英语语言学复习资料
1 英语语言学复习资料 一：名词解释 1. Language (语言) is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 2. Linguistics(语言学) is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 3. General linguistics(普通/一般语言学) The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. 4. Phonetics(语音学) the study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of phonetics. 5. Phonology(语音体系) how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication. 6. Morphology(形态学) these symbols are arranged and combined to form words has constituted the branch of study called morphology. 7. Syntax(句法学) then the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages is governed by rules. The study of these rules constitutes a major branch of linguistic studies called syntax. 8. Semantics(语意学) the study of meaning is known as semantics. 9. Pragmatics(语用学) when the study of meaning is conducted, not in isolation, but in the context of language use, it becomes another branch of linguistic study called pragmatics. 10. Phone(音素) is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. 11. Phoneme(音位) is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. 12. Allophones(音位变体) the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones. 13. IPA(International Phonetic Alphabet国际音标) It’s a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription. The basic principle of the IPA is using one letter selected from major European languages to represent one speech sound. 14. Diacritics(变音符) it is a set of symbols which are added to the letter-symbols to bring out the finer distinctions. 15. broad transcription(宽式标音) one is the transcription with letter-symbols only. 16. narrow transcription(严式标音) the other is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics. 17. open class words(开放类词) In English , open class words are nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. We can regularly add new words to these classes. 18. closed class words(封闭类词) In English , closed class word are conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns. New words are not usually added to them. 19. Morpheme(词素) the most basic element of meaning is traditionally called morpheme. 20. bound morpheme(黏着词素) morphemes which occurs only before other morphemes. They cannot be used alone. 21. free morpheme(自由词素) it is the morphemes which can be used alone. 22. suprasegmental features(超音段特征) the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. 23. Category(范畴) it refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence ,a noun phrase or a verb. 2
24. Phrases(短语) Syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrases. 二：简答题 1. Three distinct of phonetics(语音学的三个分支？) Articulatory phonetics发音语音学; auditory phonetics听觉语音学; acoustic phonetics声光语音学. 2. Main features of language(语言的主要特征？) Language is a system. Language is arbitrary. Language is vocal. Language is human-specific. 3. Synchronic vs. diachronic(共识语言学与历史语言学的区别？) Language exists in time and changes through time. The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A diachronic study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time. 4. Speech and writing (言语与文字的区别？) Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school. Written language is only the “revised” record of speech. 5. What are the branches of linguistic study?(语言学研究领域中的主要分支有哪些？) 1) sociolinguistics; 2) psycholinguistics; 3)applied linguistics and so on. 6. Traditional grammar and modern linguistics(传统语法与现代语言学的区别？) Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive. Second, modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word. Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework. 7. Prescriptive vs. descriptive (语言学中描写性与规定性的特征是什么？) Prescriptive and descriptive represent two different types of linguistic study. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive; if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, it is said to be prescriptive. 8. Design features of language (语言的识别特征？) Arbitrariness随意性，productivity生产性, duality 二重性, displacement 不受时空限制的特征, cultural transmission 文化传递系统. 9. Competence and performance (语言能力与语言行为的区别？) Competence is defined as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual. 10. Organs of speech (发音器官) Pharyngeal cavity—the throat, oral cavity—the mouth, nasal cavity—the nose. 11. Word-level categories(决定词范畴的三个标准) To determine a word’s category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution. 三：问题回答 1. Some rules in phonology(音位学规则) sequential rules(序列规则)；assimilation rule (同化规则) ；deletion rule(省略规则)。 2. Suprasegmental features(超音段特征) stress(重音)；tone(声调)；intonation(语调)。 3. Classification of English speech sounds(英语语音分类)
英语语言学复习整理
nguage and Linguistics1.What are design features of language? (P 2-P 12)nguage is systematicnguage is symbolicnguage is arbitrarynguage is primarily vocalnguage is human specificnguage is used for communication2.What are general functions of language? Please illustrate your point with examples.(P 14-P 17)a.physiological functionb.phatic functionc.recording functiond.identifying functionmunicating functionf.pleasure functiong.reasoning function3.4.a.The diachronic study refers to the description of the historical development of alanguage.b.The synchronic study refers to the description of a particular state of a language at asingle point of time. It is necessary for the synchronic description to find out these systematic rules as they operate in the language at a particular time.5.Distinctions between competence and performance (P 33)petence refers to the know that native speakers have of their language as system ofabstract formal relations.b.Performance refers to what we do when we speak or listen, that is, the infinite variedindividual acts of verbal behavior with their irregularities, inconsistences, and errors.2.Phonetics and Phonology1.What is phonetics and its three subdivisions? (P 43)a.Phonetics is the scientific study of speech and is concerned with defining andclassifying speech sounds.b.Articulatory phoneticsAcoustic phoneticsAuditory phonetics2.Distinctions among bilabial, dental, alveolar, labiodental, velar sounds. (P 47-P 49)a.Bilabial are articulations made with the upper and lower lips brought together./p/,/b/,/m/.b.Dentals are produced by the front of the tongue touching the back of the upper frontteeth. th→/ð/,/ø/.biodentals are articulations produced with the lower lip approximating to theunderside of the upper front teeth. /f/,/v/.d.Alveolars are sounds produced by the tip and/or blade of the tongue touching or nearlytouching the gum ridge behind the upper teeth. /t/,/d/,/n/,/s/,/z/,/l/.e.Velar sounds are produced with the back of the tongue dorsum raised up to the softpalate (or velum) at the back of the mouth. /k/,/g/,/w/.3.What is phonology? (P 56)Phonology is the study of the sound patterns in human language. (The term phonology is used in two ways, either as the study of the sound patterns in language or as the sound patterns of a language.)4.Distinctions between phonemes (P 56) and allophones (P 58).a.The segments of an underlying representation are called phonemes.Phoneme is the minimum phonetic unit that is not further analyzable into smaller units.Phoneme is the abstract set of units as the basis of our speech.Phonemes are said to be the distinctive sounds.A phoneme may have its variants.b.There is only one phoneme between two words and it turns up in two variant forms inthese two words. These phonetics variants of phoneme are called allophones.5.What are minimal pairs? (P 58)a. A pair of phonemes is also known as a minimal pair.b.When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment thatoccurs in the same place in the string, the two words are called minimal pairs.6.What are components of a syllable? (P 66)Structurally, the syllable may be divided into three parts: the onset, the peak, the coda.3.Morphology and Lexicon1.What is morphology? (P 73)Morphology studies morphemes and their different forms and the way they combine in word formation.2.Distinctions between word (P 74)/morpheme (P 81)/lexeme (P 91).a.Word is the smallest form that can occur by itself. (“a minimum free form”—Bloomfield)A word is a sound or combination of sounds which we produce voluntarily with our vocalequipment.A word is symbolic, i.e. it stands for something else, such as objects, happenings, orideas.Words are part of the large communication system we call language.Words help human beings interact culturally with one another.b. A morpheme is a smallest linguistic unit that carries grammatical and/or semanticmeaning. That means it cannot be further divided into smaller grammatical units.A morpheme may undergo certain phonetic changes when combined with the baseword.c. A lexeme is referred to the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can bedistinguished from other smaller units.A lexeme is an abstract unit and may occur in many different forms in actual spoken orwritten texts.Collocation is an important feature in the combination of lexemes.3.What are open-class words? (P 79)We can add new words to these classes of nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.4.What are closed-class words? (P 79)It is not easy to think of new pronouns, determiners, conjunctions, or prepositions that enter the language recently.5.Distinctions between bound morpheme and free morpheme. (p 83)a.If a morpheme can constitute a word by itself, it is called a free morpheme, like room,bottle, stand, large.b.If a morpheme has meaning only connected with at least another morpheme, it is calledbound morpheme, like un- in unlucky, and the plural –s in bags.A bound morpheme is also called an affix in the sense that it is always added to anothermorpheme. Affix can be divided into prefixes, suffixes and infixes.6.Distinctions between inflectional morpheme and derivative morpheme (P 84)a.Bound morphemes can be divided into two types according to whether they provide thelexical item to which they are added any further grammatical meaning and/or lexical meaning.b.An inflectional morpheme provides further grammatical information about an existinglexical item. English inflectional morphemes are largely in the form of suffix. Only in some few irregular plurals can we identify the existence of infixes.c. A derivative morpheme refers to one that creates an entirely new word. It may take theform of a prefix or a suffix.7.Distinctions between prefixes and suffixes. (P 83)a. A prefix is one that added to the beginner of the stem, like un- in unlucky, in- ininappropriate, dis- in disorder.Prefixes generally do not change the grammatical categories of the stem. They only add some lexical meanings to the stem.b. A suffix is one that is added to the end of the stem, like –ing in waiting, -ful in useful,-less in meaningless.Most suffixes have two functions: (1) to add some grammatical meanings to the stem or(2) to change its grammatical categories.Sometimes suffixes do not change the grammatical categories of the stem.8.What are major processes of word-formation? Give each one or two examples. (P 86)pounding (refers to the process of conjoining two or more free morphemes toform a new word. The new word form is called a compound.i.e. fifteen, Sunday, Monday.b.Derivation i.e. antislavery, deprogram, disapprove, robotics.c.Conversion i.e. n.→v. elbow →to elbowv.→n. to doubt →doubtadj./adv.→v. dry →to dryadj. →n. native →two nativesd.Abbreviation i.e. bicycle →bikegymnasium →gymomnibus →busUNWTOe.Back formation i.e. to audit ←auditionto donate ←donationto enthuse ←enthusiasmf.Neologism i.e. moonwalker, software, internetg.Borrowing i.e. paper tiger, moonrise, cold war4.Syntax1.What are constituents in syntactic analysis? (P 98)Constituents are structural units, i.e. any linguistic form, such as words or word groups.When constituents are considered as part of the successive unraveling of a sentence, they are known as its immediate constituents.2.What is immediate Constituent Analysis? (P 98)The segmentation of the sentence up into its immediate constituents by using binary cuttings until its ultimate constituents are obtained is an important approached to the realization of the nature of language, called Immediate Constituent Analysis (IC Analysis). The analysis can be carried out in ways of tree diagrams, bracketing, or any other.3.According to their structures and forms, what are major types of English sentences?According to their structures and forms, sentences can be divided into simple sentences, coordinate sentences, and complex sentences. (P 100)a. A simple sentence is a group of words which expresses a single independent thought.b. A coordinate sentence or compound sentence is a group of words which expresses twoor more connected and coordinate thoughts.c. A complex sentence is a group of words which expresses two or more unified thoughts,one of which is the main or principle thought dependent on it one or more subordinate thoughts.4.According to functional approach, what are major types of English sentences? List themwith examples. (P 101)a.declarativePauline gave Mary a digital watch for her birthday.b.interrogativeDid Pauline give Tom a digital watch for his birthday?c.imperativeGive me a digital watch for my birthday.d.exclamatoryWhat a fine watch he received for his birthday!5.Semantics1.What is semantic field? (P 134)Semantic field refers to the organization of related lexemes into a system which shows their relationship to one another.2.Distinctions between conceptual meaning and associative meaning. (P 126)a.Conceptual meaning refers to the definition given in the dictionary.It is widely assumed to be the central factor in linguistic communication and is integral to the essential functioning of language.b.Associative meaning refers to the meaning associated with the conceptual meaning,which can be further divided into following five types:Connotative meaningSocial meaningAffective meaningReflected meaningCollocative meaning3.Distinctions among synonymy (P 136), antonym (P 138), meronymy (P 140), hyponymy(P 140).a.Words or expressions with the same or similar meaning are said to be synonymous.Synonyms are words or expressions that share common semantic features.Synonyms can be used as a rhetorical device to make the expressions coherent, varied and/or more colorful.b.Antonymy is the relationship of oppositeness of meaning.Antonyms can be used as a rhetorical device to make the expressions more contrastive and impressive.c.Meronymy is a term used to describe a part-whole relationship between lexical items.Meronymy reflects hierarchical classifications in the lexicon.d.Hyponymy is used to refer to a specific-general semantic relationship between lexicalitems.A word may be the meronymy of one term but the hyponymy of another. Hyponymydiffers from meronymy in transitivity. Hyponymy is always transitive in the sense that there is a hierarchical relation between different terms. In contrast, meronymy may or may not be hierarchical. Meronymy and hyponymy are important routes of semantic relations along which lexical-semantic changes occur. Meronymy and hyponymy are among the widely used rhetorical devices to make the expressions more varied andcolorful.4.Distinctions between sentence meaning and utterance meaning (P 132)a.sentence meaning is directly predictable from the grammatical meaning and utterancefeatures of the sentence.b.Utterance meanings may not be directly related with them. You have to depend onvarious contextual factors to comprehend the utterance meaning.5.Distinctions between lexical meaning and grammatical meaning. (P130)a.lexical meaning is expressed by those “meaningful” parts of speech, such as noun. verb,adjectives, and adverbs, and is given in the dictionary.b.Grammatical meaning is expressed by such syntactic categories as the distinctionbetween the subject and the object of a sentence, oppositions of definiteness, tense and number, and function words and intonation.c.The total meaning constitute the linguistic meanings, not the total meaning. The totalmeaning of our utterance consists always of the linguistic meanings plus the social-cultural meanings.6.Pragmatics and Text Analysis1.What is the cooperative principle? Please give some examples flouting these four maximswhich may cause the conversational implicature. (P 169)a.According to the cooperative principle, the participants in a conversation normallycommunicate in a maximally efficient, rational and cooperative way. They should speak sincerely, relevantly, and clearly, while providing sufficient information.b.The maxim of qualityc.The maxim of quantityd.The maxim of relevancee.The maxim of manner2.Identify the cohesive ties (grammatical devices or lexical ones) in a discourse. 如课后练习会找出语篇中的衔接手段(P 184)nguage and Social Culture1.What is dialect? (P 204) (regional (P 206), social (P 207), ethnic (P 209))a.Dialect refers to any regional, social, or ethic variety of a language.The dialects of a single language may be defined as mutually intelligible forms of a language that differ in systematic ways from each other.b.Regional dialect refers to the language variety used in a geographical region.c.Social dialect is used to describe differences in speech associated with various socialgroups or classes.d.Ethnic varieties are used by ethnic groups and regarded as social dialect.2.Features of Black English. (P 210)a.Consonant deletion rule is used.b.In syntax, the frequent absence of various forms of “be” is one of its prominent syntacticfeatures.c.Another syntactic feature of black English is the systematic use of the expression “it is”where Standard English uses “there is” in the sense of “there exists”.d.Another syntactical feature of black English is the use of double negation constructions.3.Shifts of meaning (P 219) and syntactical change (P 222) in language change process.a.More productive as a way enlarging the vocabulary than borrowing and creating newwords from native elements is expanding the meaning of word that already exists in the language.(by amelioration; the opposite of amelioration; through generalization; through specialization and refer to a smaller class of objects; through all of these.)b.Some differences between the sentence structures in Old English and those in ModernEnglish involve word order. (the loss of a large number of inflectional affixes from many part of speech; the loss, the addition, and the modification of rules; the syntactic behavior of auxiliary verbs and negation.)nguage Acquisition and Thought1.Can you identify two major causes for learners’ errors in second or foreign languagelearning? Please illustrate with examples when necessary.(P 271)a.Interlingual transfer.b.Intralingual transfer2.What are three major syllabuses for foreign language teaching? (classification anddefinition) (P 254—P 257)a.Grammatical syllabus takes grammar as the basis for (foreign) language teaching. To theadvocates of this syllabus, grammar is primary in the study of a foreign language, and the study of grammar is not only beneficial to the learner’s comprehension and translation of the target language but also to the development of the learner’s intelligence.b.Situational syllabus refers to a syllabus in which the instruction of language teaching isplanned around the situations in which the linguistic forms to be taught are normally used. It has sociolinguistics as its theoretical basis.municative syllabus focuses language teaching on the development of the learner’scommunicative competence. The communicative syllabus is based on the assumption that language is used for communication, and that learning a language is learning to communicate.。
《英语语言学》复习重点(1)
《英语语言学》复习重点Chapter I Invitation to linguistics1. What is language and linguistics?●Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. To give the barestdefinition, language is a means of verbal communication. It is instrumental, social and conventional.●Linguistics is usually defined as the science of language or, alternatively, as the scientific study of language.It concerns with the systematic study of language or, a discipline that describes all aspects of language and formulates theories as to how language works.2. What are the design features of language? The definition of these design features: arbitrariness, duality, creativity, and displacement●Design features refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animalsystem of communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement, etc..●Arbitrariness refers to forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaningLanguage is arbitrary. There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds, even with onomatopoeic words●Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structure. The units of the primary level are composedof elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.●Creativity refers to Words can be used in new ways to mean new things, and can be instantly understood bypeople who have never come across that usage before.●Displacement refers to the fact that language can be used to refer to things which are present ornot present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. It means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.3. Jakobson’s classification of functions of language.1).Referential function 所指功能2).Poetic function诗学功能3).Emotive function感情功能4).Conative function意动功能5).Phatic function交感功能6).Metalingual元语言功能Hu Zhuanglin’ classification of functions of language and use some examples to illustrate them.1).Informative function 信息功能2).Interpersonal function 人际功能3).Performative function 施为功能4).Emotive function 感情功能5).Phatic communion 交感性谈话6).Recreational function 娱乐性功能7).Metalingual function 元语言功能4. The definitions of important distinctions in lingustics: Who distinguished them?descriptive VS. presriptive;Descriptive(描写式):a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.eg: American don’t say “I’ll give you some color see see.”Prescriptive(规定式): a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be, i.e. laying down rules for language use.eg: Don’t say “I’ll give you some color see see.”synchronic VS. diachronic;Synchronic study(共时性) --- description of a language at some point of timeDiachronic study(历时性) --- description of a language through the course of its history (historical development of language over a period of time)langue & parole;Langue: (说话者的语言能力.)the linguistic competence of the speaker.Parole: (语言的实际现象或语料.) the actual phenomena or data of linguistics (utterances).competence and performance.Competence:(一个语言使用者关于语言系统规则的基本理解.)a language user’s underlyin g knowledge about the system of rules.Performance:(指在具体场景中语言的真实使用.)the actual use of language in concrete situations.The distinction is discussed by the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s.Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities.A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker's performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence.5.What is the major differences between Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole and Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance?①Saussure's language is social product, a set of conversations for a speech community.②Chomsky regards competence as property of the mind of each individual.③Saussure studies language more from a sociological point of view while Chomsky studies it more from a psychological point of view.Chapter 2 Speech soundsPhonetics4. Basic information about the IPAInternational Phonetic Alphabet (Otto Jesperson France)IPA:the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet.It is a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.It is a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.The first version of IPA was published in August 1888.The latest version was devised in 1993 and corrected in 1996 and 2005.5. Three parameters to identify a consonant:①place of articulation: place in the mouth where obstruction occurs②manners of articulation: ways in which articulation can be accomplished③state of vocal cords: voiced VS. voiceless6.the categories of consonants according to the manner of articulation and the place of aritucatio7. English vowels can be divided into two large categories:Monophthongs or pure/single vowels 单元音Diphthongs or gliding vowels 双元音8. Four criteria (parameters) of vowel description1. the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low);2. the position of the highest part of the tongue (front, central, back);3. the length or tenseness of the vowel (tense vs. lax or long vs. short), and4. lip-rounding (rounded vs. unrounded).Phonology9. definition:1) Co-articulation: Simultaneous/overlapping articulation because of the influence of the neighbor sound(s)2) broad /narrow transcription: When we use a simple set of symbols in our transcription, it is called a broad transcription; The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a narrow transcription.3)Phone: the smallest perceptible discrete segment of sound in a stream of speech. (in the mouth)4) Phoneme: a sound which is capable of distinguishing one word or one shape of a word from another in a given language is a phoneme. (in the mind)5)allophone phonic: variants of a phoneme are called allophone of the same phoneme.6)Minimal pairs:Three requirements for identifying minimal pairs: 1) different in meaning; 2) only one phoneme different;3) the different phonemes occur in the same phonetic environment.E.g. a minimal pair: pat-fat; lit-lip; phone-toneMinimal set: pat, mat, bat, fat, cat, hat, etc7)Suprasegmental features: features that involve more than single sound segment, such as stress（重音），length （音程）, rhythm（节奏），tone（音调），intonation（语调）juncture（音渡）．8) syllable:10.Exemplify the relationship between phone, phoneme and allophone..Phone（音素): the smallest perceptible discrete segment of sound in a stream of speech. (in the mouth)i) phonetic unit ii) not necessarily distinctive of meaningiii) physical as heard or produced iv) marked with [ ].Phoneme （音位）：A sound which is capable of distinguishing one word or one shape of a word from another in a given language is a phoneme. (in the mind)i) phonological unit ii) distinctive of meaningiii) abstract, not physical iv) marked with / /..allophone (音位变体) : phonic variants of a phoneme are called allophone of the same phoneme.e.g.:p ot, s p ot, cu p: [ph] vs. [p] vs. [ p¬ ] (unreleased)11. What are the differences between Phonetics and Phonology?Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted and received. It is concerned with the actual physical articulation, transmission and perception of speech sounds.Phonology is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds. It is concerned with the abstract and mental aspect of the sounds in languageChapter 3 Morphology12. Three senses of “word”(1) A physically definable unit: a cluster of sound segments or letters between two pause or blank.(2) Word both as a general term and as a specific term.(3) A grammatical unit.13.The classification of word. Using some examples to explain these classifications.Words can be classified in terms of:★(1) Variable vs. invariable words (可变词/不可变词)★(2) Grammatical words vs. lexical words (语法词/词汇词)★(3) Closed-class words vs. open-class words(封闭词/开放词)★(4) word class(词类)(1) Variable vs. invariable words (可变词/不可变词)the former refers to words having inflective changes（屈折变化）while the latter refers to words having no such endings.Variable words: follow; follows; following; followedInvariable words: since; when; seldom; through; hello(2) Grammatical words vs. lexical words (function words and content words.语法词/词汇词).The former refers to those words expressing grammatical meanings, such as conjunctions(连词), prepositions（介词）, articles(冠词), and pronouns（代词）;.the latter refers to words having lexical meanings, those which refer to substance, action etc. such as n., v., adj., and adv.(3) Closed-class words vs. open-class words (封闭词/开放词).the former refers to words whose membership is fixed or limited; e.g. pron., prep., conj., article..the latter of which the membership is infinite or unlimited. e.g.: n., v., adj., adv.(4) word class (词类)14. definition:1) Morphology:Morphology is a branch of linguistics, which studies the internal structure of words and the rulesby which words are formed.2) Morpheme: the smallest unit of meaning, which can not be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.Free morphemes: morphemes which may constitute words by themselves．Bound morphemes:morphemes which can not be used by themselves, but must be combined with other morphemes to form wordsInflectional morpheme: a kind of bound morphemes which manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree and case.Derivational morpheme: a kind of bound morphemes, added to existing forms to create new words. There are three kinds according to position: prefix, suffix and infix.3) Affix: is the term for the type of form that can be used to add to another morpheme (root or stem) to form word. It can’t be used freely in sentence.prefix: change meaning eg: dis-; un-; mis-suffix: change part of speech eg: -ly; -ness; -tioninfix: some languages also have infixes, affix morphemes that are inserted into root or stem morphemes to divide them into two parts.4) Inflection: the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as tense, number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.5) word-formation①Compound: referring to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a new word. ②Derivation: the way to form words with a combination of roots and affixes.15. examples of Lexical change proper★(1) Invention 新造词Nylon★(2) Blending 混合词smoke + fog→ smog★(3) Abbreviation 缩合词TV → television★(4) Acronym 首字母缩略词NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)★(5) back-formation 逆构词editor edit★(6) analogical creation 类比造词p76★(7) Borrowing 借词、外来词Kong FuChapter 4 Syntax16. Definition:Syntax: is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.paradigmatic Relations:Syntagmatic Relations:Endocentric Constructions:is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head.Exocentric Constructions:refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, ther e is no definable “Centre” or “Head” inside the group Category: refers to the defining properties of these general units:Categories of the noun: number, gender, case and countabilityCategories of the verb: tense, aspect, voice17.three kinds of syntactic relations:relations of position位置关系Positional relation, or WORD ORDER, refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language.relations of substitutability 可替代性关系The Relation of Substitutability refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure.relations of co-occurrence 同现关系It means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence.18. Immediate Constituent Analysis (IC Analysis)Immediate constituent analysis is a form of linguistic review that breaks down longer phrases or sentences into their constituent parts, usually into single words. This kind of analysis is sometimes abbreviated as IC analysis, and gets used extensively by a wide range of language experts.19. Endocentric constructions fall into two main types, depending on the relation between constituents: Coordination and subordination•Coordination is a common syntactic pattern in English and other languages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but and or .•Subordination refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other.20. Characteristics of subjectsA) Word order: Subject ordinarily precedes the verb in the statementB) Pro-forms(代词形式) : The first and third person pronouns in English appear in a special form when the pronoun is a subjectC) Agreement with the verb: In the simple present tense, an -s is added to the verb when a third person subject is singular, but the number and person of the object or any other element in the sentence have no effect at all on the form of the verbD) Content questions (实意问句): If the subject is replaced by a question word (who or what), the rest of the sentence remains unchangedE) Tag question (反意问句): A tag question is used to seek confirmation of a statement. It always contains a pronoun which refers back to the subject, and never to any other element in the sentence.Chapter 5 Semantics21. Geoffrey Leech (1974, 1981). Semantics: The Study of Meaning. Seven types of meaning:Conceptual meaning: Also called ‘denotative’ or ‘cognitive’ meaning.Refers to logical, cognitive or denotative content.Concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it denotes, or refers to. English word“river” →“江”and“河”Connotative meaning: The communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content. It is the intensional meaning which a word suggests or implies. home: family, friends, warmth, cozy, comfortable, safety, love, free, convenience Social meaning:What a piece of language conveys about the social circumstances of its use. Affective meaning: --Reflecting the personal feelings of the speaker, including his attitude to the listener, or his attitude to something he is talking about.Reflected and meaning:--Arises in cases of multiple conceptual meaning, when one sense of a word forms part of our response to another sense.Collocative meaning: --The associations a word acquires on account of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its environment.Thematic meaning:--What is communicated by the way in which a speaker or writer organizes themessage, in terms of ordering, focus, and emphasis.22. Explain the semantic triangle by using some examples.23. Use some examples to explain three sense relations:Synonymy; Antonymy; HyponymySynonymy 同义buy/purchase thrifty/economical/stingy autumn/fall flat/apartment tube/undergroundAntonymy 反义Gradable antonymy 渐次对立关系good ------------- bad long --------------- short big ---------------- smallComplementary antonymy 互补反义关系alive : dead male : female present : absent innocent : guilty odd : even pass : failboy : girlhit : missConverse antonymy 逆向反义关系buy : sell lend : borrow give : receive parent : child husband : wife teacher : student above : belowbefore : afterhost : guestemployer : employeeHyponymy 上下义Superordinate （上义词）: the more general termHyponym （下义词）: the more specific termCo-hyponyms （同义词）: members of the same class24. Componential relations （成分分析）“Componential analysis”---- defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components.Componential analysis refers to an approach adopted by structural semanticists in describing the meaning of words or phrases. This approach is based on the belief that the total meaning of a word can be analyzed in terms of a number of distinct elements or meaning components25. Sense relations between sentences1 A entails B ( A is an entailment of B ) 蕴含2 A Presupposes B (A presupposes B) 预设3 A is inconsistent with B 不一致4 A is synonymous with B 同义5 A is a contradiction 自相矛盾6 A is semantically anomalous 反常26. Explain the difference between sense and reference from the following four aspects:1) A word having reference must have sense;2) A word having sense might not have reference;3) A certain sense can be realized by more than one reference; 4) A certain reference can be expressed by morethan one senseThe distinction between “sense” and “reference” is comparable to that between “connotation” and “denotation”. The former refers to some abstract properties, while the latter refers to some concrete entities.Firstly, to some extent, we can say that every word has a sense, i.e., some conceptual content; otherwise we would not be able to use it or understand it. Secondly, but not every word has a reference. There are linguistic expressions which can never be used to refer to anything, for example, the words so, very, maybe, if, not, and all. These words do of course contribute meaning to the sentences in which they occur and thus help sentences denote, but they themselves do not identify entities in the world. They are intrinsically non-referring terms. And words like ghost and dragon refer to imaginary things, which do not exist in reality. Thirdly, some expressions will have the same reference across a range of utterances, e.g., the Eiffel Tower or the Pacific Ocean. Such expressions are sometimes described as having constant reference. Others have their references totally dependent on context. Expressions like I, you, she, etc. are said to have variable references. Lastly, sometimes a reference may be expressed by more than one sense. For instance, both ‘evening star’ and ‘morning star’(晚星，启明星), though they differ in sense, refer to Venus. Chapter 6 Psychology and cognitive lingusitics27. What are the differences between metaphor & metonymy? Give some examples.Metaphor is a conceptual mapping（概念映射）, not a linguistic one, from one domain to another（从一个语域到另一个语域）, not from a word to another.Metonymy is a cognitive process in which one conceptual entity, the vehicle（源域）, provides mental access to another conceptual entity, the target（目标域）, within the same domain. The reference point activates the target.1.Metaphor is used for substitution, while metonymy is used for association.2.Metaphor can mean condensation and metonymy can mean displacement.3.A metonymy acts by combining ideas while metaphor acts by suppressing ideas.4.In a metaphor, the comparison is based on the similarities, while in metonymy the comparison is based on contiguity.--For example, the sentence ‘he is a tiger in class’ is a metaphor. Here the word tiger is used in substitution for displaying an attribute of charact er of the person. The sentence ‘the tiger called his students to the meeting room’ is a metonymy. Here there is no substitution; instead the person is associated with a tiger for his nature..Metaphors are actually cognitive tools that help us structure our thoughts and experiences in the world around us..Metaphor is a conceptual mapping（概念映射）, not a linguistic one, from one domain to another （从一个语域到另一个语域）, not from a word to another.Metonymy（换喻，转喻）.It is a cognitive process in which one conceptual entity, the vehicle（源域）, provides mental access to another conceptual entity, the target（目标域）, within the same domain.Chapter 7 Language, culture and society28. the relationship between language and thought?29. What’s Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis? Give your comment on it.Edward Sapir (1884 - 1939) and Benjamin Lee Whorf (1897-1941)Our language helps mould our way of thinking and, consequently, different languages mayprobably express speakers’unique ways of understanding the world.Linguistic determinism: L may determine our thinking patterns.Linguistic relativity: a. Similarity between language is relative; b. the greater their structuraldifferentiation is, the diverse their conceptualization of the world will be.30. What is the importance of culture in classroom teaching?Standard language.Chapter 8 Pragmatics31. Speech act theory32.What’s your understanding of conversational implicature? Using one or two examples to discuss the voilationof its maxims.People do not usually say things directly but tend to imply them.CP is meant to describe what actually happens in conversation.People tend to be cooperative and obey CP in communication.Since CP is regulative, CP can be violated.Violation of CP and its maxims leads to conversational implicature.1. Make your contribution as informative as is required.A: 昨天上街买了些什么?B: 就买了些东西。
英语语言学复习总结
1、How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: linguistics is the scientific study of language.It is a scientific studies because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, what the linguist has to do first is to collect and observe language facts, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. But the hypotheses, thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity.In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation; that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.2、The design/defining features of human language Charles Hockett1 Arbitrariness----No logical motivated or intrinsic connection between sounds and meanings.----- No natural and inevitable link between the sound and the meaning Exception: Onomatopoeic words and Some compound words.2 Productivity/creativityWe can speak an endless number of sentences with a limited vocabulary and one sentence can expand into endless theoretically possible sentences in the way of recurringException: and bee dancing is used only to indicate food sources, which is the only kind of message that can be sent through the dancing.3 Duality▪Lower level----sounds meaningless▪Higher level----meaning larger units of meaningException: the grouping of the three sounds/k/,/a:/,and/p/ can mean either a kind of fishcrap, or a public place for rest and amusementpark.4 DisplacementDisplacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present in time and space at the moment of communication.Exception: Yesterday which book did you read5 Cultural transmissionLanguage can transmit Culture which the language contains.Exception；an English speaker and a Chinese speaker are both able to use a language, but they are not mutually intelligible. This shows that language is culturally transmitted.3、word formation1CompoundIt refers to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form. icecream, sunrise, paperbag2 DerivationIt refers to the formation of new words by adding affixes to other words or morphemes.Unconscious, national, nationalize3 BlendingIt refers to the form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words.Smoke + fog = smog 烟雾4 Abbreviation1cutting the final part or with a slightvariation advertisement-----ad2 cutting the initial part aeroplane -----plane3 cutting both the initial and final parts accordingly refrigerator ---- fridge5 AcronymIIt is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword. WB : World BankAcronymIIThis process is also widely used in shortening extremely long words of word groups in science, technology and other special fields. VAT : value added tax 增殖税6 Back- formationIt refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the languageEditor ------edit7 BorrowingLatin: cancer, page, .that is . for example etc. et ceteraChinese: taji, chow mein, kung-fuJapanese: JudoFrench, German, Italian, Spanish8 InventionSince economic activities are the most important and dynamic in human life, many new lexical items come directly from the consumer items, their producers or their brand names such as Kodak, Coke, nylon, and others to cope with the Invention of new entities.4. XP rulerule: specifier + head + complement2. XP rule: SpecifierX’X’à Xcomplement3. XP rule :Specifier X Complement4. XP rule:Spec Mod X Complement ModComplement: in grammar that part of the sentence which follows the verb and which thus completes the sentence.Features:Ø one or more complements are permittedØ eg. A story about a sentimental girl with purple umbrella …Ø words that can take CP are not verbs alone. As, Ns and Ps can all take CPØ. take it; poor as a chuch mouse;the man with hat;right near the fireplaceØ A certain lexical item requires a certain type of complement.Ø. come to school; go to bed; look through itModifier: is used to specify optionally expressible properties of heads.Modifier position in EnglishModifier Position exampleAP Precedes the head a very careful girlPP Follows the head open with careAdvP Precedes or follows thehead read carefully; carefully read5. 请从Behaviorism 的角度来举例说明其意义：Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the “situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.”S__Tang Wanyi_____r--------s______Vicky______RWhen Tang Wanyi sees an apple and wants to have it, she has a physical stimulus, represented by the capital letters, which gives rise to a verbal responser to Vicky. For instance, she might say to Vicky ”I’m thirsty”. What she says results in a verbal stimulus to Vicky represented by the small letter S. This stimulus, in its turn, leads to a non-verbal response from Vicky, such as picking the apple for her.6. synonymy同义现象Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms1 Dialectal synonyms---- synonyms used in different regional dialects 地区方言autumn - fall, biscuit - cracker, petrol – gasoline 地方2 Stylistic synonyms----synonyms differing in style,文体风格上不同kid, child, offspring; start, begin, commence;3 Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaningexamples in Mandarin情感上和评价判断上的不同合作者/同谋；结果/下场；鼓励/…；领袖/…；赞扬/…团结4 Collocational synonyms搭配意义上的不同A group of people; a herd of wolves; a swarm of bees5 Semantically different synonyms语义不同surprise/astonish; finish/complete7、locutionary act, illocutionary act,perlocutionary actFor example,“It is cold in here.”Its locutionary act is the saying of it with its literal meaning “the weather is clod in here” ;Its illocutionary act can be a request of the hearer “to shut the window” ;Its perlocutionary act is the effect brought about; it can be “the hearer’s shutting the window or his refusal to comply with the request”.作业本You have left the door wide open① the locutionary act performed by the speaker is his utterance of all the words ”you”, ”have”, ”door”, ”open”, etc. thus expressing what the words literally mean② the illocutionary act performed by the speaker is that by making such an utterance he has expressed his intention of speaking. . asking someone to close the door.③ The perlocutionary act refers to the effect result of the utterance. It can be “the hearer clos e the door or refuse to comply with the request.8、Four maxims of CP IThe maxim of quality----Do not say what you believe to be false.----Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.The maxim of quantity----Make your contribution as informative as required for the current purpose of the exchange.----Do not make your contribution more informative than is required. The maxim of relation----Be relevant make your contribution relevant.The maxim of manner----Avoid obscurity of expression.----Avoid ambiguity.----Be brief.----Be orderly.先判断在分析,先判断是不是relation从literal meaning是不是同一个主题Conversational implicature会话含义,言外之意；会话含意In real communication, however, speakers do not always observe these maxims strictly. These maxims can be violated for various reasons. When any of the maxims is violated, . both the speaker and the hearer are aware of the violation, our language becomes indirect, then conversational implicature arises.填空,definition 判断选择Phonetics: the study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to establishment of phoneticsPhonology: how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.Morphology: is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studies the minimal units of meaning morphemes and word-formation processesSyntax: the study of how word combine to form sentences and the rules which govern the formation of sentences.Semantics: it examines how meaning is encoded in language. It is concerned with 1meanings of the words. 2 levels of language below the word and above itPragmatics: the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationships between sentences and the contexts and situation in which they are used.Sociolinguistics: the study of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society form the core of the branchPsycholinguistics: relates the study of language to psychology. It aims to answer such questions as how the human mind works when we use language, how…. , how…Articulatory phonetics发音语音学----from the speakers’ point of view, “how speakers produce speech sounds”--------speakingAcoustic phonetics声学语音学；----from the physical way or means by which sounds are transmitted from one to another.-------soundingAuditory phonetics听觉语音学----from the hearers’ point of view, “how sounds are perceived”--------listeningClassification of consonants---- English consonants may be classified according to two dimensions: ▪The manner of articulation▪The place of articulationBroad transcription ---- used in dictionary and textbook for general purpose, without diacritics, . clear l , pitNarrow transcription ---- used by phonetician for careful study, with diacritics, . dark l , aspirated pSemantics----the study of language meaning.Meaning is central to the study of communication.Naming theory’s Limitations1 Applicable to nouns only.2 There are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world.3 There are nouns that do not refer to physical objects but abstract notions.Conclusion on semantic triangleThe symbol or form refers to the linguistic elements words and phrases; The referent refers to the object in the world of experience; Thought or reference refers to concept.Relations:The symbol or a word signifies things by virtue of the concept associated with the form of the word in the minds of the speaker; and the concept looked at from this point of view is the meaning of the word.7. Antonymy反义现象Antonymy: refers to the oppositeness of meaning.1. Gradable antonyms----there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair. Old-young, hot-cold, tall-short2. Complementary antonyms----the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other. Alive-dead, male-female, …3. Relational opposites----exhibits the reversal of the relationship between the two itemsHusband-wife, father-son, doctor-patient, buy-sell, employer-employee, give-receive…8. Homonymy同形异义Homonymy---- the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, . different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.Homophone ---- when two words are identical in sound, rain-reign, night/knight, …Homogragh ---- when two words are identical in spelling. tearn.-tearv., leadn.-leadv., …Complete homonym---- when two words are identical in both sound and spelling, ballE,F, bank, watch, scale, fast, …Polysemy----the same one word may have more than one meaning.▪“table” may mean:▪1. A piece of furniture▪2. All the people seated at a table▪ food that is put on a table▪4. A thin flat piece of stone, metal wood, etc.▪5. Orderly arrangement of facts, figures, etc.……X entails Y蕴含关系▪X: John married a blond heiress.▪Y: John married a blond.▪X: Marry has been to Beijing.▪Y: Marry has been to China.▪Entailment is a relation of inclusion. If X entails Y, then the meaning of X is included in Y.▪If X is true, Y is necessarily true; if X is false, Y may be true or false.X presupposes Y预射关系▪X: His bike needs repairing.▪Y: He has a bike.▪Paul has given up smoking.▪Paul once smoked.▪If X is true, Y must be true; If X is false, Y is still true.The Relatedness between Language and SocietyThere are many indications of the inter-relationship between language and society.1. Language is often used to establish and maintain social relationships2. The use of language is in part determined by the user’s social background. social class, age, sex, education level, etc.3. Language, especially the structure of its lexicon, reflects both the physical and the social environments of a society. “snow” for Eskimo4. As a social phenomenon language is closely related to the structure of the society in which it is used, the evaluation of a linguistic form is entirely social the postvocalic r .Predication analysisIII1 The meaning of a sentence is not to be worked out by adding up all the meanings of its component words, “The dog bites the man” is semantically different from “The man bites the dog” though their components are exactly the same.2 There are two aspects to sentence meaning: grammatical meaning and semantic meaning, .Green clouds are sleeping furiously.Sincerity shook hands with the black apple.Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called selectional restrictions.According to the number of arguments contained in a predication, we may classify the predications into the following types:One-place predication: smoke, grow, rise, run, …Two-place predication: like, love, sa ve, bite, beat,…Three-place predication: give, sent, promise, call, …No-place predication: It is hot.I like youtwo placeIt is hot no place…Performatives’Features Austin’s“I declare the meeting open.”1. first person, singular subject2. simple present tense3. indicative mood4. active voice5. performative verbs基本上所有的动词都是perfomativesSearle’s Classification of Speech Acts 1969判断出是那一种Assertives/representatives陈述---- Stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true, .I think the film is moving.I’m certain I have never seen the man before.I solemnly swear that he had got it.…I think it is good.Directives指令---- Trying to get the hearer to do something, .I order you to leave right now.Open the window, please.Your money or your life…Sit down, please.Commissives承诺---- Committing the speaker himself to some future course of action, such as promise or a threat. .I will bring you the book tomorrow without fail.If you do not stop fighting, I’ll call the polic e.I promise to come.Expressives表达----Expressing the speaker’s psychological statefeeling and attitudes about something,such as an aplology, a complaint, to thank someone, to congratulate someone. .I’m sorry for being late.I apologize for the sufferings that the war has caused to your people.…You are so wonderfulDeclarations宣告----Bringing about an immediate change in the existing state or affairs, now appoint you chairman of the committee.You are fired.I now declare the meeting open.…I now pronounce you man and wife.Note: All the acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose but differ in their strength or force, .1I guess / am sure / swear he is the murderer..2In order to get someone open the door, we can choose one from a variety of the forms in below:Could you open the door, pleaseCan you open the doorDo you mind opening the doorOpen the doorThe door pleaseLanguage changeperiods1 449—1100: Old EnglishBeginning: English-speaking Anglo-Saxon and Jutes invaded into the British IslesThe End: “Norman Conquest” : the arrival of Norman French invadersGlæs; guma; gat----glass ---man ---goat“Beowulf”---England 8century poem,brave warrior2 1100—1500 Middle EnglishBeginning: “Norman Conquest” : the arrival of Norman French invadersThe End:“European Renaissance Movement”Latin and French“The Canterbury Tales”----Geoffrey Chaucer 1345-14003 1500—the present Modern EnglishBeginning: “European Renaissance Movement”The End: the presentDiphthongs appears: ai, au, ei, eu, ou, oiBecause of pressing industry overspreading, the spelling forms are determined/less changes.Regional dialectReason: This differentiation is accounted for the lack of communication in the old days when travel was difficult.Female Speech’s Features1. Women are usually more status-conscious than men in theEnglish-speaking world; therefore, their speech closely approaches the standard variety than the speech of men.2. The female speakers tend to have a wider range in their intonation.3. Female speech is, on the whole, less assertive and thus sounds to be more polite than male speech.Register: a Speech Variety used by a particular group of people, usually sharing the same occupation . doctors, lawyers or the same interests . stamp collectors, baseball fans.In a broader sense, according to Halliday, “language varies as its function varies; it differs in different situations.” The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register.Halliday further distinguishes three social variables that determine the register:▪field of discourse,▪tenor of discourse,▪mode of discourseField of discourse: what is going on: to the area of operation of the language activity. It is concerned with the purpose why and subject matter about what of communication. It can be either technical or non-technical.Tenor of discourse:the role of relationship in the situation in question: who are the participants in the communication and in what relationship they stand to each other. customer-shop-assistant, teacher-student, etc.Mode of discourse:the means of communication. It is concerned with how communication is carried out. oral, written, on the line…Standard Variety:=standard dialect=standard language:the variety of a language which has the highest Status in a community of nation and which is usually based on the speech and writing of educated native speakers of the language.The standard variety is a superimposed, socially prestigious dialect of a language. It is the language employed by the government and the judiciary system, used by the mass media, and taught in educational institutions, including school settings where the language is taught as a foreign or second language.Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf, proclaimed that the structure of the language people habitually use influences the ways they think and behave, . different languages offer people different ways of expressing the world around, they think and speak differently, this is also known as linguistic relativity.Sapir and Whorf believe that language filters people’s perception and the way they categorize experiences. This interdependence of language and thought is now known as Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis.文化影响语言,语言影响文化The inadequacy of behaviorist view1. What they imitate must be based on what the children have already known instead of what is “available” in the environment.2. They imitate words selectively and according to their own understandings of the sounds or patterns.3. how children acquire complex language system.Language acquisition device: LAD the capacity to acquire one’s First language, when this capacity is pictured as a sort of mechanism or apparatus.Universal Grammar: a theory which claims to account for the grammatical competence of every adult no matter what language he or she speaks. 了解一下UGprototype原型It claims that every speaker knows a set of principles which apply to all languages and also a set of Parameters that can vary from one language to another, but only within certain limits.According to UG theory, acquiring a language means applying the principles of UG grammar to a particular language, . English, French or German, and learning which value is appropriate for each parameter.Motherese’s Features1. shorter utterances than speech to other adults2. grammatically simple utterances3. few abstract or difficult words, with a lot of repetition4. clearer pronunciation, sometimes with exaggerated Intonation patterns CommentBehaviorists view sounds reasonable in explaining the routine aspects;The innatist accounts most plausible in explaining children’s acquiring complex system;And the interactionist description convincing in understanding how children learn and use the language appropriately from their environment.Critical Period Hypothesis CPH---- Eric Lenneberg argues that the LAD, like other biological functions, works successfully only when it is stimulated at the right time ---- a specific and limited time period for language acquisition.The strong version of CPH suggests that children must acquire their first language by puberty or they will never be able to learn from subsequent exposure.The weak version holds that language learning will be more difficult and incomplete after puberty. Support in Victor’s and Genie’s casesVocabulary development1 Under-extension 外延缩小2 Over-extension外延延伸3 Prototype theoryGrammatical development1 Telegraphic speech 22 Sentences of three main elementsContrastive analysis CAthe comparison of the linguistic systems of two languages, for example the sound system or the grammatical system. Contrastive analysis was developed and practiced in the 1950s and 1960s, as an application of Structural Linguistics to language teaching, and is based on the following assumptions1. The main difficulties in learning a new language are caused by interference from the first language. language transfer2. These difficulties can be predicted by contrastive analysis.materials can make use of contrastive analysis to reduce the effects of interference1970s, it declined and was replaced by Error Analysis▪Language transfer：the effect of one language on the learning of another. Two types of language transfer may occur.▪“I am here since Monday.”▪“ I have been here since Monday.”▪Because of the transfer of the French pattern▪Je suis ici depuis lundi▪Negative transfer,负向转移 also known as interference, is the use of a native language pattern or rule which leads to an Error orinappropriate form in the Target Language. For example, a Frenchlearner of English may produce the incorrect sentence ▪“table, transport,restaurant, surprise”▪Positive transfer,正向转移 is transfer which makes learning easier, and may occur when both the native language and the target languagehave the same form. For example, both French and English have theword ‘table’, which can have the same meaning in both languages.Interlingual errorsInterlingual errors mainly result from cross-linguistic interference at different levels such as phonological, lexical, grammatical or discoursal etc. For examples,a. Substitution of t for W and d for T: threeàtree, thisàdis.b. Shortening of long vowels: sheepàship, meetàmitIntralingual errorsThe intralingual errors mainly from faulty or partial learning of the target language, independent of the native language.▪Two types of errors have been well exploited:overgeneralization & cross-associationTrue or False1. In an exciting argument, the speakers could express themselves fluently2. In an exciting argument, the speakers have grammatical expressions all the time3. After your listening others’ speech, could you repeat it totally4. About pre-school children who can not read but can speak, do you think they can identify the noun and verb in speaking “an apple” is a thing; “run” is an action5. And also about pre-school children who can not read but can speak, do you think they can define the term “noun”三、pairPrescriptive vs DescriptiveHe love that picture. We see a film yesterday.Prescriptive ----lay down rules for “correct” linguistic behavior in using languagetradition grammar“Give me that cup.” “ Could you bring me that cup”“ Cup”Descriptive ---- describe/analyze linguistic facts observed or language people actually use modern linguisticsSynchronic vs diachronicA Grammar of Modern GreekThe Structure of Shakespear’s EnglishSynchronic study---- description of a language at some point of timeLangue vs parole F. de SaussureLangue ---- the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of the speech community.Parole ---- the realization of langue in actual use.Saussure takes a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions.Langue is the lexical, grammatical, and phonological constitution of a language to be implanted in the native speaker’s mind or brain in childhood as the collective product of the speech community envisaged as a supra-individual entity in its own right. In speaking his language thespeaker could only operate or perform within this langue; what he actually uttered was parole, and the only individual control he could exercise was when to speak and about what to speak.The aim to distinguish them is to abstract langue from parole. The reason to distinguish them is that parole is simply a mass oflinguistic facts, too varied and confusing for systematic investigation.Langue Parole 1.abstract concrete 2all the members in actual use 3 linguistic competence of the speaker actual phenomena or data oflinguistics utterance4 not accessible5 social individual6 essential accidentalconclusion S ocial bond constitutes languageActive use of speakingCompetence and performance ChomskyCompetence ---- the i deal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language Performance ---- the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communicationChomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.distribution2. Phonemic contrast;pair.Complementary distribution----allophones of the same phoneme are in complementary distribution. They do not distinguish meaning. They occur in different phonetic contexts. They never occur in the same context.Phonemic contrast----similar sounds, meanwhile can be used to distinguish the two phonemes, they are said to form a phonemic contrast.Minimal pair----two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound one Phoneme and which also differ in meaning.Derivational morpheme & inflectional morphemekindness; international; friendlyroot & affix----- Derivational morphemesfriendlytalks; talking; talked; boy’s; applesstem & affix----- Inflectional morphemesfriendsLexical meaning---basic notion of meaningsense: a dog: a domestic canine mammal, occurring in many breeds that show a great variety in size and form.Reference: the dog. a particular dog, we all know which one it is.vs. SemanticsPragmatics Semantics 1Study of the language in use The study of meaning 2Concerning the context Intrinsic, inherent 3More indeterminate, sth extra More constant 4Related to the context Inherent side of meaning 5Pragmatics = meaning – semanticsContext---- occurs before and/or after a word, a phrase or even a longer utterance or a text. The context often helps in understanding the particular meaning of the word, phrase, etcTypes:1. context of situation: Do you prepare enoughof culture: Jane Eyremeaning vs. utterance meaningSentence meaning utterance meaning1 Abstract and context-independent meaning concrete and context-dependentmeaning2 literal meaning of a sentence i ntended meaning of a speaker3 What does X mean What did you mean by X。
新编简明英语语言学教程期末复习资料
End-of-term Quiz and ReviewChapter I1. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive.2. If the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for "correct and standard" behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.3. The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study.4. A diachronic study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.5. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.6. Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by. It is abstract and stable; it is not the language people actually use.7. Parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules; it varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.8. Competence is the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language.9. Performance refers to the actual realization of ideal user’s knowledge in linguistic communication.10. Language is defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.11. Arbitrariness, as one of the features of language, means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.12. Productivity, as one of the features of language, means that language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.13. Duality, as one of the features of language, means that language is a system which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels.14. Displacement, as one of the features of language, means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places.15. Cultural transmission, as one of the features of language, means that language is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.16. Emotive (情绪性) is a language function used by the addresser to expresseshis/her attitudeto the topic or situation of communication, e.g. "I hate whatever they are planning for me! "17. Conative (意动性) is a language function used by the addresser to influence the addressee'scourse of action or ways of thinking, e.g. "Why not go and see another doctor?"18. Referential (指称性功能) is a language function used by the addresser to convey a messageor information, e.g. " As far as I know, the earth's resources are being astonishingly wasted. "19. Poetic (文学性) is a language function used by the addresser to use language for the solepurpose of displaying the beauty of language itself, e.g. poetry.20. Phatic (交际性) communion is a language function used by the addresser to establish or maintain good interpersonal relationships with the addressee, e.g. "Hi! How are you this morning?"21. Metalinguistic (元语言的) is a language function used by the addresser to use language to make clear the meaning of language itself, e.g. "Let me tell you what the word 'anorexia means. "Chapter II22. The three branches of phonetics include articulatory phonetics, auditory phonetics, and acoustic phonetics respectively.23. The articulatory apparatus（器官）of a human being is contained in three important areas: the pharyngeal cavity - the throat, the oral cavity - the mouth, and the nasal cavity - the nose.24. Broad transcription is the transcription with letter-symbols only.25. Narrow transcription is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics (变音符号).26. pit is transcribed as [ph1t] and the [p] sound is said to be aspirated.27. spit is transcribed as [spit] and the [p] sound is unaspirated.28. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they can be classified, etc.29. Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.30. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones.31. A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit.32. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of the phoneme.33. If two phonetically similar sounds are two distinctive phonemes, they are said to form a phonemic contrast, e.g. /p/ and /b/ in [pit] and [bit].34. Allophones complement each other in distribution, i.e. they occur in different phonetic environments. For instance, the clear always occurs before a vowel while the dark always occurs between a vowel and a consonant, or at the end of a word. So the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution.35. A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another result in a change of meaning. For example, in English, pill and billare identical except in /p/ and /b/. So these two sounds represent different phonemes, and they are the minimal pairs.36. The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules.37. The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by "copying" a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. For example, the [i:] sound is nasalized in words like bean, and green.38. We have noticed that in the pronunciation of such words as sign, design, and paradigm, there is no [g] sound although it is represented in spelling by the letter g. This is called deletion rule.39. Stress, tone and intonation are the suprasegmental features that occur above the level of the segments.40. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs are the content words of a language.41. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs are called open class words, since new words can be added to these classes regularly.42. Conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns consist of the "grammatical" or "functional" words.43. The number of conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns is small and stable since few new words are added, therefore such words have been referred to as closed class words.44. The most important component of a word structure is the morpheme – the smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function.45. A morpheme which can be a word by itself is called a free morpheme.46. A morpheme that must be attached to another one is a bound morpheme.47. The variant forms of a morpheme are called its allomorphs. An example is a used before a word beginning with a consonant and an before a word beginning with a vowel.48. Affixes are bound morphemes and they do not belong to a lexical category such as nouns or verbs.49. Derivational morphemes are so called because when they are conjoined to other morphemes or words, new words are derived, or formed.50. Inflectional morphemes are bound morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers and signify such concepts as tense, number, case and so on. They are attached to words or morphemes, but they never change their syntactic category.51. The XP rule: XP--(specifier) X (complement)52. In the example, “a story about a sentimental girl”, the PP is a complement.53. Complements are attached to the right of the head in English.54. Words which introduce the sentence complement are termed complementizers (shortened as Cs).55. The sentence introduced by the complementizer is called a complement clause.56. The construction in which the complement phrase is embedded is called matrix clause.57. “XP → (Spec) (Mod) X (Complement) (Mod)” is the expanded XP rule.58. The S rule is made of NP+VP59. Sentences, like other phrases, also have their own heads. They take an inflection (dubbed "Infl") as their heads.60. Inflection indicates the sentence's tense and agreement.61. Infl is a sentence head that takes an NP (the subject) as its specifier and a VP category as itscomplement.62. A yes-no question requires a transformation, a special type of rule that can move an elementfrom one position to another.63. A transformation known as inversion moves the auxiliary from the Infl position toa position to the left of the subject.64. The position the auxiliary occupies is the same as the position that a complementizer occupies.65. Do insertion is to insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position66. Deep structure is formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties.67. Corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence, surface structure results from appropriate transformations.68. In Wh Movement, we move the wh phrase to the beginning of the sentence.69. According to naming theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for.70. The limitations of naming theory are applicable to nouns only and there are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world.71. The conceptualist view holds the interpretation of meaning is linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.72. The contextualist view of meaning is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts.73. Two kinds of context are recognized: the situational context and the linguistic context.74. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, the collection of all its features; it is abstract and de-contextualized.75. Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.76. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.77. The same one word may have more than one meaning. This is what we call polysemy.78. Homonymy (同音（形）异义性) refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.79. Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.80. Words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms.81. Componential analysis is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning.82. A predication consists of argument and predicate.83. Pragmatics is defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.84. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered.85. The meaning of a sentence is abstract, and decontextualized86. The meaning of a/an utterance is concrete, and context dependent.87. A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, and clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.88. An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker's intention; it is the act performed in saying something.89. representatives means stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true.90. directives means to trying to get the hearer to do something.91. Commissives means committing the speaker himself to some future course of action.92. Expressives means expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state.93. Declarations means bringing about immediate changes by saying something.94. The primary speech act is the speaker's goal of communication.95. The secondary speech act is the means by which the speaker achieves his/her goal.96. According to the maxim of quantity, speakers should not make his/her contribution more informative than is required.97. The maxim of quality requires that speakers do not say what they believe to be false.98. Be relevant is the maxim of relation.99. According to the maxim of manner, speakers should avoid ambiguity and be brief. 100. Pragmatic failure occurs when the speaker fails to use language effectively to achieve a specific communicative purpose, or when the hearer fails to recognize the intention or the illocutionary force of the speaker’s utterance in the context of communication.。
语言学复习资料 音系学(英语)
Chapter 2：PhonologyI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Voicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in bothChinese and English.2 If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments andthey distinguish meaning, they are said to be in complementarydistribution.3. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning.4. English is a tone language while Chinese is not.5. In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.6. In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writingin terms of the amount of information conveyed.7. Articulatory phonetics tries to describe the physical properties ofthe stream of sounds which a speaker issues with the help of a machine called spectrograph.8. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in threeimportant areas: the throat, the mouth and the chest.9. Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech soundscalled voicing.10. English consonants can be classified in terms of place of articulationand the part of the tongue that is raised the highest.11. According to the manner of articulation, some of the types intowhich the consonants can be classified are stops, fricatives, bilabial and alveolar.12. Vowel sounds can be differentiated by a number of factors: theposition of tongue in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels.13. According to the shape of the lips, vowels can be classified intoclose vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels and open vowels.14. Any sound produced by a human being is a phoneme.15. Phones are the sounds that can distinguish meaning.16. Phonology is concerned with how the sounds can be classified intodifferent categories.17. A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see ifsubstituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning. 18. When two different forms are identical in every way except forone sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a phonemic contrast.19. The rules governing the phonological patterning are languagespecific.20. Distinctive features of sound segments can be found running overa sequence of two or more phonemic segments.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:21． A ____ refers to a strong puff of air stream in the production of speech sounds.22． A___________ phonetics describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how theydiffer.23． The four sounds /p/,/b/,/m/ and /w/ have one feature in common,i.e, they are all b_______ sounds.24． Of all the speech organs, the t ____ is the most flexible, and is responsible for varieties of articulation than any other.25． English consonants can be classified in terms of manner of articulation or in terms of p_______ of articulation.26． When the obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction audibly released and the air passing out again is called a s________. <![endif]> 27． S_________ features are the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments. They include stress, tone, intonation, etc. 28．The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular lan-guage are called s ____ rules.29． The transcription of speech sounds with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription while the transcription with letter-symbolstogether with the diacritics is called n_________ transcription. 30．When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known asi_________.31．P___________ is a discipline which studies the system of sounds ofa particular language and how sounds are combined into meaningfulunits to effect linguistic communication.32． The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important cavities: the pharyngeal cavity, the o_______ cavity and the nasal cavity.33． T_______ are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords and which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes. <![endif]>34． Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are two kinds of stress: word stress and s_________ stress.III. There are four choices following each of the statements below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:35． Of all the speech organs, the _______ is/ are the most flexible.A. mouthB. lipsC. tongueD. vocal cords36．The sounds produced without the vocal cords vibrating are ____ sounds.A. voicelessB. voicedC. vowelD. consonantal37．__________ is a voiced alveolar stop.A. /z/B. /d/C. /k/D./b/38．The assimilation rule assimilate s one sound to another by “copying”a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones____________.A. identicalB. sameC. exactly alikeD. similar39． Since /p/ and /b/ are phonetically similar, occur in the same environments and they can distinguish meaning, they are said to be ___________.A. in phonemic contrastB. in complementarydistributionC. the allophonesD.minimal pair40． The sound /f/ is _________________.A. voiced palatal affricateB. voiced alveolar stopC. voiceless velar fricativeD. voiceless labiodentalfricative41. A ____ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tonguemaintaining the highest position.A. backB. centralC. frontD. middle42. Distinctive features can be found running over a sequence of two ormore phonemic segments. The phonemic features that occur above thelevel of the segments are called ____________.A. phonetic componentsB. immediate constituentsC. suprasegmental featuresD.semantic features43. A(n) ___________ is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is anabstract unit, a collection of distinctive phonetic features.A. phoneB. soundC. allophoneD.phoneme44． The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the ____ of that phoneme.A. phonesB. soundsC. phonemesD. allophones <![endif]>IV. Define the terms below:45. phonology 46. phoneme 47.allophone 48. internationalphonetic alphabet 49. intonation 50. phonetics 51. auditory phonetics 52. acoustic phonetics 53. phone 54. phonemic contrast 55. tone 56. minimal pairV. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:57. Of the two media of language, why do you think speech is more basicthan writing?58. What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels?59. What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics?60. Illustrate with examples how suprasegmental features can affectmeaning.61. In what way can we determine whether a phone is a phoneme or not?I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:l.T 2.F 3.F 4.F 5.T 6.T 7.F 8.F 9.T10.F11.F 12.T 13.F 14.F 15.F 16. F 17. T 18. F 19. T20. TII. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:21. Aspiration 22.Articulatory 23. bilabial 24. tongue 25.place26. stop 27. Suprasegmental 28. sequential 29. narrow 30. intonation 31. Phonology 32. oral 33. Tone 34. sentenceIII. There are four choices following each of the statements below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:35.C 36.A 37.B 38.D 39.A 40.D 41.C 42.C 43.D44.DIV. Define the terms below:45. phonology: Phonology studies the system of sounds of a particularlanguage; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.46. phoneme: The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unitof distinctive value. But it is an abstract unit. To be exact, a phoneme is not a sound; it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.47. allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme indifferent phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.48. international phonetic alphabet: It is a standardized andinternationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.49. intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to thesentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.50. phonetics: Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium oflanguage; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world' s languages51. auditory phonetics: It studies the speech sounds from the hearer'spoint of view. It studies how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.52. acoustic phonetics: It studies the speech sounds by looking at thesound waves. It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.53. phone : Phones can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use whenspeaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning.54. phonemic contrast: Phonemic contrast refers to the relation betweentwo phonemes. If two phonemes can occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning, they are in phonemic contrast.55. tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differingrates of vibration of the vocal cords.56. minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every wayexcept for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:57. Of the two media of language, why do you think speech is more basicthan writing?1) In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.2) In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role thanwriting in terms of the amount of information conveyed.3) Speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquireshis mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later at school.58. What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels?1) Vowels may be distinguished as front, central and backin terms of the position of the tongue in the mouth.2) According to how wide our mouth is opened, we classifythe vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels.3) According to the shape of the lips, vowels are dividedinto rounded vowels and unrounded vowels.4) The English vowels can also be classified into longvowels and short vowels according to the length of the sound. 59. What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics? They differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified. Phonology, on the other hand, is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.60. Illustrate with examples how suprasegmental features can affectmeaning.1) The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning,such as `import and im`port. The similar alternation of stress also occurs between a compound noun and a phrase consisting of the same elements. A phonological feature of the English compounds, is that the stress of the word always falls on the first element and the second element receives secondary stress, for example: `blackbird is a particular kind of bird, which is not necessarily black, buta black `bird is a bird that is black.2) The more important words such as nouns, verbs adjectives ,adverbs,etc are pronounced with greater force and made more prominent. But to give special emphasis to a certain notion, a word in sentence that is usually unstressed can be stressed to achieve different effect. Take the sentence “He is driving my car.” for example. To emphasize the fact that the car he is driving is not his, or yours, but mine, the speaker can stress the possessive pronoun my, which under normal circumstances is not stressed.3) English has four basic types of intonation, known as thefour tones: When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings. Generally speaking, the falling tone indicates that what is said is a straight-forward, matter-of-fact statement, the rising tone often makes a question of what is said, and the fall-rise tone often indicates that there is an implied message in what is said.61. In what way can we determine whether a phone is a phoneme or not?A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see ifsubstituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning. If。
大学语言学基础 英语复习资料
Chapter 1:1.What are the design features of language?The features that define our human language can be called Design Features.2.What is Arbitrariness?Saussure first refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs(symbol forms) bear no natural relationship to their meaning.3.What are onomatopoeia words?Words that sound like the sounds they describe.4.How do you understand of clauses language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level?The order of elements in a sentence follows certain rules,and there is a certain degree of correspondence between the sequence of clauses and the real happenings.5.What is duality?By duality is meant the property of having two levels of structures,such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.(Lyons)6.What is the advantage of duality?It lies in the great productive power our language is endowed with.A large number of different units can be formed out of a small number of elements.And out of the huge number of words,there can be endless number of sentences,which in turn can form unlimited number of texts.7.How do you understand language is a system?In terms of internal structure,language is hierarchical.There are 6 level.Speech sounds,morpheme,word,phrase,sentence,text.8.What is creativity?By creativity we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and recursiveness.(Chomsky Noam).The recursiveness refers to the potential of language to create endless sentences.9.What is displacement?Displacement means that human language enable their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present at the moment of communication.10.What is the benefit of displacement?Displacement benefits human beings by giving them the power to handle generalization and abstractions.11.What are the 3 theory concerning to the origin of language?First,the divine origin theory:Language is created by God.Second,the invention theory:Language is created by man.(①The bow-wow theory拟声说the evidence is onomatopoeic words.②The pooh-pooh theory感叹说the evidence is interjections③The yo-ho-yo theory劳动喊声说some rhythmic grunt.)Third,the evolutionary theory:when men involved in a certain degree,they have the cognitive ability.There are two basices:Psychical basic(speech organ) and social basises(cooperate communication ),then language came into being.12.What are the seven functions of language?Informative信息功能,Interpersonal人际，Performative施为，Emotion感情，Phatic communion 交感,recreational娱乐，meta-lingual元语言。
语言学概论复习资料
复习资料英语专业《语言学概论》（本科）I. 填空题（Fill in the blanks）（15分，每空1.5分）1. The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.2. Language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facets, so it is hardly possible for the linguists to deal with it all at once.3. The sounds used in linguistic communication are represented by symbols, i.e. morphemes.4. The combination of words to form grammatically permissibly sentences in languages is governed by rules.5. In most general terms language is used to convey meaning. The study of meaning is known as semantics.6. Language communication does not occur in a vacuum, it always occurs in a context.7. Language and society are closely connected. The language a person uses often reveals his social background.II. 术语解释（Define the following terms.）(35分，每个术语7分)1. arbitrarinessLanguage is arbitrary. This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages. On the other hand, we should be aware that while language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entire arbitrary; certain words are motivated. One case is the onomatopoeic words like crash, bang in English. Another case is compound words like photocopy. The arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.2. productivityLanguage is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why when we are using language, we can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences we have never heard before. We can also send messages which no one else has ever sent before. Much of what we say and hear we are saying or hearing for the first time. Productivity is unique to human language. No animal communication system can be so.3. displacementLanguage can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. This is what “displacement” means.This property provides speakers with an opportunity to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time and place. In contrast, no animal communication system possesses this feature.4. hyponymyHyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms. Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms to each other. For example,Superordinate: flowerHyponyms: rose, tulip, lily, …5. polysemyIt refers to the phenomenon that the same one word may have more than one meaning. Such a word is called a polysemic word. Generally speaking, the more commonly used a word is, the more likely it has acquired more than one meaning.IV. 论述题（Discuss the following issues.）（30分）1. How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar? Key points:。
语言学复习资料音系学(英语)
Chapter 2：PhonologyI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Voicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in bothChinese and English.2 If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments andthey distinguish meaning, they are said to be in complementarydistribution.3. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning.4. English is a tone language while Chinese is not.5. In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.6. In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writingin terms of the amount of information conveyed.7. Articulatory phonetics tries to describe the physical properties ofthe stream of sounds which a speaker issues with the help of a machine called spectrograph.8. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in threeimportant areas: the throat, the mouth and the chest.9. Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech soundscalled voicing.10. English consonants can be classified in terms of place of articulationand the part of the tongue that is raised the highest.11. According to the manner of articulation, some of the types intowhich the consonants can be classified are stops, fricatives, bilabial and alveolar.12. Vowel sounds can be differentiated by a number of factors: theposition of tongue in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels.13. According to the shape of the lips, vowels can be classified intoclose vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels and open vowels.14. Any sound produced by a human being is a phoneme.15. Phones are the sounds that can distinguish meaning.16. Phonology is concerned with how the sounds can be classified intodifferent categories.17. A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see ifsubstituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning. 18. When two different forms are identical in every way except forone sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a phonemic contrast.19. The rules governing the phonological patterning are languagespecific.20. Distinctive features of sound segments can be found running overa sequence of two or more phonemic segments.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:21． A ____ refers to a strong puff of air stream in the production of speech sounds.22． A___________ phonetics describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how theydiffer.23． The four sounds /p/,/b/,/m/ and /w/ have one feature in common,i.e, they are all b_______ sounds.24． Of all the speech organs, the t ____ is the most flexible, and is responsible for varieties of articulation than any other.25． English consonants can be classified in terms of manner of articulation or in terms of p_______ of articulation.26． When the obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction audibly released and the air passing out again is called a s________. <![endif]> 27． S_________ features are the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments. They include stress, tone, intonation, etc. 28．The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular lan-guage are called s ____ rules.29． The transcription of speech sounds with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription while the transcription with letter-symbolstogether with the diacritics is called n_________ transcription. 30．When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known asi_________.31．P___________ is a discipline which studies the system of sounds ofa particular language and how sounds are combined into meaningfulunits to effect linguistic communication.32． The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important cavities: the pharyngeal cavity, the o_______ cavity and the nasal cavity.33． T_______ are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords and which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes. <![endif]>34． Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are two kinds of stress: word stress and s_________ stress.III. There are four choices following each of the statements below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:35． Of all the speech organs, the _______ is/ are the most flexible.A. mouthB. lipsC. tongueD. vocal cords36．The sounds produced without the vocal cords vibrating are ____ sounds.A. voicelessB. voicedC. vowelD. consonantal37．__________ is a voiced alveolar stop.A. /z/B. /d/C. /k/D./b/38．The assimilation rule assimilate s one sound to another by “copying”a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones____________.A. identicalB. sameC. exactly alikeD. similar39． Since /p/ and /b/ are phonetically similar, occur in the same environments and they can distinguish meaning, they are said to be ___________.A. in phonemic contrastB. in complementarydistributionC. the allophonesD.minimal pair40． The sound /f/ is _________________.A. voiced palatal affricateB. voiced alveolar stopC. voiceless velar fricativeD. voiceless labiodentalfricative41. A ____ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tonguemaintaining the highest position.A. backB. centralC. frontD. middle42. Distinctive features can be found running over a sequence of two ormore phonemic segments. The phonemic features that occur above thelevel of the segments are called ____________.A. phonetic componentsB. immediate constituentsC. suprasegmental featuresD.semantic features43. A(n) ___________ is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is anabstract unit, a collection of distinctive phonetic features.A. phoneB. soundC. allophoneD.phoneme44． The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the ____ of that phoneme.A. phonesB. soundsC. phonemesD. allophones <![endif]>IV. Define the terms below:45. phonology 46. phoneme 47.allophone 48. internationalphonetic alphabet 49. intonation 50. phonetics 51. auditory phonetics 52. acoustic phonetics 53. phone 54. phonemic contrast 55. tone 56. minimal pairV. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:57. Of the two media of language, why do you think speech is more basicthan writing?58. What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels?59. What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics?60. Illustrate with examples how suprasegmental features can affectmeaning.61. In what way can we determine whether a phone is a phoneme or not?I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:l.T 2.F 3.F 4.F 5.T 6.T 7.F 8.F 9.T10.F11.F 12.T 13.F 14.F 15.F 16. F 17. T 18. F 19. T20. TII. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:21. Aspiration 22.Articulatory 23. bilabial 24. tongue 25.place26. stop 27. Suprasegmental 28. sequential 29. narrow 30. intonation 31. Phonology 32. oral 33. Tone 34. sentenceIII. There are four choices following each of the statements below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:35.C 36.A 37.B 38.D 39.A 40.D 41.C 42.C 43.D44.DIV. Define the terms below:45. phonology: Phonology studies the system of sounds of a particularlanguage; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.46. phoneme: The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unitof distinctive value. But it is an abstract unit. To be exact, a phoneme is not a sound; it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.47. allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme indifferent phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.48. international phonetic alphabet: It is a standardized andinternationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.49. intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to thesentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.50. phonetics: Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium oflanguage; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world' s languages51. auditory phonetics: It studies the speech sounds from the hearer'spoint of view. It studies how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.52. acoustic phonetics: It studies the speech sounds by looking at thesound waves. It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.53. phone : Phones can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use whenspeaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning.54. phonemic contrast: Phonemic contrast refers to the relation betweentwo phonemes. If two phonemes can occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning, they are in phonemic contrast.55. tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differingrates of vibration of the vocal cords.56. minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every wayexcept for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:57. Of the two media of language, why do you think speech is more basicthan writing?1) In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.2) In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role thanwriting in terms of the amount of information conveyed.3) Speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquireshis mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later at school.58. What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels?1) Vowels may be distinguished as front, central and backin terms of the position of the tongue in the mouth.2) According to how wide our mouth is opened, we classifythe vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels.3) According to the shape of the lips, vowels are dividedinto rounded vowels and unrounded vowels.4) The English vowels can also be classified into longvowels and short vowels according to the length of the sound. 59. What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics? They differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified. Phonology, on the other hand, is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.60. Illustrate with examples how suprasegmental features can affectmeaning.1) The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning,such as `import and im`port. The similar alternation of stress also occurs between a compound noun and a phrase consisting of the same elements. A phonological feature of the English compounds, is that the stress of the word always falls on the first element and the second element receives secondary stress, for example: `blackbird is a particular kind of bird, which is not necessarily black, buta black `bird is a bird that is black.2) The more important words such as nouns, verbs adjectives ,adverbs,etc are pronounced with greater force and made more prominent. But to give special emphasis to a certain notion, a word in sentence that is usually unstressed can be stressed to achieve different effect. Take the sentence “He is driving my car.” for example. To emphasize the fact that the car he is driving is not his, or yours, but mine, the speaker can stress the possessive pronoun my, which under normal circumstances is not stressed.3) English has four basic types of intonation, known as thefour tones: When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings. Generally speaking, the falling tone indicates that what is said is a straight-forward, matter-of-fact statement, the rising tone often makes a question of what is said, and the fall-rise tone often indicates that there is an implied message in what is said.61. In what way can we determine whether a phone is a phoneme or not?A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning. If it does, the two sounds then represent different phonemes.。
英语语言学期末复习宝典
LinguisticsChapter 1 Language and LinguisticsLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Features of language: displacement, arbitrariness, productivity/creativity, cultural transmission, duality, discreteness不连续性1.1考论述①language is systematic. In natural verbal communication, people can learn and use alanguage consistently. This shows that language is systematic. This property is usually claimed to be unique to humans.②language is symbolic. As we know, people use signs to communicate, which means that language involves signs. The conception of sign through has evolved through a long history of philosophical discussions, dating to the Middle Age.③language is arbitrary. (convention) Arbitrariness does not mean that everything about language is unpredictable. The forms of linguistic signs bear no natural resemblance to their meaning.④language is primarily vocal. All languages use sounds. Children learn to speak before they learn to read and write; children automatically learna language as they grow up; the spoken form came earlier than the written in human history; writingis based on speech; people use spoken language more often than writing⑤language is human specific. There are certain characteristics of human language that are not found in the communication systems of any other species. Although most animals are assumed to communicate in some way, they convey limited information and only express emotions such as fear and warnings.⑥language is used for communication. Language is the result of our communicative needs. Itsattractiveness comes from its social utility. Language enables us to communicate our general attitudes toward life and others.1)language is systematicEach human language is organized into two basic systems, a system of sounds and a system of meanings. This is called the duality of language.Linguistics is concerned not only with characteristics of the two systems but also with their relationship.Sounds are units which combine to make words or parts of words, different sequences of sounds have difference in meaning. Elements have no meaning themselves. The number of words in a language is relatively finite but their possible combination can be infinite.In a language we can find agreed-upon sound-meaning relations and agreed-upon sequences.These principles can be called rules. These rules make up the syntax of the language.2)language is symbolicLanguage involves signs whose conception can be date back to the Middle Ages. There has been a discipline to study the working of signs, Sassure calls it “semiology”, and Peirce terms it “semiotics”.Charles Peirce views semiotics as a branch of logic and philosophy. Signs are divided into natural signs and conventional signs. Signs are ubiquitous in human society and can be categorized into three major types: icon象征符, index标记符and symbol代码符.3)language is arbitraryAccording to Saussure, the linguistic signs unites, not a thing and a name, but a concept and a sound-image. The sound-image is not the material sound but the psychological imprint of the sound, the impression it makes on our senses.考判断Arbitrary does not mean that everything about language is unpredictable but that human languages use neutral symbols. Concept and sound-image are replaced by signified所指and signifier能指respectively. The most arbitrary level of language is that of the distinctive units ofsound. It is because sound units are distinctive. Syntax句法is less arbitrary than words. Words are arbitrary in form, but they are not random in their use.4)language is primarily vocalVerbal communication can involve various forms. Speech and writing are the most common. The primary medium of language is sound. Writing is based on speaking and can influence speaking.Writing systems represent some levels of the spoken language, such as distinct words, syllables, or sounds.5)language is human specific (purely human)Human language is generally said to be different from animal communication in the following aspects:nguage has the ability to refer to things far removed in time and space.2.Humans have the ability to produce and understand an indefinite无限期的，不明确的numberof novel utterance.（openness or productivity）3.Learning is much more important as a factor in human language than in animal communication.nguage is complex in its structure.5.Animal communication systems are closed, whereas human languages are open-ended.6.According to speech act theory, humans can perform acts with language just as they can withobjects of different kinds.6)language is used for communicationA conversation s assumed to be a pattern of two-way communication.1.2The functions of language: general functions of language; metafunctions of language元功能.1)General functions of languagePhysiological function（or emotive/expressive function）, phatic function交际功能（creating or maintaining social relationship between speakers）, recording function, identifying function, reasoning function(as a tool of thought), communication function, pleasure function(or recreational function)……Informative function, performative function施为功能（ppt补充）2)Metafunctions of languageIdeational function 概念功能:Divide into experimental function and logical function; as a symbolic code to represent the world around usInterpersonal function 人际功能:The participatory function of language/enable the speakers (writers) and the listeners (readers) maintain interactions and thus enact a social and intersubjective relationshipTextual function 语篇功能: represent the speaker‟s text-forming potential. Relates our abilities to construct texts out of our utterances and writings.1.3The origin and classification of language1)The origin of language(divine source, the natural-sound source, evolutionary source)The belief that all languages originated from a single source is found in Genesis. Many scientists today believe that man arose in many different places of the world.Three broad categories of the origin of language: creation, evolution and invention.Creation/Divine Origin: almost every religion has stories about how man received language from God. But it is impossible for man to name things without acquiring languageEvolution：Man evolved from lower forms of life. Language evolved as an adjunct to early communicationInvention: believe that there is natural connection between the forms of language and the essence of things. (onomatopoetic words)2)Language families语系Two main ways of classifying languages: genetic classification and typological classification (group language into structural types, on the basis of phonology, grammar, or vocabulary---isolating, infecting屈折语, agglutinating 黏着语language)1.4What is linguistic ( Phonetics. Phonology. Morphology. Semantics. Pragmatics. Syntax)1)to do with sounds, vocabulary, grammar, meaning and historical development of language.The main purpose of linguistics is to develop a general theory of language and theories on aspects of language.2)语言by all members of a community of speakers.(social, conventional side of language, collective body of knowledge, abstract knowledge)Parole言语is the particular realization of language. (individualized speech, the use of language in utterance, concrete)Prescriptive陈述的and descriptive 描述的：Linguistics is descriptive, not prescriptive.Prescriptivism describe what should be in language, but descriptivism describes the way people actually speak and write their language.---what is in the language.synchronic 共时and diachronic历时:Synchronic study refers to the description of a particular state of a language at a single point of time.Diachronic study refers to the description of the historical development of a language. (two or more than two states of language over decades or centuries)speech and writing:language is primarily vocal. No community has a written form only. Linguistics has stressed the priority of speech---the spoken first, then the writtenSpeech has the restriction of both time and space. Without writing, human progress would be extremely slow.With modern technology, the distinction between speech and writing is being blurred.syntagmatic and paradigmatic:Syntagmatic relation refers to the relations between units which combine to form sequences.(re+write)Paradigmatic relation refers to oppositions which produce distinct and alternative terms (foot-feet) competence and performance:Competence refers to the knowledge that native speakers have of their language as system of abstract formal relations.Performance refers to the infinite varied individual acts of verbal behavior with their irregularities, inconsistencies and errors.Chomsky sees the linguist‟s task as primarily describing competence because performance is impossible without competence.functionalism and formalism.For Chomsky, competence is not a social but a psychological phenomenon, not a shared generality but a genetic endowment in each individual.1.5The scope of linguistics1)Use of linguisticsPragmatics, anthropological linguistics, psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, neurolinguistics 神经语言学, applied linguistics, computational linguistics.2)Recent developments考小题Corpus linguistics, discourse analysis, cognitive linguistics, systemic functional grammar.Chapter 2 phonetics and phonology1.1production of sounds1)scope of phoneticsMaking sounds consists three stages: the production of the message, the transmission of the message, and the reception of the message.Phonetics is composed of three separate fields:articulatory phonetics, acousctic phonetics, auditory phonetics.2)articulation of sounds发音V oice: sound may be either voiced or voiceless.Two perspectives to examine how sounds are articulated:manner of articulation & place of articulationManner of articulation: plosives and nasal stops; fricatives; affricates; approximants; trills and taps Place of articulation: bilabial; dental; post-alveolar; retroflex; uvular; glottal; labiodental; alveolar;palatal; velar; pharyngealV owels:The primary criteria for the classification of vowels are: 1) the distance between the top of the tongue and the roof of the mouth 2) the retraction and extension of the tongue. A secondary criterion is the rounding of the lips.the height of the tongue raising---high, mid, lowthe position of the highest part of the tongue---front, central, backthe length or tenseness of the vowel---lax or tensethe shape of the lips ---rounded, unrounded3)characteristics of English speech soundsEnglish vowel s: There are 7 short vowels, 5 long vowels, 8 diphthongs双元音, and 5 trip thongs 三元音.P5 monophthongs单元音English consonant s: consonants are usually classified according to their place of articulation and manner of articulation. English is said to have 24 consonants: 6 plosive consonants,9 fricatives 摩擦音, 2 affricates塞擦音, 3 nasals 鼻音, 3 approximants and 1 lateral consonant. P534)the transcription of soundsA phonetic alphabet can represent speech in the form of segments, or individual speech sounds. Aphonetic transcription is an economical means for capturing sounds on paper. The best-known system, the International Phonetic Alphebet (IPA), has been developing since 1888. This system of transcription attempts to represent each sound of human speech with a single symbol. There are two kinds of transcription: narrow transcription and broad transcription.1.21)definition of phonemesThe segments of an underlying representation are called phonemes. Phonemes equal distinctive sounds. Phoneme is the minimum phonetic unit that is not further analyzable into smaller units.Human languages use a large number of orally transmitted units called phonemes.2)minimal pairs最小语音主力: a pair of phonemes is also known as a minimal pair. When twodifferent forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string, the two words are called minimal pairs. For instance, deed and seed. Phonemic distinctions can occur in any position within a word. The substitution of one feature for another does not result in a change in meaning. Thus, we say that the sounds or features in question are in free variation. Thus, we say that the sounds or features in question are in free variation.3)Distinctive features are often shown in the form of a binary opposition. The features can be shown as either present [+] or absent [-]. Most distinctive features are binary, that is, they can have only one of two values--plus or minus. [s] is [-voiced] and [z] is [+voiced]1.3refer to the set of sounds that occur in a given language, the permissibleIt is highly unlikely that any two languages have exactly the same sound pattern.1）sequential constraints（语音）序列的限制All languages have constraints on the permitted sequences of phonemes, though different languages have different constraints. The phonological system determines which phonemes can begin a word, end a word, and follow each other.2）★complementary distribution互补性分布When two or more sounds never occur in an identical phonemic context or environment, they are said to be in complementary distribution. The aspirated and the unaspirated phones(pea [Ph] and speed [P; hit and sing [h][n])are in complementary distribution. According to Wardhaugh, phonetically similar sounds in complementary distribution are allophones音位变体of a single phoneme.1.4suprasegmental features 超音段特征of a center which has little or no obstruction to airflow and which sounds loud; before and after this center there is greater obstruction to airflow and/or less sound. According to Roach, a minimum syllable is a single vowel in isolation.Structurally, the syllable may be divided into three parts: the onset, the peak(vowel), and the coda.首音，音核，音节尾。
英语语言学形态学复习资料
英语语言学形态学复习资料Chapter 3：MorphologyI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Morphology studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.2.Words are the smallest meaningful units of language.3. Just as a phoneme is the basic unit in the study of phonology, so isa morpheme the basic unit in the study of morphology.4. The smallest meaningful units that can be used freely all by themselves are free morphemes.5. Bound morphemes include two types: roots and affixes.6. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case.7. The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is calleda stem, which can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.8. Prefixes usually modify the part of speech of the original word, not the meaning of it.9. There are rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word. Therefore, words formed according to the morphological rules are acceptable words.10. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.II. Fill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given:11. M ____ is the smallest meaningful unit of language.12. The affix “-ish” in the word boyish conveys a g____ meaning.13. B___________ morphemes are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.14. Affixes are of two types: inflectional affixes and d__________ affixes.15. D________ affixes are added to an existing form to create words.16. A s______ is added to the end of stems to modify the meaning of the original word and it may case change its part of speech.17. C__________ is the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.18. The rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word are called m___________ rules.19. In terms of morphemic analysis, d_______________ can be viewed as the addition of affixes to stems to form new words.20. A s______ can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself to which a derivational affix can be added.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:21. The morpheme “vision” in the common word “television” is a(n)______.A. bound morphemeB. bound formC. inflectional morphemeD. free morpheme22. The compound word “bookstore” is the place where books are sold.This indicates that the meaning of a compound __________.A. is the sum total of the meaning of its componentsB. can always be worked out by looking at the meanings of morphemesC. is the same as the meaning of a free phrase.D. None of the above.23. The part of speech of the compounds is generally determined by thepart of speech of __________.A. the first elementB. the second elementC. either the first or the second elementD. both the first and the second elements.24. _______ are those that cannot be used independently but have to becombined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.A. Free morphemesB. Bound morphemesC. Bound wordsD. Words25. _________ is a branch of grammar which studies the internalstructure of words and the rules by which words are formed.A. SyntaxB.GrammarC. MorphologyD. Morpheme26. The meaning carried by the inflectional morpheme is _______.A. lexicalB. morphemicC. grammaticalD. semantic27. Bound morphemes are those that ___________.A. have to be used independentlyB. can not be combined with other morphemesC. can either be free or boundD. have to be combined with other morphemes.28. ____ modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change thepart of speech of the original word.A. PrefixesB. SuffixesC. RootsD. Affixes29. _________ are often thought to be the smallest meaningful unitsof language by the linguists.A. WordsB. MorphemesC. PhonemesD. Sentences30. “-s” in the word “books” is _______.A. a derivative affixB. a stemC. an inflectional affixD. a rootIV. Define the following terms:31. morphology 32. inflectional morphology33. derivational morphology 34. morpheme35. free morpheme 36. bound morpheme37. root 38. affix39. prefix 40. suffix41. derivation 42. CompoundingV. Answer the following questions:43. What are the main features of the English compounds?44. Discuss the types of morphemes with examples.I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:l.T 2.F 3.T 4.T 5.T 6.T 7.T 8.F 9.F 10.TII. II. Fill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given:11. Morpheme 12. grammatical 13. Bound 14. derivative 15.Derivative 16. suffix 17. Compounding 18. morphological 19. derivation 20. stem III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement: 2l.D 22.D 23.B 24.B 25.C 26. C 27. D 28. A 29. B 30. C IV. Define the following terms:31. Morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies theinternal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.32. inflectional morphology: The inflectional morphology studies the inflections33. derivational morphology: Derivational morphology is the study ofword- formation.34. Morpheme: It is the smallest meaningful unit of language.35. free morpheme: Free morphemes are the morphemes which areindependent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes.36. bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannotbe used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.37. Root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never standby itself although it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.38. Affix: Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational.Inflectional affixes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories, while derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.39. Prefix: Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word . Prefixes modifythe meaning of the stem, but they usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.40. Suffix: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modifythe meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.41. Derivation:Derivation is a process of word formation by whichderivative affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.42. Compounding: Compounding can be viewed as the combination of twoor sometimes more than two words to create new words.V. Anwser the following questions:43. What are the main features of the English compounds?Orthographically a compound can be written as one word, two separate words with or without a hyphen in between. Syntactically, the part of speech of a compound is determined by the last element. Semantically, the meaning of a compound is idiomatic, not calculable from the meanings of all its components. Phonetically, the word stress of a compound usually falls on the first element.44. Discuss the types of morphemes with examples.Free morphemes: They are the independent units of meaning and can beused freely all by themselves, for example, “book-” in the word “bookish”.Bound morphemes: They are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word such as “-ish” in “bookish”. Bound morphemes can be subdivided into roots and affixes. A root is seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it has a clear and definite meaning, such as “gene-” in the word “generate”. Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammati cal categories such as “-s” in the word “books” to indicate plurality of noun s. Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word such as “mis-” in the word “misinform”. Derivational affixes can also be divided into prefixes and suffixes. Prefixesoccur at the beginning of a word such as “dis- ” in the word “dislike”, while suffixes occur at the end of a word such as “-less” in the word “friendless”.。