Natural deduction in connectionist systems. Synthese
专八人文知识--语言学
第一章概述一、什么是语言？1.Definition of language （语言的定义）Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.（语言是人类用来交流的一套具有任意性的声音符号系统。
）2.Design/distinctive feature of language（语言的定义/本质特征）1)2)3)4)（移位性指语言可以让使用者谈论不在说话之时、说话之地存在的物体、事件和观点）例如：我们在中国可以谈论美国的物体和事件。
5)Cultural transmission（文化传播/文化传递性）Language is passed on from generation to generation through teaching and learning rather than instinct.（文化传播指语言是靠文化传播的，而不是靠父母遗传。
虽然人类的语言能力是天生的，但是语言系统的细节不是靠遗传传递，而是靠学习掌握的。
）二、什么是语言学？Linguistics is a scientific study of language.（语言学是对语言的科学研究）语言学的研究对象不是某特定的语种，而是人类所有的语言，在考察分析大量语言现象的基础上总结语言规律。
语言学家想要回答的基本问题是：什么是语言？语言的机制是什么？人们是如何使用语言实现各种目的的。
三、语言学的重要概念1.descriptive vs. prescriptive（描述性与规定性）描述性研究是现代语言学家采取的基本立场，注重观察分析语言中的事实，目的通常是描述人们一般是怎么说话、写作的。
规定性研究注意总结语言中的标准，目的通常是规定人们应该如何说话、写作。
例如：规定只能用单数、复数2.synchronic vs. diachronic（共时性与历时性）synchronic: the study of a language through the course of its history（共时研究以某个特定时期的语言为研究对象）例如：莎士比亚时代语言研究diachronic: takes a fixed instant as its point of observation（历时研究则研究语言各个阶段的发展变化，研究语言的历史发展规律）ngue vs. parole（语言与言语）该区分是现代语言学鼻祖Saussure提出的。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》测试题及答案
胡壮麟《语言学教程》(修订版)测试题第一章:语言学导论I. Choose the best answer。
(20％)1. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human __________.A. contact B。
communicationC. relation D。
community2。
Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary？A。
tree B. typewriterC。
crash D。
bang3。
The function of the sentence “Water boils at 100 degrees Centigrade.” is __________.A. interrogativeB. directiveC. informativeD. performative4。
In Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say“碎碎（岁岁）平安”as a means of controlling the forces which they believes feel might affect their lives. Which functions does it perform？A。
Interpersonal B. EmotiveC. Performative D。
Recreational5。
Which of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place，due to this feature of language, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situation?A。
自然语言简介
Part II （Inui）
• 11/08: Features and unification • 11/15: Representation of meaning
• 11/22: Computational semantics
• 11/29: Computational lexical semantics • 12/06: (no class)
Applied Physics Research Building No.3 （電気系3号館）
• Contact: • inui@ecei.tohoku.ac.jp @inuikentaro • okazaki@ecei.ecei.tohoku.ac.jp @chokkanorg
2011-10-04 Information Communication Theory (情報伝達学)
8
Lexical semantics (語彙意味論)
How much Chinese silk was exported to Western Europe by the end of the 18th century?
Meaning of words
N
W
E
S
2011-10-04
Information Communication Theory (情報伝達学)
Atom (Astro boy)
7
2011-10-04
What are needs to be done for understanding languages as humans do?
Part I: Knowledge (disciplines)
2011-10-04
Information Communication Theory (情報伝達学)
语言学作业 第一章
语言学作业班级：姓名：Chapter 1 Invitations to LinguisticsI. Please illustrate the following terms.1. Arbitrariness:The forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.The different levels of arbitrariness:(1) Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning, even with onomatopoeic words(2) Arbitrariness at the syntactic level: language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.(3) The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention. 2. DualityThe property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.3. Phatic communionPhatic communion refers to the social interaction of language.4. Synchronic linguistics:A synchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present) as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.II. Please distinguish the following terms:1. Langue vs. ParoleLangue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, that is, the lexicon, grammar, and phonology implanted in each individual, and it is the linguist’s proper object;Parole refers to the realization of langue, the immediately accessible data. While parole constitutes the immediately accessible data, and it is a mass of confused facts, so it is not suitable for systematic investigation..(1) Langue is abstract, while parole is specific to the situation in which it occurs.(2) Langue is not actually spoken by anyone, while parole is always a naturally occurring event.(3) Langue is relatively stable, systematic and social, while parole is subject to personal, individual and situational constraints.(4) Langue is essential while parole is accessory and accidental.2. Descriptive vs. PrescriptiveThe distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are.Traditional grammar was very strongly normative in character.The grammarians tried to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all. That is prescriptive.These attitudes are still with us, though people realize nowadays the facts of usage count more than the authority-made “standards”. The nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription.3. Synchronic vs. DiachronicSynchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present) as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.Actually synchrony is a fiction since any language is changing as the minutes pass.Diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history.4. Competence vs. PerformanceAccording to Chomsky:A language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called his linguistic competence.Performance refers to the actual use of language or the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances in concrete situations.A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors, so a speaker’s performance does not always or equal his supposed competence.He believes that linguists ought to study competence rather than performance. 5. Langue vs. CompetenceAccording to Chomsky:Langue is a social product, a systematic inventory of rules of the language, a set of conventions for a speech community.Competence is defined from the psychological point of view, is deemed as a property of the mind of each individuals, or underlying competence as a system of generative processes.According to Hymes:He approaches language from a socio-cultural viewpoint with the aim of studying the varieties of ways of speaking on the part of individual and the community.He extended notion of competence, restricted by Chomsky to a knowledge of grammar, to incorporate the pragmatic ability for language use. This extended idea of competence can be called communicative competence.III. Answer the following questions in brief:1. The following are some book titles of linguistics. Can you judge the synchronic ordiachronic orientation just from the titles1) English Examined: Two Centuries of Comment on the Mother Tongue2) Protean Shape: A Study in Eighteenth-century Vocabulary and Usage3) Pejorative Sense Development in English4) The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation5) Language in the Inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular1) diachronic 2）synchronic 3）diachronic 4）synchronic5）We can’t judge whether it is synchronic or diachronic orientation just from the titles.2. What is language What is linguisticsLanguage can be defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication and interaction.Linguistics is the scientific study of human language. The aims of linguistic theory: 1) what is knowledge of language (Competence) 2) how is knowledge of language acquired (Acquisition) 3) how is knowledge of language put to use (Performance/language processing). Main branches of linguistics:Phonetics, Phonology Morphology, Syntax, Semantics, Pragmatics.3. How do you understand performative function of languageThe performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons or the situations of events, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.The kind of language employed in performative verbal acts is usually quite formal and even ritualized.The performative function can extend to the control of reality as on some magical or religious occasions.For example, in Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say sui sui ping an as a means of controlling the invisible forces which the believers feel might affect their lives adversely.IV. Discuss the following question in detail.How do you interpret the viewpoint that “arbitrariness is a matter of degree”1)Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning, even with onomatopoeic words:The dog barks bow wow in English but “汪汪汪” in Chinese.2) Arbitrariness at the syntactic level: language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.He came in and sat down.He sat down and came in.He sat down after he came in.3) The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention.Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative.Conventionality of language makes learning a languagelaborious.Chapter 2 Speech Sounds I. Complete the following statements.1. Human language enable their users to symbolize objects, events and conceptswhich are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.This quality is labeled as __________.2. The sound [p] can be described with “voiced, __________, stop.”3. The different members of a phoneme, sounds which are phonetically differentbut do not make one word different from another in meaning,, are_________.4. Both semantics and ________ investigate linguistic meaning, but they focus ondifferent aspects.5. If certain linguistics tries to lay down rules for the correct use of language andsettle the disputes over usage once and for all, it is ___________ linguistics.6. Phones that fall into allophones of a phoneme have to satisfy two conditions,one is they are ___________________, and another is that they should be in _____________________.7. The vowel ________ is high front tense unrounded.8. A dog cannot tell people that its master will be home in a few days, because itslanguage does not have the feature of ___________.9. Computational linguistics often refers to the problems of ________________,information retrieval, and ______________.10. Halliday proposed a theory of metafunctions of language, that is, language has___________, ____________ and _____________ functions.II. Define the following terms.1. Manner of articulation:2. Distinctive features:3. Intonation:4. Assimilation:III. Answer the following questions briefly.1. Specify the difference between each pair of sounds using distinctive features.1) [l] [ł ] 2) [p h] [p] 3) [b] [d] 4) [k] [g] 5) [I] [u]2. Work out the features of the following sounds.1) [t h] ________________________________________2) [w] ________________________________________3) [v] ________________________________________4) [ð] _________________________________________5) [l] __________________________________________3. In some dialects of English the following words have different vowels, as shownby the phonetic transcription. Based on these data, answer the questions that follow.A B. Cbite [bʌit]bide [ba i d]tie [ta i] rice [rʌis]rise [ra i z]by [ba i] type [tʌip]bribe [b r aib] sigh [s a i] wife [wʌif]wives [wa i vz]die [d a i]tyke [tʌik]time [ta i m]why [wa i]1) What is the difference of the sounds that end the words in columns A and B2) How do the words in column C differ from those in column A and B3) Are [ʌi] and [a i] in complementary distribution Give your reasons.4) What are the phonetic transcriptions of (a) life and (b) lives5) What would the phonetic transcriptions of the following words be in thedialects of English shown in the data(a) trial (b) bike (c) lice(d) fly (e) mine6) State the rule that will relate the phonemic representations to be phonetictranscriptions of the words given above.IV. Discuss the questions in details.1. Illustrate phoneme, phone and allophone.2. To what extent is phonology related ot phonetics and how do they differ。
Speech Synthesis
April 14, 2009
Some Reminders
• Final Exam is next Monday: • In this room • (I am looking into changing the start time to 9 am.) • I have a review sheet for you (to hand out at the end of class).
Perception → Production
• Japanese listeners performed an /r/ - /l/ discrimination task. • Important: listeners were told nothing about how to produce the /r/ - /l/ contrast • …but, through perception training, their productions got better anyway.
Exemplar Categorization
1. Stored memories of speech experiences are known as traces. • Each trace is linked to a category label.
2. Incoming speech tokens are known as probes. 3. A probe activates the traces it is similar to. • • Note: amount of activation is proportional to similarity between trace and probe. Traces that closely match a probe are activated a lot; • Traces that have no similarity to a probe are not activated much at all.
Introduction Language
Introduction: Language1. What’s your understanding of language?◎Activity perspectives:(1) a neural activity(2) a muscular activity(3) a social activity◎Metaphorical perspectives:(1)A Process of Free Creation"Language is a process of free creation; its laws and principles are fixed, but the manner in which the principles of generation are used is free and infinitely varied. Even the interpretation and use of words involves a process of free creation." (Noam Chomsky)(2)A Finite System"Any language is necessarily a finite system applied with different degrees of creativity to an infinite variety of situations, and most of the words and phrases we use are 'prefabricated' in the sense that we don’t coin new ones every time we speak." (David Lodge, "Where It’s At," The State of the Language, 1980)(3)A Sheet of Paper"Language can also be compared with a sheet of paper: thought is the front and the sound the back; one cannot cut the front without cutting the back at the same time; likewise in language, one can neither divide sound from thought nor thought from sound."(Ferdinand de Saussure, Course in General Linguistics, 1916)(4)An Object Between Sound and Thought"The language is an intermediate object between sound and thought: it consists in uniting both while simultaneously decomposing them."(Roland Barthes, Elements of Semiology, 1964)(5)The Mother of Thought"Language is the mother of thought, not its handmaiden."(Karl Kraus, Dicta and Contradicta)(6)The Shaper of Thought"Language shapes the way we think, and determines what we can think about." (Benjamin Lee Whorf, Language, Thought, and Reality, 1964)Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.2. What are the well-known theories about the origin of language?the biblical story of the creation of language3 theories:(1) The bow-wow theory : In primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment and speech developed from that.(2) The pooh-pooh theory: In the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pain, anger and joy.(3) The “yo-he-ho”theory : As primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language.3.What are the design features of human language?(1)ArbitrarinessThe forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. And there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.This feature makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expression .Language is not entirely arbitrary —onomatopoeic words; compound words (2)Creativity / ProductivityIt means that every language contains an infinite number of sentences, which, however, are generated by a small set of rules and a finite set of words.Meanwhile the length of a sentence has no limit. Eg: He bought a book which was written by a teacher who taught in a school which was known for its graduates who…. As a linguistic term, creativity has nothing to do with imagination and originality. It simply refers to the fact that all normal speakers-imaginative or not-can produce and understand new sentences which they have never heard before.(3)DualityBy duality is meant the property of having two levels of structures. Each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. And units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level.E.g. Birds sing.At one level, it can be divided into three meaning units: bird, -s, and sing.At another level, can be analyzed into a sequence of sounds:/ b, …,d,z,s,i, …, /. The former is grammatically-meaningful level and the latter is sound-meaningless level.The advantage of duality lies in that every language has an infinite potentiality of creating new words with a limited set of distinct sounds .(4)DisplacementDisplacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present.Displacement benefits human beings by giving them the power to handle abstractions or making it possible for them to talk and think in abstract terms.(5)Cultural transmissionThe details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.4.What functions does language have?InformativeInterpersonalPerformativeEmotive/ExpressivePhatic communionRecreationalMetalingualIntroduction: Linguistics1. What is linguistics?Linguistics is a branch of social science.It is defined as the science of language, or the scientific study of language.◎general linguisticsWhen dealing with language, it aims at developing a theory that describes the rule of human language in general.◎descriptive linguisticsWhen studying one particular language, it attempts to establish a model that describes the rule of this particular language.2. What are the main branches of linguistics?Phonetics phonology morphology syntax semantics pragmatics3.Please describe the scope of research for each branch of linguistics. Microlinguistics(1)Phonetics (language in general)how the speech sounds are articulated, transmitted and received(2)Phonology (language in particular)how the speech sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication(3)Morphologyhow morphemes are arranged and combined to form words(4)Syntaxhow words are combined to form grammatical sentences(5)Semantics (static)meaning of language units: words, phrases &sentences(6)Pragmatics (dynamic)meaning of language in use4.What are the interdisciplinary studies of language?Interdisciplinary linguistics(Macrolinguistics)1.Psycholinguistics2.2. Sociolinguistics3. Applied linguistics4.Stylistic linguistics5. Anthropological linguistics6. Computational linguistics7. Neurolinguistics5.What is the difference between synchronic linguistics and diachroniclinguistics?Synchronic and diachronic ( Ferdinand de Saussure )Synchronic: a“state”of language at a particular point of timeDiachronic: a language through the course of its history6.What distinguishes prescriptive studies of language from descriptive studies of language?Descriptive and prescriptiveDescriptive: how things arePrescriptive: how things ought to be7.What is the difference between langue and parole?Langue and parole ( Saussure: Father of linguistics )Langue: the linguistic competence of the speaker ; the abstract system of a language Parole: the actual phenomena of language; the concrete act of speaking in a definite time, place & situation8.What is the difference between competence and performance?Competence and performance ( Chomsky )Competence: A language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules Performance: the actual use of language in concrete situationsFill in the blanks.(1) Language, broadly speaking, is a means of ____human_____ communication.(2) Language has many functions. We can use language to talk about itself. This function is ____metalingual___.(3) The theory that language arose from human beings instinctive need for contact with his companion has been called the pooh-pooh theory.(4) Modern linguistics is __descriptive_____ in the sense that the linguist tries to discover what language is rather than lay down some rules for people to observe. (5) One general principle of linguistic analysis is the primacy of __speech______ over writing.(6) The description of a language as it changes through time is a __diachronic______ study.(7) Saussure put forward two important concepts. _competence__ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.(8) In any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can be combined into innumerable sentences based on limited rules. This feature is usually termed ____Productivity/creativity_____.Decide whether the following sentences are T or F._T__ (1) Duality is one of the characteristics of human language. It refers to the fact that language has two levels of structures: the system of sounds and the system of meanings.__F_ (2) Prescriptive linguistics is more popular than descriptive linguistics, because it can tell us how to speak correct language._T__ (3) Competence and performance refer respectively to a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules and the actual use of language in concrete situations.__F_(4) Language is a means of verbal communication. Therefore, the communication way used by the deaf-mute is not language._T__(5) Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative, and conventionality of language makes a language be passed from generation to generation. As a foreign language learner, the latter is more important for us._T__(6) By diachronic study we mean to study the changes and development of language._ T (7) Language is relatively stable and systematic while parole is subject to personal and situational constraints.__F (8) Language change is universal, ongoing and arbitrary.__T (9) In language classrooms nowadays the grammar taught to students is basically descriptive, and more attention is paid to the developing learners’ communicative skills._F_ (10) Language is a system of arbitrary, written signs which permit all the people in a given culture, or other people who have learned the system of that culture, to communicate or interact._F_ (11) Saussure’s exposition of synchronic analysis led to the school of historical linguistics._T_ (12) Applied linguistics is the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning.Second Language Acquisition1.Theories of language acquisition(1)a behaviorist viewThis view was proposed by B.F. Skinners and prevalent before the 1960s. It views language as behavior and believe that language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit formation. According to this view, imitation and practice are preliminary and discrimination and generalization are key to language development. This view offers a reasonable account of of how children acquire some of the regular and routine aspects of the language, yet it fails to explain how they acquire more complex grammatical structures of the language and how they come to know more about the structure of their language than they could reasonably be expected to learn from the language samples they hear.Language is not merely verbal behavior. Underlying the actual behavior there is a complex system of rules. What children learn then is the abstract knowledge of rules (competence). However, this is not what they are exposed to: they are exposed only to people’s speech (performance). This process of extracting abstract knowledge fromconcrete examples cannot be explained by habit-formation.Also, the rules are not always reflected directly in the actual surface structure of the speech. For example, the surface structure of John is easy to please looks identical to that of John is eager to please, yet their deep structure is completely different. The information about deep relationships could not be acquired simply by observing and imitating verbal behavior.Finally, although children are exposed to different actual speech, they arrive at the same underlying rules as other children in their community. This shows that the child’s language is not simply being shaped by external forces: it is being creatively constructed by the child as he interacts with those around him.(2)an innatist viewSince the language children are exposed to may not contain examples of all the information which they eventually know, Noam Chomsky proposes an innatist view which holds that human beings are biologically programmed for language and that the language develops in the child just as other biological functions such as walking. That is to say children are born with an innate capacity for acquiring language.Originally this innate ability was referred to as Language Acquisiton Device (LAD ) which exists somewhere in the brain and contains principles that are universal to all human languages. Children need access to the samples of natural language to activate LAD, which enables them to discover the structure of the natural language by matching the innate knowledge of basic grammatical system to that particular language. Later this innate endowment was renamed as Universal Grammar (UG ). Pre-equipped with universal grammar what children have to learn is the ways in which their own language makes use of these principles and the variations on those principles which may exist in the particular language they are learning. So when exposed to confusing information or when guidance or correction is not available, children, born with UG, can discover for themselves the underlying rules of the language system. This approach emphasizes on children’s internal processing of language items to be learnt.(3)an interactionist viewIntegrated with the innatist view, this view holds that language develops as a result of the complex interplay between the human characteristics of the child and the environment in which the child develops. It stresses the importance of comprehensible language samples. Only when conversations provide the right level of language that children are capable of processing can they facilitate children’s language acquisition, otherwise, it is not sufficient for children to learn the language. That is to say, the modified language, eg. “motherese”or “caretaker talk”or child directed speech (CDS), which is suitable for the child’s capability is crucial in his language acquisition.2.Which theory do you think is more convincing and reasonable? Why?(3)an interactionist viewFactors in language acqisition:cognitive factors: environment ; agecognitive factors:Cognitive factors relate to language acquisition in two ways. On one hand, language development depends on the concepts children form about the world. According to Piaget, a Swiss psychologist, and his associates, language acquisition takes place in the context of a child’s intellectual development rather than as a separate growing process. To Piaget, conceptualization precedes verbalization. On the other hand, cognitive factors determine how children make sense of the linguistic system. As well as conceptual development leading to language development, it is likely that the influence also works in the other direction.environment :The behaviorist approach: language environment plays a major role in providing both language models to be imitated and the necessary feedbacks among which the positive reward encourages children’s efforts and facilitates the correct learning of te language while the negative feedback discourages children to repeat the mistakes.The innatist approach: the environment functions as a stimulus that triggers and activates the pre-equipped UG to process the materials provided by the environment. The interactionist view: the environment plays a major role in providing modified language samples to the level of children’s comprehension.Age:Eric Lenneberg, a biologist, argued that the LAD, like other biological functions, works successfully only when it is stimulated at the right time—a specific and limited time period for language acquisition—which is referred to as the Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH).There are two version of the CPH:The strong version: Children must acquire their first language by puberty or they will never be able to learn from subsequent exposure.The weak version: Language learning will be more difficult and incomplete after puberty.3.the Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH).a specific and limited time period for language acquisition—which is referred to as the Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH).There are two version of the CPH:The strong version: Children must acquire their first language by puberty or they will never be able to learn from subsequent exposure.The weak version: Language learning will be more difficult and incomplete after puberty.4.Contrastive AnalysisIn behaviorism, the use of L1 in L2 performance is a natural strategy we use when we struggle with a language we’re unfamiliar with. It’s merely a manifestation of a general psychological process- that of relying on prior knowledge to facilitate the new effort. When first language habits are helpful to acquiring second language habits, this is positive transfer. And when the firstt language habit hinder the learner in learning the new one, it’s a case of negative transfer, interference. In this way, differencesbetween the two languages lead to interference, which is the cause o learning difficulties and errors. Contrastive Analysis came into fashion in 1960s.4 steps of CA：describing L1 and L2selecting a linguistic featuremaking L1-L2 comparison on this featureusing the result to predict or explain errors in learners’L2 performanceThe strong version held that we could use CA to predict errors by identifying the differences between L1 and L2; learners err where L2 differs from L1. The weak form held that we could use CA to diagnose or explain the reasons for errors by identifying them as a result of interference. No matter in which form, CA holds that the differences between the two languages can explain all the learner errors. To put it into an equation, we have difference → difficulty → error.Not all errors are caused by difference between L1 and L2.5.InterlanguageIt’s a unique linguistic system in that it is neither L1 nor L2 but at the same time bears resemblances to both.The concept of interlanguage offers a general account of how L2 acquisition takes place. Here’s a computational model of L2 acquisition.input →intake →L2 knowledge →output intake: parts of the input which are attended to and taken into short-term memoryL2 knowledge: parts of the intake which are e stored in long-term memory The learner is exposed to input, which is processed in two stages. First, learners take in some of the input and store parts of them in long term memory as L2 knowledge. The processes responsible for creating intake and L2 knowledge occur within the “black box” of the learner’s mind where the learner’s interlanguage is constructed. Finally, L2 knowledge is used by the learner to produce spoken and written output, interlanguage.There are 3 characteristics of interlanguage - systymaticity, universality and fossilization. Fossilization means many learners stop developing while still short of target-language competence.6.Error analysisInterlanguage Hypothesis brings about Error analysis, checking up interlanguage in terms of target language, comparing learners version of the target language and the target language itself.Errors are systematic, universal and predictable.Errors can have different sources, which include omission, overgeneralization and transfer ( of L1 and teaching ) as well as strategies of L2 learning and communication. Errors are either interlingual (transfer) or intralingual (developmental).prehensible Input HypothesisMentalism and interactionism bring about Krashen’s Comprehensible Input Hypothesis.。
选择
25. _________ does not study meaning in isolation, but in context.A. PragmaticsB. SemanticsC. Sense relationD. Concept26. The meaning of language was considered as something _______ in traditional semantics.A. contextualB. behaviouristicC. intrinsicD. logical27. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning _________ is considered.A. referenceB. speech actC. practical usageD. context28. A sentence is a _________ concept, and the meaning of a sentence is often studied in isolation.A. pragmaticB. grammaticalC. mentalD. conceptual29. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes a(n) _________.A. constativeB. directiveC. utteranceD. expressive30. Which of the following is true ?A. Utterances usually do not take the form of sentences.B. Some utterances cannot be restored to complete sentences.C. No utterances can take the form of sentences.D. All utterances can be restored to complete sentences.31. Speech act theory did not come into being until __________.A. in the late 50’s of the 20the centuryB. in the early 1950’sC. in the late 1960’sD. in the early 21st century.32. __________ is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.A. A locutionary actB. An illocutionary actC. A perlocutionary actD. A performative act33. According to Searle, the illocutionary point of the representative is ______.A. to get the hearer to do somethingB. to commit the speaker to something’s being the caseC. to commit the speaker to some future course of actionD. to express the feelings or attitude towards an existing state of affairs.34. All the acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose, but they differ __________.A. in their illocutionary actsB. in their intentions expressedC. in their strength or forceD. in their effect brought about35. __________ is advanced by Paul GriceA. Cooperative PrincipleB. Politeness PrincipleC. The General Principle of Universal GrammarD. Adjacency Principle36. When any of the maxims under the cooperative principle is flouted, _______ might arise.A. impolitenessB. contradictionsC. mutual understandingD. conversational implicaturesIV. Define the terms below:1. Both semantics and pragmatics study how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication2. Pragmatics treats the meaning of language as something intrinsic and inherent.3. It would be impossible to give an adequate description of meaning if the context of language use was left unconsidered.4. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning thecontext of use is considered.5. The major difference between a sentence and an utterance is that a sentence is not uttered while an utterance is.6. The meaning of a sentence is abstract, but context-dependent.7. The meaning of an utterance is decontexualized, therefore stable.8. Utterances always take the form of complete sentences9. Speech act theory was originated with the British philosopher John Searle.10. Speech act theory started in the late 50’s of the 20th century.11. Austin made the distinction between a constative and a performative.Perlocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention.l.F2.F 3.T 4.T 5.F 6.F 7.F 8.F 9.F 1 0.T 11.T 12.F25. A 26.C 27.D 28.B 29.C 30.BA 32.C 33.B 34.C 35. A 36.DLinguistics语言学：is the scientific study of languageScientific: it scientifically studies the rules,systems and principles of human language.How can a linguist make his analysis scientific?It should be guided by the four principles of science: exhaustiveness, consistency, economy and objectivity and follow the scientific procedure: form hypothesis –collect data –check against the observable facts –come to a conclusion.Design features of language 语言学的7个区别性设计特征：refers to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any animal communication. Arbitrariness任意性: refers to the fact that there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a particular sound and the meaning it is associated with.Duality二重性：The property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.Productivity/creativity多产性: refers to man’s linguistic ability which enables him to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences in our native language, including the sentences which were never heard before.Interchangeability/reciprocity互换性、交互性：refers to the fact that man can both produce and receive messages, and his roles as a speaker and a hearer can be changed at ease.displacement移位性：a property of language enabling people to talk about things remote either in space or in time.specialization专门性: refers to the fact that man does not have a total physical involvement in the act of communication. Speech is a specialized ability. We use it in a detached manner.Cultural transmission文化传承性:language is culturally transmitted. It can not be transmitted through heredity.Functions of language功能6种加例子：Phatic/communion寒暄功能（建立说话气氛和社会联系）how do u do,ah,here u are.Directive指令功能（让人干某事）: get the hearer to do something. Close your book and listen to me carefully.Informative信息功能: 发出信息give information about facts. Road closed.Interrogative疑问功能: get information from others.whats your idea?Expressive表达功能: express feelings and attitudes of the speaker. My god! Good heavens. Evocative: 情感功能create certain feelings in the hearer (amuse, startle, advertise,soothe, worry or please)Performative施为功能: language is used to do things, to perform actions. I declare the meeting is open. Descriptive（描述性陈述，是什么）vs. prescriptive规定性需求，应该怎么做grammars描写性和规定性语法:Synchronic 共时/历时diachronic linguistics：study language at one particular time/study language developments through time.Langue 语言/言语parole：Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.抽象、相对稳定，社会传统的conventional/Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.具体、因人而异，临时的Language：a systerm of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Consonants:a speech sound produced by partial or complete closure of part of the vocal tract,thus obstructing the airflow and creating audible friction听得见的摩擦.Vowel: a sound produced without significant constriction 约束of the air flowing through the oral cavity 口腔Elision省音：the loss of a sound or sounds in speechassimilation同化sounds belonging to one word or syllable can cause changes in sounds belonging to neighboring sounds or syllable.phonemes音位：the abstract element of a sound; identified as being distinctive in a particular language. distinctive features/phonemic features音位特征:a feature distinguishes one phoneme from another Intonation：When pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence rather than to the word, they are collectively known as intonation.What are the differences between voiced sounds and voiceless sounds in terms of articulation?When the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiceless; consonants [p, s, t] are produced in this way. But when the vocal cords are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeatedly pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration effect. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiced声带振动，闭，有空隙. [b, z, d] are voiced consonants.Morphology形态学: the study of the structure of words.Morphemes语素：the minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function.（free/bound 自由粘着）Inflectional morphemes屈折：the morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense, number, case and so onDerivational morphemes派生：the morphemes which are added to the stem to create a word. They may change the meaning or grammatical class of words.Backformation 逆向构词法refers to the creation of a new word by removing an affix from an old word, e. g. donate from donation or by removing what is mistakenly considered an affix, e. g. edit from editor. Clipping 截短构词法refer to the process by which parts of a word have been cut off.Blending混成is the way a single new word is formed by combining two separate forms.Syntax句法学：the term used to refer to the structure of sentences and to the study of sentence structure.Transformational-generative grammar转换生成语法Systemic Functional Grammar系统功能语法3大元功能metafunctions：the ideational概念the interpersonal人际the textual function语篇(2) a. It’s yesterday that they said she would go.b. She would go yesterday as they said.(3) a. The governor is a street fighter who is dirty.b. The governor is a fighter in a dirty street.(4) a. The design has squares and circles, both of which are big.b. The design has big squares, and it also has some circles. (The sizes of thecircles are not mentioned.)Meaning as naming意义即命名，命名论referential theory指称理论。
mnemonics讲解
• 只要记住比较的是“游览原因”和“感 受”，以中国或美国的信息为基点，就能 回忆起另一方的情形。
• 还可以根据线索词汇来记。特别是当信息 间逻辑关系不很明确的情况下。
• In other words, Korea certainly has a right to be proud of the technological developments that have propelled this nation to the front ranks of digital data transmission. // It should also be proud of the content industries that can potentially be propelled by digital technology. // For example, Korea is now one of the top filmmaking nations of the world, producing recognized blockbusters and regularly bringing home awards from international film festivals.// In the field of music, Korean top pop and rock music artists have gained popularity in china, Japan and throughout Southeast Asia.
•
decent /`d1snt/ adj.正派的；端庄的
•
③ break the ice 打破沉默
•
④ warm up 热身
•
心理学专业英语词汇（N1）
心理学专业英语词汇(N1)n 舌咽神经n 符节说n 脑的三个基本机能联合区n factor n 因素n factor 数字运算因素n of group) 群体多层观察系统n ⅰ嗅神经n ⅱ视神经n ⅲ动眼神经n ⅳ滑车神经n ⅴ三叉神经n ⅵ外展神经n ⅶ面神经n ⅷ听神经n ⅹ迷走神经n ? 副神经n ? 舌下神经nafta 北美自由贸易协定nagel chart test 纳格尔图片测验nagel s test 纳格尔色盲测验nail biting 咬指甲癖naive 朴素的naive anthropomorphism 素朴拟人论naive anthropomorphism 幼稚拟人论naive materialism 素朴唯物论naive positivism 素朴实证主义naive psychology 通俗心理学nalliplex character 无显特性nalorphine 丙烯去甲吗啡named scribble stage 涂绘命名期naming 命名naming stage 命名期nancy school 南锡学派nanism 侏儒症nano 毫微nanometer 毫微米nanosecond 毫微秒nanosomia 侏儒症nanosomus 侏儒nanounit 毫微单位nanous 矮小的napkin ring figure 餐巾环形图napkin ring figure 多义图形narcism 恋己癖narcismus 自体观窥欲narcissism 自爱欲narcissism of small difference 对微小差异的自恋narcissist 自恋者narcissistic alliance 自恋联结narcissistic equilibrium 自我均衡narcissistic libido 自恋欲力narcissistic neurosis 自恋神经症narcissistic personality 自恋人格narcissistic personality disorder 自是型人格障碍narcoanalysis 麻醉分析narcohepnia 乍醒麻木narcohypnosis 麻醉药催眠narcointerview 麻醉面谈narcolepsy 发作性睡眠症narcoma 麻醉性昏睡narcomania 麻醉药癖narcose 麻醉状态的narcosis 麻醉narcostimulant 麻醉兴奋性的narcosynthesis 麻醉综合法narcotherapy 麻醉疗法narcotic 麻醉的narcotic antagonist 抗麻醉剂narcotic phase 麻醉相narcotico irritant 麻醉剌激性的narcotics 麻醉剂narcotics abuse 麻醉剂滥用narcotism 麻醉状态narcotization 麻醉法narcotize 使麻醉narcous 麻醉状态的narco analysis method of interrogation 麻醉分析讯问法narrow band syndromes 窄义综合症narrow categorizing style 细密型narrowing movement 退缩运动narrow band syndrome scales 窄义综合症量表narrow external attention 狭窄外部注意狭窄外部注意narrow internal attention 狭窄内部注意狭窄内部注意nasal cavity 鼻腔nasal retina 鼻半侧视网膜nasality 鼻音性nascence 发生nascent 初生的nascent 发展初期的nastic 感性的nastic movement 感性运动nasty 感性natality 出生率natality statistics 出生率统计national assessment of educational progress 美国家教育进步评测national association for the study of epilepsy 美全国癫痫研究协会national character 国民性national committee for mental health 美全国心理卫生委员会national committee for mental hygiene 美全国精神卫生协会national conditions 民情national consciousness 民族意识national council of measurement in education 美全国教育测验协会美全国教育测验协会national culture 民族文化national ethics 国家伦理national form 民族形式national identity 国民同一性national institute of mental health 美国家心理卫生研究所national institute of neurological diseases and blindness 美全国神经病和盲症学会national intelligence test 国民智力测验国民智力测验national language 国语national norm 全国常模national prejudice 民族偏见national society for crippled children 美全国残疾儿童协会national society for the prevention of cruelty to children 美全国防止虐待儿童协会national spirit 民族精神national standard 国家标准national stereotype 国民刻板印象national survey 国家调查national traits 民族性nationalism 民族主义nationality 国籍nationality 民族性nationwide sampling survey 全国性抽样调查native 先天的native behavior 先天性行为native endowment 先天禀赋native equipment 天资native language 本族语native power 天赋聪明native reaction 先天反应native traits 天赋特质nativism 先天论nativism empiricism controversy 先天与经验争议nativistic theory 天赋学说natural 自然的natural ability 本能natural affections 自然的感情natural agency 自然力natural agent 自然力natural beauty 自然美natural childbirth 自然生育法natural classification 自然分类natural color system 自然颜色系统natural concept 自然概念natural conjugate distribution 自然共轭分布natural developing theory of learning 学习的自然展开说natural dialectics 自然辩证法natural disasters 自然灾害natural endowment 先天禀赋natural environment 自然环境natural experiment 自然实验natural feeling 自然的感情natural fertility 自然生育率natural fitness 自然的合理性natural form 自然形式natural gender 自然性natural group design 自然组设计natural inclinations 自然素质natural increase 自然增加natural instincts 天性natural language 自然语言natural law 自然法则natural lighting 自然采光natural method 自然教育法natural monism 自然一元论natural motion 自然运动natural object 自然物体natural observation 自然观察natural phenomena 自然现象natural place 自然位置natural population 自然群体natural predisposition 先天素因natural punishment 自然惩罚natural radioactive decay 自然衰变natural regeneration 自然更新natural relation 自然关系natural science 自然科学natural science psychology 自然科学心理学natural selection 自然选择natural selectionist 自然选择论者natural sleep 自然睡眠natural succession 自然演替natural talent 自然禀赋natural tendency 自然趋势natural wet bulb temperature 自然湿球温度natural world 物质世界naturalism 自然主义naturalistic observation 自然观察naturalistic observation method 自然观察法naturality 自然性naturalized 驯化的naturalness 自然状态nature 天性nature 自然nature concept 自然概念nature homosexual period 自然同性恋期自然同性恋期nature of consciousness 意识的性质nature of self 自我的性质nature study 自然研究nature worship 自然祟拜nature nurture 先天与后天nature nurture controversy 天性与教养争议nature nurture problem 天性教养问题天性教养问题naturism 自然崇拜naturopathy 物理治疗nausea 恶心nauseate 厌恶nauseous 腐臭nauseous 令人恶心的nauta gygax method 纳塔吉嘎克斯法纳塔吉嘎克斯法ncs 自然颜色系统nealogy 幼动物学neanic 幼年的near orientation 近定向near point 近点nearest neighbor frequency 最近邻频率最近邻频率nearest neighbor method 最近邻法nearness 接近度near sightedness 近视necessary 必然的necessary being 必然存在necessary cause 必然理由necessary condition 必然条件necessary connection 必然联系necessity 必然性neck circumference 颈围neck reflex 颈反射necker cube 内克尔立方体necrology 死亡统计necromania 恋尸癖necrometer 尸体测量器necromimesis 死亡妄想necrophagia 食尸癖necrophagy 食尸癖necrophile 恋尸癖者necrophilia 恋尸癖necrophilious 恋尸癖的necrophobia 尸体恐怖症necrophobia 死亡恐怖necropsy 尸体剖检necropsy 验尸ned 无疾病迹象need 需要need analysis 需要分析need cathexis 需求投注need for a frame of orientation 定向需求定向需求need for abasement 谦卑需求need for achievement 成就需求need for affection 情感需要need for affiliation 归属需要need for affiliation 亲合需要need for aggression 攻击需求need for approval 认可需求need for approval 赞许需求need for autogenic 自主需求need for autonomy 自立需求need for change 革新需求need for deference 顺从需求need for endurance 持久需求need for exhibition 表现需求need for heterosexuality 爱恋需求need for independence 独立需求need for nurturance 抚助需求need for order 秩序需求need for positive regard 正面关注需求正面关注需求need for power 权力需要need for punishment 惩罚需求need for relatedness 相属需求need for self actualization 自我实现的需要need for transcendence 超越需求need for understanding 知之需求need gratification 需求满足need hierarchy theory 需要层次论need integrate 需求综合need of affiliation 亲和需求need of interception 省察需求need of rootedness 生根需求need patter 需求范型need reduction theory 需求削减论need satisfaction 需求满足need state 需求状态need system 欲求系统need tension 需求性紧张need theory of crime 需求论犯罪观needarousal 需求激发needle electrode 针状电极needy child 贫困儿童need complementarity hypothesis 需求互补假说need drive incentive hypothesis 需求驱力诱因假说need drive incentive pattern 需求驱力诱因模式need persistence 需求持续性need press 迫切需求need press theory 需求压力论neef s hammer 内夫锤neencephalon 新脑negation 否认negation 抗拒性negative acceleration 负加速negative adaptation 负适应negative adaptation 消极适应negative adjustment 消极调整negative afterpotential 负后电位negative after effect 负后效negative after image 负后象negative association 负相联negative attention seeking 消极型引人注意negative attitude 消极态度negative attitude change 态度负向改变态度负向改变negative behavior 消极行为negative binomial distribution 负二项分布negative case analysis 负性个案分析negative cathexis 消极投注negative conditioned reflex 阴性条件反射negative contrast 负对比negative contrast of reinforcement 强化负对比negative control 负控制negative correlation 负相关negative cue 负线索negative definition 否定的定义negative diagnosis 消极诊断negative difference 负差negative direction 反方向negative discipline 消极训练negative equilibrium 消极平衡negative error 负误差negative exercise 消极练习negative feedback 负反馈negative fixation 消极性固着negative focusing 负聚焦negative hallucination 负幻觉negative identity 反向认同negative identity 消极统合negative incentive 负诱因negative inducement 负诱导negative induction 负诱导negative influence 消极作用negative instance 否定实例negative integer 负整数negative interaction 负相互作用negative interest 消极兴趣negative interference 负干扰negative item 负向题目negative judgment 否定判断negative law of effect 负效果律negative linear relationship 负线性关系负性关negative nothing 消极的空无negative number 负数negative peak 最大负值negative phototaxis 负向光性negative phototropism 负向光性negative practice 反练习negative practice 消极练习negative punishment 负效惩罚negative reactive 负性反应negative recency effect 负性新近效应negative recollection 消极回忆negative regency 时近负效应negative reinforcement 负强化negative reinforcer 负强化物negative reinforcing stimulus 负强化刺激负增强刺激negative resistance 负阻negative response 负反应negative response 消极反应negative reward 负奖赏negative self feeling 消极自感negative sign 负量negative skewness 负偏态negative stage 反抗期negative stem 负题根negative stem item 具负题根试题negative stimulus 负性刺激negative suggestion 消极暗示negative symptom 负性症状negative term 负项negative time error 负时间误差negative transfer 负迁移negative transference 负移情negative tropism 负感应性negative valence 负价negatively accelerated curve 负加速曲线负加速曲negative negative conflict 否定否定冲突negative state relief hypothesis 消极心境解脱说negativism 否定论negativism 违拗症negativity 否定性neglect 忽视neglected variables 忽略的变量negotiation 谈判neighborhood model 邻式模型neiman pick s disease 尼曼匹克氏症尼曼匹克氏症nelson biology test 纳尔逊生物测验nelson denny reading test 纳丹二氏阅读测验nematoblast 精子细胞nembutal 戊巴比妥钠neobiogenesis 新生源说neocategory 新范畴neocerebellum 新小脑neocinetic 新运动区的neocortex 新皮层neofetal 幼胎的neofetus 幼胎neoformation 新生物neogala 初乳neogene 新第三纪neogenesis 新生neokinetic 新运动区的neolallia 新器官neologism 新器官neonatal 新生期的neonatal behavior assessment scale 新生儿行为评价量表neonatal chromosome disorder 新生儿染色体异常neonatal development 新生儿发育neonatal disorder 新生儿异常neonatal period 新生儿期neonatal reflex 新生儿反应neonate 新生儿neonate psychology 新生儿心理学neonatology 新生儿科学neopallium 新皮层neophobia 新奇恐怖症neophrenia 儿童期精神病neoplasma 赘生物neopositivism 新实证主义neopositivist 新实证主义者neopsychoanalytic school 新精神分析学派neoretinene 新视黄醛neostigmine 副交感神经兴奋剂neoteinia 幼态持续neoteny 幼态持续neothalamus 新丘脑neovitalism 新活力论neovitalist 新生机论者neozoic 新生代的neo behaviorism 新行为主义neo cortex 新皮质neo darwinism 新达尔文主义neo encephalon 新脑neo epigenesis 新渐成说neo evolution 新进化论neo freudian 新佛洛伊德学派neo freudism 新佛洛伊德主义neo humanism 新人本主义neo idealism 新唯心主义neo lamarckism 新拉马克主义neo malthusianism 新马尔萨斯主义neo platonism 新柏拉图主义neo psychoanalysis 新精神分析论nepenthe 使人忘忧的东西nepenthic 忘忧的nephelopsychosis 恋云癖nerve 神经nerve 勇敢nerve accommodation 神经适应nerve action 神经活动nerve block 神经阻断nerve bundle 神经束nerve cell 神经细胞nerve centre 神经中枢nerve chain 神经链nerve conduction 神经传导nerve conduction velocity 神经传导速率神经传导速率nerve cord 神经索nerve corpuscles 神经膜细胞nerve deafness 神经性耳聋nerve ending 神经末梢nerve fiber 神经纤维nerve fibril 神经纤维nerve gas 神经毒气nerve growth factor 神经原生长因子nerve impulse 神经冲动nerve layer 神经层nerve net 神经网nerve node 神经节nerve papilla 神经乳头nerve pattern 神经类型nerve plexus 神经丛nerve process 神经过程nerve regeneration 神经再生nerve ring 神经环nerve root 神经根nerve sheath 神经鞘nerve tract 神经通路nerve transmitter 神经介质nerve trigeminal 三叉神经nerve trunk 神经干nervi 神经nervi accessories 副神经nervi cerebrales 脑神经nervi facials 面神经nervi glossopharyngeus 舌咽神经nervi hypoglossus 舌下神经nervi nervorum 神经鞘神经nervi oculomotorius 动眼神经nervi olfactorius 嗅神经nervi olfactory 嗅神经nervi optics 视神经nervi spinales 脊神经nervi statoacusticus 位听神经nervi thoracales anteriores 胸前神经nervi thoracales posteriores 胸后神经nervi trigeminus 三叉神经nervi vagus 迷走神经nervimotility 神经运动力nervimotion 神经兴奋性运动nervimotor 运动神经的nervimuscular 神经肌肉的nervism 神经论nervosis 神经衰弱nervosity 神经质nervous 神经的nervous anorexia 神经性厌食症nervous breakdown 精神崩溃nervous crest 神经脊nervous disposition 神经质nervous excitation 神经兴奋nervous impulse 神经冲动nervous irritability 神经应激性nervous layer 神经层nervous process 神经过程nervous ramification 神经分枝nervous reaction 紧张反应nervous stimulant 神经兴奋剂nervous system 神经系统nervous system disorder 神经系统失常神经系统失常nervous system type 神经系统类型nervous temperament 神经质nervous type 神经类型nervousness 神经过敏nervousness in sports 运动性紧张nervousness of motivation 动因性紧张nervous humoral regulation 神经体液调节nervus 神经nervus abducens 外展神经nervus accessorius 副神经nervus acusticus 听神经nervus auditorius 听神经nervus auricularis internus 耳内神经nervus auricularis magnus 耳大神经nervus auricularis posterior 耳后神经nervus auriculotemporalis 耳颞神经nervus buccinatorius 颊神经nervus cardiacus 心神经nervus centralis 中枢神经nervus centrifugalis 传出神经nervus centripetalis 传入神经nervus cerebrospinalis 脑脊神经nervus ciliaris 睫神经nervus cochleae 耳蜗神经nervus cutaneus 皮神经nervus facialis 面神经nervus frontalis 额神经nervus glossopharyngeus 舌咽神经nervus gustatorius 味神经nervus hypoglossus 舌下神经nervus infraorbitalis 眶下神经nervus infratrochlearis 滑车下神经nervus intermedius 中间神经nervus labialis 唇神经nervus lacrimalis 泪腺神经nervus laryngeus inferior 喉下神经nervus laryngeus recurrens 喉返神经nervus laryngeus superior 喉上神经nervus lingualis 舌神经nervus mandibularis 下颌神经nervus meningeus 脑膜神经nervus motorius 运动神经nervus ocularis 眼神经nervus oculomotorius 动眼神经nervus olfactorius 嗅神经nervus ophthalmicus 眼神经nervus opticus 视神经nervus parasympatheticus 副交感神经nervus peripheralis 外围神经nervus pharyngous 咽神经nervus pneumogastricus 迷走神经nervus preopticus 视前神经nervus recurrens 返神经nervus sensorius 感觉神经nervus stapedius 镫骨神经nervus statoacusticus 位听神经nervus sublingualis 舌下神经nervus subpharyngealis 咽下神经nervus supraorbitalis 眶上神经nervus supratrochlearis 滑车上神经nervus sympatheticus 交感神经nervus tegumentalis 皮神经nervus thalamicus 丘神经nervus trigeminalis 三叉神经nervus trigeminus 三叉神经nervus tympanicus 鼓室神经nervus vagus 迷走神经nervus vestibularis 前庭神经nervus vestibuli 前庭神经nervus visceralis 内脏神经nest building 巢居nest building 筑巢nested design 分隔实验设计nested factor 套因子nesting 筑巢net 净net 网net assimilation 净同化net correlation 净相关net correlation coefficient 净相关系数network 网络network model 网络模型network of artificial neurons 人造神经元网络network theorem 网状结构定理network therapy 网络疗法neu 神经膜neu 神经鞘neurad 向神经neural 神经的neural activity 神经活动neural analyzer 神经分析器neural canal 神经管neural circuit 神经回路neural coding 神经编码neural computation 神经计算neural deafness 神经性聋neural discharge 神经放电neural encoding 神经编码过程neural epithelium 神经上皮neural excitation 神经兴奋neural facilitation 神经易化neural fold 神经褶neural foramen 神经孔neural ganglia 神经节neural groove 神经沟neural impulse 神经冲动neural junction 神经连接neural latency 神经潜伏期neural lesion 神经损伤neural noise 神经噪声neural plate 神经板neural quantum theory 神经量子理论neural receptor 神经接受器neural reinforcement 神经强化neural ridge 神经褶neural rivalry 神经对抗neural switching 神经接通neural tube 神经管neuralgia 神经痛neural displacement theory of illusion 错觉的神经移位说neuramebimeter 神经反应时测定计neuranagenesis 神经再生neurapophysis 神经突neurapraxia 机能性麻痹neurapraxia 神经失用症neurarchy 神经控制作用neurasthenia 神经衰弱neurastheniac 神经衰弱患者neurasthenic neurosis 神经衰弱官能症神经衰弱官能症neurataxia 神经衰弱neuratrophia 神经萎缩neuraxis 神经轴neuraxon 神经轴neure 神经元neurectomy 神经切除术neurectopia 神经异位neurergic 神经作用的neurhypnology 催眠学neuriasis 癔病性疑病neuriatria 神经病疗法neuriatry 神经病疗法neuricity 神经力neuridin 脑胺neurilemma 神经膜neurility 神经性能neurimotility 神经运动力neurimotor 运动神经的neurine 神经碱neuritis 神经炎neuroallergy 神经变态反应性neuroanatomy 神经解剖学neurobiological approach 神经生理方法神经生理取向neurobiology 神经生物学neurobiology of learning and memory 学习与记忆神经生物学neuroblast 成神经细胞neuroblast 神经母细胞neuroceptor 神经受体neurochemical correlates 神经化学相关物neurochoriditis 视神经脉络膜炎neurochorioretinitis 视神经脉络膜视网膜炎neurocirculatory 神经循环系统的neurocladism 神经分支新生neuroclonic 神经性痉挛的neurocoele 神经管腔neurocranium 脑颅neurocrine 神经内分泌的neurocrinia 神经性分泌作用neurocybernetics 神经控制论neurocyte 神经细胞neurocytology 神经细胞学neurodealgia 视网膜痛neurodeatrophia 视网膜萎缩neurodegenerative 神经变性的neurodendrite 树突neuroderm 神经外胚层neurodermatitis 神经性皮炎neurodiagnosis 神经病诊断neurodynamic 神经动力的neurodynamics 神经动力学neurodynia 神经痛neuroelectricity 神经电neuroelectrotherapy 神经病电疗法neuroembryology 神经胚胎学neuroencephalomyelopathy 神经脑脊髓病neuroendocrine 神经内分泌的neuroendocrine system 神经内分泌系统神经内分泌系统neuroendocrinology 神经内分泌学neurofibril 神经元纤维neuroganglion 神经节neuroganglitis 神经节炎neurogen 神经元质neurogenesis 神经发生neurogenic 神经元的neurogenic tonus 神经元性紧张neuroglia 神经胶质neuroglia membrane 神经胶质膜neurogliocyte 神经胶质细胞neurography 神经论neuroheuristic programming 神经启发式程序neurohistology 神经组织学neurohormones 神经激素neurohumor 神经体液neurohumoral 神经体液的neurohumoral 神经元介质的neurohumoral regulation 神经体液调节神经体液调节neurohumoralism 神经元介质说neurohypnologist 催眠学家neurohypnology 催眠学neurohypophyseal hormone 垂体后叶激素neurohypophysis 垂体神经部neuroid 神经样的neuroinduction 神经诱导neuroinidia 神经细胞营养不良neurokyme 神经能neurolabyrinthitis 神经迷路炎neurolemma 神经膜neuroleptanalgesia 安定止痛法neuroleptic 抑制神经的neuroleptic drug 神经松弛药neuroleptics 神经松弛剂neuroleptoanalgesia 安定镇痛状态neurolinguistics 神经语言学neurological dysfunction 神经机能障碍神经机能障碍neurological mutant 神经突变型neurological substrate 神经底质neurologist 神经病学家neurology 神经学neurolysis 神经松解术neuromechanism 神经结构neuromimesis 模仿病neuromimetic 模仿病的neuromittor 神经传导器neuromotor 神经运动的neuromuscular 神经肌肉neuromuscular control system 神经肌肉控制系统neuromuscular disorder 神经肌肉障碍neuromuscular junction 神经肌肉接点神经肌肉接点neuromuscular unit 神经肌肉单位neuromyic 神经肌肉的neuron 神经元neuronagenesis 神经元发育不全neuronal dystrophy 神经元营养不良neuronatrophy 神经元萎缩neuronic equation 神经元方程式neuronitis 神经元炎neuronymy 神经命名法neuropapillitis 视神经炎neuroparalysis 神经性麻痹neuropath 神经病患者neuropathogenesis 神经病发病机理neuropathologist 神经病理学家neuropathology 神经病理学neuropathy 神经病neuropathy crime 神经症犯罪neuropharmacology 神经药理学neurophilic 向神经的neurophonia 叫喊性神经病neurophysiological mechanism 神经生理机制neurophysiology 神经生理学neuropile 神经纤维网neuropotential 神经电位neuropsychiatrist 神经精神病学家神经精神病学家neuropsychiatry 神经精神病学神经精神病学neuropsychic behavior 神经心理行为neuropsychological questionnaire 神经心理问卷neuropsychological test 神经心理测验neuropsychology 神经心理学neuropsychology abstracts神经心理学文摘neuropsychology review 神经心理学评论neuropsychopath 神经精神病neuropsychopharmacology 神经精神药理学neuroretinitis 视神经网膜炎neuroretinopathy 视神经网膜病neuroscience 神经科学neurosecretion 神经分泌neurosecretory cell 神经分泌细胞neurosis 神经症neurosism 神经衰弱neurosome 神经细胞体neurospasmus 神经性痉挛neurospongium 神经胶质neurospongium 神经纤维网neurostatus 神经系统状态neurosthenia 神经兴奋力过旺neurosyphilis 神经症系统梅毒neurotaxis 向神经性neuroterminal 神经终器neurotherapeutics 神经病疗法neurotherapy 神经病疗法neurotic 神经过敏neurotic anxiety 神经质焦虑neurotic attitudes 神经质态度neurotic behavior 神经质行为neurotic character 神经质性格neurotic coping 神经质的应对neurotic defense 神经质防卫neurotic depressive reaction 神经症抑郁反应neurotic mechanism of emotion 情绪的神经机制neurotic need 神经质需求neurotic personality 神经质人格neurotic resignation 神经型退避neurotic solution 神经质解脱neurotic trend 神经质趋向neurotica 神经机能病neuroticism 神经过敏症neurotomy 神经切断术neurotoxia 神经中毒症neurotoxic 神经中毒的neurotoxic substance 神经毒物neurotoxicity 神经中毒性neurotoxin 神经毒素neurotransmission 神经传递neurotransmitter 神经介质neurotransmitter system 神经介质系统神经传导物质系统neurotrophasthenia 神经系统营养不足神经系统营养不足neurotrophy 神经营养neurotypes 神经类型neurovisceral 脑脊髓交感神经系统的脑脊髓交感神经系统的neuro anatomy 神经解剖neuro biotaxis 神经细胞序列性neuro biotaxis 神经向性neuro chemical correlates 神经化学相关物neuro chemistry 神经化学neuro engineering 神经工程学neuro hormone 神经激素neuro humor 神经体液neuro linguistics 神经语言学neuro ophthalmology 神经眼科学neuro otology 神经耳科学neuro pathology 神经病理学neuro pattern 神经模式neuro pharmacology 神经药理学neuro physiology 神经生理学neuro vegetative 植物神经系统的neurula 神经胚neururgic 神经活动的neurypnology 催眠学neutral 中性的neutral impression 中性印象neutral point 中性点neutral reaction 中性反应neutral stimulus 中性刺激neutral theory 中性说neutral zone 中性区neutrality 中性neutralization 中性化neutropism 向神经性。
人工智能专业英语Unit3
Exercises I. Read the following statements carefully, and decide whether they are true (T) or false (F) according to the text.
Section A: Reasoning with Uncertainty
II. Choose the best answer to each of the following questions according to the text.
1. When was Thomas Bayes born? A. In 1936 B. In 1702 C. In 1761 D. In 1985
Contents
• Part 1 Reading and Translating
- 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
- 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
- 3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。
Natural Deduction in Connectionist SystemsWilliam BechtelDepartment of PhilosophyGeorgia State University
AbstractThe relation between logic and thought has long been controversial, but has recentlyinfluenced theorizing about the nature of mental processes in cognitive science. Oneprominent tradition argues that to explain the systematicity of thought we must positsyntactically structured representations inside the cognitive system which can be operatedupon by structure sensitive rules similar to those employed in systems of natural deduction. I have argued elsewhere that the systematicity of human thought might better be explainedas resulting from the fact that we have learned natural languages which are themselvessyntactically structured. According to this view, symbols of natural language are external tothe cognitive processing system and what the cognitive system must learn to do is produceand comprehend such symbols. In this paper I pursue that idea by arguing that ability innatural deduction itself may rely on pattern recognition abilities that enable us to operate onexternal symbols rather than encodings of rules that might be applied to internalrepresentations. To support this suggestion, I present a series of experiments withconnectionist networks that have been trained to construct simple natural deductions insentential logic. These networks not only succeed in reconstructing the derivations on whichthey have been trained, but in constructing new derivations that are only similar to the oneson which they have been trained.
Acknowledgement: Research for this paper was supported by a Chancellor's Initiative Grantfrom Georgia State University, which is gratefully acknowledged. I also thank AdeleAbrahamsen for detailed comments and discussion of this paper as well as two anonymousreferees for this journal. An earlier version of this paper was presented at the SouthernSociety for Philosophy and Psychology in March, 1993. I thank John Nolt, who was theofficial commentator, and many members of the audience for their useful comments andsuggestions. Natural Deduction in Connectionist Systems1. Logical Structure and CognitionThe relation between logic and thought has long been controversial. This isparticularly true of rules for natural deduction. Most philosophers construe such inferencerules as normative: they are truth preserving rules which, if adhered to, would insure that if aperson started with true beliefs, he or she would not end up believing falsehoods. Theemergence of cognitive science, however, has had inconsistent implications for the status ofsuch inference rules. On the one hand, there is now empirical evidence that humans oftenfind it difficult to apply such basic rules of inference as modus tollens; in some situationsthey are more likely to apply the invalid principle of affirming the consequent instead(Wason & Johnson-Laird, 1972). On the other hand, a number of theorists have adaptednatural deduction rules to explain human deductive reasoning (Braine, Reiser, and Rumain,1984, Osherson, 1975, 1976, Rips, 1983, 1990). In these accounts, humans are thought toapply formal rules to mental representations of propositions so as to reach desired orinteresting conclusions. The view that humans employ mental rules comparable to those employed in naturaldeduction systems fits well with Fodor's (1975, 1987) claim that there is a language ofthought. According to Fodor, cognitive performance requires an internal system oflanguage-like representations and formal syntactic operations which can be applied to theserepresentations. That is, language provides the metaphor by which theorists can understandand model cognition. If the cognitive system has an overall language-like architecture, itmakes sense to model deductive reasoning by specifying mental rules (comparable to theinference rules of natural deduction) that operate upon language-like mental representations. This linguistic metaphor has dominated psychological models of reasoning (e.g., Smith,Langston, & Nisbett, 1992).Fodor and Pylyshyn (1988) defended the linguistic metaphor as being compelled bythree properties of thought: systematicity, productivity, and inferential coherence. Injustifying the first of these properties, Fodor and Pylyshyn noted that beliefs (or other