出版社.汪榕培《英语词汇学教程读本》上海外语教育出版社.1. Carter, R. (1987), V ocabulary: Applied Linguistic Perspectives. London: Allen & Unwin.2. Carter, R. & M. McCarthy, (1988), V ocabluary and Language Teaching. Harlow; Longman.教学手段:采用多媒体教学本课程要求学生能够比较全面、比较系统地了解现代英语词汇学这一领域的一些最主要、最有影响的语言学理论,能够运用词汇学理论去分析和解决词汇学习中的一些问题。

英语论文参考题目(同名27217)

英语论文参考题目(同名27217)

论文写作参考题目翻译研究方向选题1.The Great Translator Yan Fu (伟大的翻译家严复)2.Gu Hongming: A Pioneer of Translating the Chinese Classics into English (汉英翻译的先驱——辜鸿铭)3.On the Principles of Equivalence in Literary Translation (论文学翻译中的等值原则)4. A Brief Comment on E. A. Nida’s Concept of Translation (浅谈奈达的翻译观)5.Cultural Gaps and Untranslatability (文化差异与不可译性)6.Translating and the Background Information (翻译与背景知识)7. A Preliminary Study of Explanatory Translating (解释性翻译初探)8.Translating the English Articles into Chinese (英语冠词汉译)9.Translating the English Plural Nouns into Chinese (英语复数名词汉译)10.Translating the Lengthy English Sentences into Chinese (英语长句汉译)11.On Translating English Book Titles into Chinese (谈英语书名汉译)12.A Brief Comment on the Several Chinese Versions of Jane Eyre (简评《简●爱》的几种汉译本)13.Views on the Chinese Version of Jude the Obscure: An Outstanding Example of ArtisticRecreation (艺术再创造的范例——《无名的裘德》汉译本)14.Views on the Chinese Version of Emma(关于汉译本《爱玛》的几点看法)15.Translating the Style of Literary Works ——A Preliminary Study of Wu Ningkun’s Versionof The Great Gatsby (文学作品的风格翻译——巫宁坤译《了不起的盖茨比》初探) 16.A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Versions of The Merchant of Venice (《威尼斯商人两种汉译本比较》)17.A Reading of Fang Zhong’s Translation of The Canterbury Tales (读方重译《坎特伯雷故事集》)18.On the English Versions of Some of Du Fu’s Poems (评杜甫诗歌英译)19.Translating the Titles of Chinese Classic Poetry (中国古典诗歌标题英译)mon Errors in Translation: An Analysis (常见翻译错误分析)21.English Idioms and The Translation (英语习语的翻译)22.How to Deal with Ellipsis in Translating (翻译中如何处理省略用法)23.The Importance of Comprehension in Translating (理解对于翻译的重要性)24.The Importance of Knowledge in Translating (知识对于翻译的重要性)翻译研究参考书目选录陈富康《中国译学理论史稿》,上海外语教育出版社,1997。

英语词汇学chapter1

英语词汇学chapter1

The Old English (449-1100)


The vocabulary of Old English was chiefly AngloSaxon with a small mixture of Old Norse words as a result of the Scandinavian or the Danish conquests of England in the ninth century, such as, cake, call, egg, knife, take, give, etc. The English continued to adopt words from Latin during the Old English period due to the Angles and Saxons’ various contacts with the Romans, such as, candle, kettle, mountain, school, cup, etc.
The Middle English (1100-1500)
The Middle English (1100-1500)
The Norman Conquest: William, the Conqueror, the Duke of Normandy, invaded and conquered England and the AngloSaxons in 1066 AD.
Influences
Celts (the earliest inhabitants) 450 790 1066 The conquest and settlement of the Angles, Saxons, and the Jutes the Scandinavian or the Danish conquests The Norman Conquest
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张韵斐著《现代英语词汇学概论》——解析第一部分Chapter Ⅰ英语词汇的概论(A general survey of English vocabulary)Bloomfield 1933 中对词的定义是,每个单词都是最小的自由词。

然而这个定义不够全面,存在着缺陷。

首先,不是所有的单词都可以独立出现,如the ,a ,my 这些单词单独出现则没有具体意义。

另外,Bloomfield的定义侧重在于语法(syntax)却没有涉及到词的意义。

随着词汇学的发展跟完善,人们给词下了较为完整的定义。

“词,今指语言组织中的基础单位,能独立运用,具有声音、意义和语法功能。

”(《辞海》1984(上)375页,上海辞书出版社)一种语言中所有的单词汇集起来便构成了该语言的词库。

纵观英语的发展历史,我们可以知道,大多数的英语词汇都是外来词,它从拉丁语,法语和希腊语等语言中汲取词汇,不断的扩充自己,为己所用。

特别是第二次世界大战之后,英语词汇得到了空前的发展。

现代英语词汇快速发展的原因主要有四方面。

一是科学技术的快速发展,二是社会经济的全球化,三是英语国家的政治和文化变化,最后是其他文化和语言对英语的强烈影响。

英语词汇是由各种不同类型的单词组成,而这些单词有着不同的分类标准。

根据词的起源可以分为本族语和外来语;根据使用水平可以分为普通词汇,文学词汇。

口头词汇,俚语以及科学术语。

基础语库的基本特征是具有民族特征,稳定性,构词的能力和搭配能力。

第二部分Chapter Ⅱ到Chapter Ⅳ英语词汇的形态结构和词的构词(Morphological structure of English words and word-formation )(一)词素(Morphemes)单词是有词素(morphemes)构成的。

词素即英语语言中有意义的最小单位,同时具有声音和意义。

单词可以有一个或一个以上的词素组成。

如:nation 是一个词素,national有nation+al 两个词素。

词素跟音素(phoneme)不同,词素必须同时具备声音和意义两方面,而音素只需要发出声音即可。

如k 和u 只是音素,因为它们没有什么具体含义。

而a 和i 分别存在于单词tame 和time 中是音素,但当a是定冠词和i表示第一人称时它们则是词素。

词素并不等同于音节(syllable ),因为音节并没有什么具体含义。

如单词dis·a·gree·a·ble有五个音节却只有三个语素(dis + agree + able )。

词素有不同的形式,同一语素的不同形式即语素变体。

词素可以分为自由词素(free morphemes)和黏着词素(bound morphemes)。

自由词素可以单独成为单词,而黏着词素则必须要依附于其他的词素,如-ly , -ness。

词素又可以分为词根和词缀。

词根是单词中表示含义的成分,可以是自由或者黏着词素。

词缀只能是黏着词素,它又可以分为屈折词缀(inflectional affixes)和派生词缀(derivational affixes )。

屈折词缀跟语法有关,派生词缀又可以分为前缀跟后缀,这都是构成新单词的重要元素。

从词素的层面来说,词可以分类为简单词,复杂词以及合成词。

词素在词的构成中取到非常重要的作用,因为构词的二大过程----合成和附加都涉及到了词素,前者是词素的联合,后者是黏着词素附加到自由词素上。

(二)词的构成(word-formation)有很多种途径可以构成词汇,大的方面主要有合成法(compounding),派生法(derivation)和转换法(conversion)三种,小的方面主要有八个过程,分别是首字母法(acronym),混合法(blending),截短法(clipping),专有名词(word from proper names),逆构法(back-formation),复制法(reduplication),新古典法(neo-classical famation)以及混杂法(miscellaneous)。

词根、词干和词基是语言学上一个词删去所有的词缀后剩下的那部分。

词根是一个词主要意义的承载部分,是不可以再分的;词干是能添加屈折词汇的词素,即一个词被除去屈折词缀所剩下的部分;词基是所有能添加屈折词缀的词素。

例如:Nationalities词根nation词基:nation 是national的词基national 是nationlity的词基词干:nationality由二个或者二个以上的词基组成的词叫做合成词。

在现代的英语词汇中,许多词都是合成词。

在英语中没有一个正式的标准可以用来给合成词下个通用定义。

一般来说,语言学家用三个标准去规范合成法。

一是正字标准法(orthographic criterion )可以是词与词之间不留空,这种较为常用,如airtight 和airmail ,也可以是用连字符连接起来,如air-conditioning ,也可以中间留空,如air force。

然而有些时候是很难用标准去判断用什么形式,因为有些相同组合的单词是可以用以上三种不同的形式存在,如airline ,air-line 和air line 都是表示航线的意思。

第二是音学标准(phonological criterion),根据重音的位置从短语中识别合成词。

第三是语义标准。

纵观许多合成词,我们可以发现很多词的意思跟构成该词的词基有关。

如workday就是 a day for work 。

但是,并不是所有的合成词总是该词每部分词基意义的总和。

例如,dog days 是指每一年最热的日子,而不是指“狗日子”。

合成词又可以分为名词合成词,形容词合成词和动词合成词。

由于合成词具有简短却能很生动的说明问题,故合成词汇广泛的在生活中出现被使用。

派生法也是英语的主要构成法。

它通过在词基上增加前缀或者后缀从而构建新词。

前缀以否定前缀(negative prefixes)un-, in-, im-, il-, ir-, non-, dis-, mis-, mal-等为主,使延伸出来的派生词变成反义词。

可以分为名词派生词Balance→imbalance;形容词派生词Accurate→inaccurate;动词派生词Agree→disagree;除了否定前缀之外,其他常用的前缀还有anti-, auto-, bi-, co-, counter-, de-, ex-, inter-, mono-, post, pre-, pro-, re-, sub-, super-, trans-, tri-, ultra-等。

加上前缀后的词,虽然意思改变,但词性保持不变。

(en-除外,象able 形容词,enable动词;courage 名词,encourage动词)相反的,加上后缀的词,不但词义有些改变,词性也完全不同。

这样一来,动词或形容词加上适当的后缀之后,可以得到名词派生词,如:amaze→amazement;kind→kindness.同样的,名词或动词加上适当的后缀,便可以得到形容词派生词,如:commerce→commercial;depend→dependent. 最后,名词或形容词加上动词性的后缀,可以得到动词派生词,加上副词性后缀(仅限-ly),则得到副词派生词,如:fright(名词)→frighten(动词);modern(形容词)→ modernize(动词);beauty(名词)→beautify (动词);year(名词)→yearly(副词);quick(形容词)→quickly(副词)。

转化法是由一个词类转化为另一词类,例如water(名)水-- water(动)浇水。

有大量动词可以转化为名词,有时意思没有太大变化,这类名词常可和一动词构成短语,表示一个动作,如:have a look ,make a study 等等。

有时意思也有一定的变化,如:He was about the same build as his brother. 他的体形和他哥哥差不多。

其中build本是动词“建筑”,在这里是作为名词“体形”的意思。

也有相当多名词可以用作动词,许多表示物件的名词可以用作动词来表示动作:Have you booked your ticket? 你的票订好了吗?Who chaired the meeting? 谁主持会议?形容词可以转化为及物动词和不及物动词。

形容词转化为名词,分为部分转化和完全转化。

第三部分ChapterⅤ到ChapterⅨ词义及其语义关系(Word meaning and sense relations)(一)词义和语义特征无论是在语音上还是拼写上,一个单词的象征跟它的意思的关系在任何的语言中几乎都是任意的常规的。

只有少数的单词的象征跟其含义有直接的联系,这样的词是有理据。

从理据的观点来看,大多数的英语单词都是不理据。

理据主要分为三方面,语音理据(phonetic motivation)、词法理据(morphological motivation)和语义理据(semantic motivation)。

语音理据的单词也叫做拟声词(echoic words or onomatopoeic words)。

很多的合成词的含义是根据语义的,但并不是所有的合成词都是如此。

例如单词Indian summer的意思就不是它表面的含义,而是“小阳春”的意思。

单词的含义是由各种内在联系和互相依存的部分组成,其中最主要的两种词义类型分别是语法意义(grammatical meaning)和词汇意义(lexical meaning)。

其中语法意义由词类(word-class)和屈折范例(inflectional paradigm)组成,决定着一个单词在句子中所处的位置;词汇意义又分为外延意义(denotative meaning or conceptual meaning)、内涵意义(connotation meaning)和社会或文体意义(social or stylistic meaning)以及情感意义(affective meaning)。

单词含义的分析通常被视为是一个把单词的含义分解为它的最小的成分,也就是单词的语义特征或者是含义成分。

如:man:﹝+human+adult+male﹞。

语义成分分析有利也有弊。

主要的优点是使人对单词的含义产生确切的认识,缺点是人们不可能列举出无限多的语义特征。

(二)一词多义和同音异义(polysemy and homonymy)一词多义是指一个单词具有多种含义,辐射式和串联式这两种重要的单词发展过程导致了一词多义现象的出现。

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