语言学概论期末复习
语言学概论期末复习重点
语言学概论期末复习提纲导言部分一、语言的三大发源地：中国、印度、希腊－罗马五、根据研究对象的不同把语言学分为专语语言学和普通语言学。
五、1共时语言学：以同时的静态分析的方法、研究语言相对静止的状态。
描写分析语言在某一个时期、某一个阶段的状况，时从横的方面研究语言。
（如现代汉语、当代英语）五、2历时语言学：从历时的、动态的角度研究语言发展的历史，观察一种语言的各个结构要素在不同发展阶段的历史演变，是从纵的方面研究语言的历史。
（如汉语史）五、3专语语言学：又称具体语言学、个别语言学，是以一种或几种有联系的语言为研究对象，研究某一语言的结构。
五、4普通语言学：以人类一般语言为研究对象，研究人类语言的性质、结构特征、发展规律，是综合众多语言研究成果而建立起来的。
五、5现代语言学之父：瑞士索绪尔代表作《普通语言学教程》六、语言学流派：历史比较语言学，为后来的结构主义和描写语言学的产生和发展创造了有利条件，它在19世纪进入了系统的研究，是语言学走上独立发展道路的标志。
结构语言学的分支：布拉格学派、哥本哈根学派、美国描写语言学派。
美国描写语言学代表人物：布龙菲尔德代表作《语言论》第一章语言的功能第一节语言是人类最重要的交际工具一、语言是音义结合的符号系统，是人类最重要的交际工具和思维工具。
一、1语言的作用：语言是人类社会的交际工具，每个社会无论经济发达还是落后，都必须有属于自己的语言，都离布开语言这个交际工具。
语言是组成社会必不可少的一个因素，是人类与动物相区别的重要特征之一。
语言是联系社会成员的桥梁和纽带，没有语言，人类无法交际，人与人之间的联系就会中断，社会就会崩溃，不复存在。
语言又是思维工具，没有语言，人类就无法思维，也无法把思维表达出来。
（如普通话是汉民族用来交流思想传递感情的工具）一、2语言同社会的联系：语言与人类社会息息相关，人类社会以外无所谓语言，不同民族、不同地域都有不同语言。
同时社会的变化也给语言以极大的影响。
英语语言学概论期末复习【通用】.docx
第一章绪论1.1什么是语言1.2语言的性质（1）语言具有系统性（systematic）（2）语言是一个符号系统语言符号是一种象征符号。
（3）语言符号的任意性（arbitrariness）与理据性（motivation）（4）口头性（5）语言是人类特有的（6）语言是用于交际的寒暄交谈（phatic communion）马林诺夫斯基提出的，认为语言除了用于表达思想、交流感情外，还可以用语言营造一种气氛或保持社会接触。
这种不用于表达思想、交流感情的语言使用，叫寒暄交谈。
1.3语言的起源1.4语言的分类1.4.1系属分类（Genetic Classification）历史比较语言学通过比较各种语言在不同时期语音、词性、曲折变化、语法结构上的相同特点来建立语言族系。
将语言分为语系（family）——语族（group）——语支（branch）——语言英语、德语属印欧语系日耳曼语族西日耳曼语支。
法语属印欧语系罗曼语族中罗曼语支。
汉语属汉藏语系汉语族。
1.4.2 类型分类（Typological Classifacation）根据词的结构类型，可分为（1）孤立语（isolating language）又叫词根语，一个词代表一个意思，缺少形态变化，语序和虚词是表达语法意义的主要手段。
汉语是典型的孤立语。
（2）粘着语（agglutinative language）简单词组成复合词，而词性和意义不变。
在词根前、中、后粘贴不同的词缀实现语法功能。
日语、韩语、土耳其语是典型的黏着语。
（3）屈折语（inflectional language）词形变化表语法关系的语言。
英语是不太典型的屈折语。
（4）多式综合语（polysynthesis language）把主、宾和其它语法项结合到动词词干上以构成一个单独的词，但表达一个句子的意思。
因纽特语是典型的多式综合语。
根据句子的语序类型，可分为SVO、SOV、OSV、OVS等1.5语言的功能1.5.1 一般功能1.5.2元功能（metafunction）1.6什么是语言学（linguistics）1.7语言学中的重要区分（1）语言（langue）和言语（parole/langage）索绪尔对语言和言语作出了区分。
语言学概论期末复习(男神版)
语言学概论Chapter 1Invitations to Linguistics1.What is languageSenses of language in Webster’s New World Dictionary(our book, p. 2) “Language is a system of arbitraryvocal symbols used for human communication. “(Wardaugh)2.Design features of language语言设计特征1. arbitrariness (任意性)2. duality (双重性)3. Creativity (创造性) or productivity4. displacement(移位性)5. interchangeability (互换性)6. specialization (专业化)7. cultural transmission （文化传承）3.Functions of Language(语言功能)Jakobson’s view: (情感功能) （指代功能) (诗学功能) （寒暄功能） (元语言)(意动功能)Halliday’s view: 1.ideational function (概念功能)2.Interpersonal function（人际功能）3.Textual function（语篇功能）Functions on the book: (告知性的) Function(人际功能)(行事功能) Function Communion（寒暄功能） Function(娱乐功能) Function(元语言功能)4．What Is Linguistics• Linguistics is the scientific study of language orthe science of language.•1) Exhaustiveness（穷尽性）2) Consistency（贯通性）3) Economy（经济性） 4) Objectivity（客观性）vs. performance言语能力 vs. 言语行为•Noam Chomsky in his Aspects of the Theoryof Syntax.•Competence refers to a language user’sunderlying knowledge about the system ofrules.•Performance refers to the actual use oflanguage in concrete situations.Chapter 2Speech sounds1.Consonants and vowelsDistinction between consonants and vowels: the obstruction （阻塞） of airstream2.Minimal pairs and minimal sets（最小对立体）① When two words are identical in every wayexcept for a contrast in one sound segmentoccurring in the same position in the string,the two words are called a minimal pair 最小对立体.: pit and bit junk and chunkban and bin bet and bat②A minimal pair should follow three conditions: 1)they are different in meaning; 2) they differonly in one sound segment; 3) the differentsounds occur in the same position in the strings.Chapter 3From morpheme to phrase1.R oot & affixRoot 词根: morpheme which is the basic part of aword.（Occur on its own、may be joinedto other roots、or take affixes (manly,coldness) or combining forms(biochemistry)2 It is that part of the word leftwhen all the affixes are removed.3．All words contain a root morphemeAffix词缀: letter or sound, or group of lettersor sounds(=a morpheme), which is addedto a word, and which changes the meaningor function of the word.（Prefix前缀,Suffix后缀，infix中缀：feet，geese）2. inflectional affix 曲折词缀 andderivational affix 派生词缀Chapter 5Meaning1.The Referential Theory(所指理论)①The theory of meaning which relates themeaning of a word to the thing it refers to,or stands for, is known as the referentialtheory.②Reference 所指 refers to the relationshipbetween a word and the object it denotes inthe physical world, . denotation 外延 inphilosophy.③Is a very popular theory (semantic triangleby Ogden and Richards in Meaning of Meaning )④Problems with this theory：Not every wordhas a reference 所指.2. Sense relations 意义关系Sense may be defined as the semantic relations between one word and another, or more generallybetween one linguistic unit and another.*distinctions between sense and reference:The distinction between sense and referenceis comparable to that between connotation anddenotation in philosophy①The former refers to the abstract propertiesof an entity, while the latter refers tothe concrete entities having these properties.②Every word has a sense, but not every wordhas a reference.③Reference in its wider sense would be therelationship between a word or phrase and anentity in the external world.④So sense is intra-linguistic and reference is extra- l linguistic3.3 kinds of sense relations:Synonymy （同义关系）Semantic relation of sameness or similarity inmeaning of two or more linguistic expressions.（absolute synonyms 绝对同义词、relative synonyms 相对同义词、Stylistic synonyms 文体同义词、Emotive synonyms 情感同义词、Collocational synonyms：搭配同义词）Antonymy （反义关系）·Relation of semantic opposition.·three main sub-types：1）Gradable antonymy （等级反义关系）：They are gradable; the denial of one is not necessarily the assertion of the other. Thereis an intermediate ground between the two.（hot\cold warm\cool tall\shortbig\small ）2Complementary antonymy（互补反义关系）The members of a pair in this type arecomplementary to each other. There is nointermediate ground between the two.（alive\dead odd\even single\marriedmale\female pass\fail hit\miss ）3Converse antonymy（相反反义关系）The members of a pair in this type show thereversal of a relationship between twoentities. They are also known as relationalopposites. There are always two entitiesinvolved. One presupposes the other.（buy\sell give\receive husband\wifeteacher\student above\belowbefore\after）Hyponymy（上下义关系）A relationship between two words, in whichthe meaning of one of the words includes themeaning of the other word.Sometimes a superordinate may be asuperordinate to itself.A superordinate may be missing sometimes.（red green yellow）Hyponyms may also be missing.（uncle rice）ponential analysis (成分分析)Componential analysis: (in semantics) an approach to the study of meaning which analyses aword into a set of meaning components or semanticfeatures.Usually, componential analysis is applied to a group of related words which may differ from oneanother only by one or two components.Semantic features 语义特征or semantic components are the basic unit of meaning in a word. Themeanings of words may be described as a combinationof semantic features.5. An integrated theory（整体理论）The idea that the meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the constituent words andthe way they are combined is usually known as theprinciple of compositionality(复合性原则）a dictionarya semantic theorya set of projectionrules 投射规则The dictionary provides the grammatical classification and semantic information of words.The projection rules are responsible for combining the meanings of words together.Chapter 6Language and cognitionis cognitionTwo definitions about cognition:①In psychology it refers to the mental processesof an individual with particular relation to theview that argues that the mind has internalstates (beliefs, desires, and intentions) and canbe understood in terms of information processing.②Mental process or faculty of knowing, includingaspects such as awareness, perception, reasoning,and judgement.2.W hat is psycholinguistics（心理语言学）Definition：is the study of psychological aspects of languages; it usually studies thepsychological states and mental activityassociated with the use of language.6 subjects of research within psycholinguistics:Acquisition(语言习得) Comprehension(语言理解) Language and thoughtProduction(语言产出) Disorders（语言无序性） Neurocognition3.W hat is Cognitive LinguisticsDefinition: is a newly established approach to the study of language.Chapter 7Language, culture and Society1.L anguage and Culture①What is culture :Culture, in a broad sense, means the total way oflife of a people, including the patterns ofbelief, customs, objects, institutions,techniques, and language that characterizes thelife of the human community.In a narrow sense, culture may refer to local orspecific practice, beliefs or customs, which canbe mostly found in folk culture, enterpriseculture or food culture etc.②The relationship between language and cultureA language not only expresses facts, ideas,or events which represent similar world knowledgeby its people, but also reflects the people’sattitudes, beliefs, world outlooks etc. In a word,language expresses cultural reality.2.S apir-Whorf Hypothesis (萨丕尔-沃尔夫假设)Sapir and Whorf believe that language filters people’s perception and the way they categorize experiences. This interdependence of language and thought is now known as Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis.This hypothesis primarily suggests that our language will mould our view of the world.But few people would tend to accept the original for this theory. Thus, two versions, strong version and weak version have been developed.the strong version: the language patterns determinepeople’s thinking and behavior.the weak version: the former influences the latter.3.L anguage and society①Definition of sociolinguistics(社会语言学):Sociolinguistics is the sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.②The relatedness between language and society：1) While language is principally used tocommunicate meaning, it is also used to establishand maintain social relationships.2) Users of the same language in a sense allspeak differently. The kind of language each ofthem chooses to use is in part determined by hissocial background.3) To some extent, language, especiallythe structure of its lexicon, reflects both thephysical and the social environments of a society4) Judgments concerning the correctness andpurity of linguistic varieties are social ratherthan linguistic.4.Halliday’s register theory:Definition of register（语域）: The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register.Field of discourse（语场）refers to what is going on: to the area of operation of the language.Tenor of discourse（语旨）refers “to whom the speaker is communicating”Mode of discourse（语式）mainly refers to the means of communication.Chapter 8Language in use1.W hat is Pragmaticsthe study of language in use.2.S peech act theory1)The first major theory in the study of languagein use, which originated with the Oxford philosopher John Langshaw Austin: How to Do Things with Words2)Speech act: an utterance(表达) as a functionalunit in communication. In speech act theory, utterances have two kinds of meaning:a.propositional meaning 命题意义(also known aslocutionary meaning发话意义)b. illocutionary meaning行事意义(also knownas illocutionary force行事语力).A speech act is a sentence or utterance which hasboth propositional meaning and illocutionary force.3) 2 types of sentences:Performatives（施为句；行事话语）: anutterance which performs an actConstative（表述句；述事话语）: an utterancewhich asserts something that iseither true or false.*It has even been suggested that there is noreal difference between constative and implicitperformatives.All sentences can be used to dothings.theory of the illocutionary act(行事行为理论)T hree different types of act involved in or caused by the utterance of a sentence:L ocutionary act（发话行为）is the saying of something which is meaningful and can be understood.I llocutionary act （行事行为）is using asentence to perform a function，related to the speaker’s i ntention.P erlocutionary act（取效行为） is the result or effects that are produced by means of saying something.4.Categories of speech acts by Searle1. Representative（阐述类）:stating or describing,saying what the speaker believes to betrue . I swear…)2. Directives（指令类）: trying to get thehearer to do something..Your money or yourlife.)3. Commissives（承诺类）:committing the speakerhimself to some future course ofaction. . I promise..)4. Expressive（表情类）:expressing feelings orattitude towards an existing state. Thank you…)5. Declarations（宣告类）: bring about immediatechanges by saying something.. you are fired...)theory of conversational implicature 会话含义理论The second major theory in the study of language in use proposed by Herbert Paul Grice: Logic and Conversation.1)Definition: Conversational implicature is a typeof meaning, which is deduced on thebasis of the conventional meaning ofwords together with the context,under the guidance of the CP and itsmaxims2)Characteristics of implicature:calculability（可计算性）cancellability/ defeasibility（可删除性/可取消性）Non-detachability（非可分离性）Non-conventionality（非规约性）1. The cooperative principle合作原则: The co-operation between speakers in using theconversational maxims is called the cooperativeprinciple.maxim对话准则: an unwritten rule about conversation which people know and whichinfluences the form of conversational exchanges Grice introduced 4 categories of maxims:a. the maxim of Quantityb. the maxim ofQualityc. the maxim of Relationd. the maxim ofManne rdevelopments1) Relevance theory 关联理论Definition:Every act of ostensivecommunication communicates the presumption of itsown optimal relevance.（每一个明示交际行为都传递一种假设：该行为本身具备最适宜关联）2)the Q- and R-principleThese two principle was proposed by Laurence Horn①The Q-principle is intended to invoke the firstmaxim of Grice’s Quantity, and the R-principlethe Relation maxim, but the new principles aremore extensive than the Gricean maxims.②Horn reduces all the Gricean maxims to twoprinciples: the Q- and R-principleA. The Q-principle (hearer- based):Make your contribution sufficientSay as much as you canB. The R-principle (speaker-based):Make your contribution necessarySay no more than you mustIn other words, the Q-principle is concerned with the content. The R- principle, on the other hand, is concerned with the form.Chapter 11Linguistic and Foreign Language Teaching1.D efinition:SLA: Second language acquisition 二语习得CPH :Critical Period Hypothesis 关键期假设UG：Universal Grammar 普遍语法LAD：Language Acquisition Device 语言习得基质IL：Interlanguage 中介语CA：Contrastive Analysis对比分析EA: Error Analysis 错误分析2．Universal Grammar 普遍语法Universal grammar holds that there are certain basic structural rules that govern language that allhumans know without having to learn them.3. Input and language learningLanguage Acquisition Device 语言习得基质·Krashen’s Input Hypothesis1）There were two independent means or routes of second language learning: acquisition andlearning.Acquisition is a process similar to the waychildren acquire their first language.Learning as another route is a consciouslearning of the second language knowledge bylearning the rules and talking about therules.2）Krashen put forward that learners advance their language learning gradually byreceiving “comprehensible input”. Hedefined comprehensible input as “i+1”:“i” represents learners’ current state ofknowledge, the next stage is i+1.4.Inter language (IL,中介语):Definition: is defined as an abstract system oflearners’ target language system, it has nowbeen widely used to refer to the linguisticexpressions learners produce (especially thewrong or not idiomatic ones) or learner language.analysis and error analysis 对比分析与错误分析Contrastive analysis (CA) is a way of comparinglanguages in order to determine potential errorsfor the ultimate purpose of isolating what needsto be learned and what does not need to belearned in a second language learning situation.The goal is to predict what areas will be easy tolearn and what areas will be difficult to learn.Error analysis (EA) involves, first independentlyor objectively, describing the learner’sinterlanguage (that is, their version of thetarget language and the target language itself),then a comparison of the two is followed tolocate mismatches.Two main sorts of errors:interlingual errors 语际错误 intralingualerrors 语内错误.。
语言学概论期末复习资料整理
语言学概论复习资料一、名词解释1.语言的主观性：说话者在话语中表达自己的情感、态度、意图。
（互动的另一方面包括受话人受到影响，做出相应的语言或行动上的反馈。
）3.心理现实：贮存在人脑的人对客观现实认知的成果，是关于客观现实的各种知识信息。
其来源：①感官对客观现实的直接感知，经脑神经综合处理转化为记忆信息；②对语言文字的接收处理。
4.颤音：舌尖或小舌连续颤动而发出的音。
（是舌尖、小舌这两个柔软的尖状物处在十分放松并有气流的冲击的状态下连续颤动而发出的音。
）例如：俄语中的Р（如РУка，手）是舌尖颤音[r]。
5.闪音：舌头颤动一次发出的音。
例如：英语very中的处于弱读音节的r[?]。
6.区别特征：具体语言中有区别音位作用的发音特征。
每一个音位都可以分解为几个不同的区别特征。
例如汉语普通话/ɑ/音位有不圆唇和舌位低两个发音特征；某个音位利用哪些特征和其他音位对立，这由该特征在音位系统中所处的地位而定。
例如：英语音位用清/p/浊/b/对立而不同于汉语普通话的用是否送气来区别。
8.成句范畴：语气（陈述、疑问、祈使、感叹）、情态、时、语态等句子功能意义类别。
成句范畴有一定的表达形式，例如疑问句语气可以用语调或虚词表达。
9.黏着语：只以黏着语素替换作为表示语法关系的主要手段的语言。
例如土耳其语、维吾尔语、芬兰语等。
11.中心意义：离开上下文后人们最熟悉的意义，它大多同本义一致，有时同本义不一致。
中心意义是从多义词在某个时代各义项之间的关系的角度分析出的。
例如,单独取出“兵”这个词，一般人首先想到的是“兵士”的意义。
二、相近概念的辨析1.语言和言语答：（1）语言是人类最重要的交际工具，是人们进行沟通交流的各种表达符号。
言语是说出来的话；说出来的一个词。
（2）语言与言语的区别：①语言是交际工具，非自由的，组词成句的规则有限；②言语即说话，运用交际工具，是自由的，创造新句无限。
（3）语言与言语的关系：①言语是对特定语言的具体运用；例如：他不言语。
语言学概论思考题期末考试复习题
《语言学概论复习题》导言1、历史比较语言学用历史比较的方法对不同语言进行比较分析，确定语言间的亲缘关系和历史发展，旨在重建亲属语言的原始母语，这样的语言研究叫做历史比较语言学。
代表人物有葆朴、拉斯克、格里木、施莱赫尔。
2、理论语言学以人类所有语言为研究对象，综合各种具体语言的研究成果，探索人类语言的起源、本质和一般规律。
《语言学概论》属于理论语言学的入门书，从理论上探讨人类语言的一般原理，主要包括三个问题：语言本质论、语言结构论、语言发展论。
3、什么是语言？语言是人类赖以交际和思维的音义结合的符号系统，一般有口语和书面语两种表现形式。
4、为什么说语言学既是一门古老的科学，又是一门年轻的科学？首先，语言研究具有悠久的历史，是一门古老的科学。
语言活动深入人类社会生活的一切领域，只要有人活动的地方就需要语言，人类很早就注意到了语言的重要性，很早就注重语言的研究。
在语文学时期，语言研究就和各种古文献的研究联系在一起。
它的内容和成果主要从一些政治、哲学、历史、宗教、文学、考古学等内容中体现出来。
古代的中国、印度、希腊-罗马是语言学的三大发源地。
人们通过对典籍的注解进行早起的语言学研究。
比如中国在这一阶段根据阅读典籍的需要来分析汉字，逐渐形成了以文字、音韵、训诂为主的传统语文学“小学”。
这些说明了语言学一门古老的科学。
其次，直到19世纪，比较语言学产生，后来经过发展又产生了语言学的各个部门，语言学才成为了一个独立的学科存在。
相比于其他的科学，语言学出现时间较晚，它是随着资本主义的发展和各族人民交往的日益频繁而逐渐产生的，属于比较年轻的科学。
西欧的文艺复兴，中国的五四运动都为语言学的发展创造了条件。
此外，语言学还与其他学科紧密相联。
由于语言的产生和物理、生理、心理等学科有关，现代汉语中的语言又和数学等科学有联系。
语言学和其他学科联系在一起有产生了社会语言学、心理语言学、统计语言学等。
这些也说明语言学是一门年轻的科学。
语言学概论期末考试试卷（参考答案）
语言学概论期末考试试卷（参考答案）语言学概论期末考试试卷一、填空题（每空1分，共15分）1、现代语言学之父是，他的代表作是。
2、美国语言学家创立了高度形式化的生成语法。
3、人耳能听到的声音频率范围在赫兹之间。
低于赫兹的声音叫“次声”，高于赫兹的声音叫“超声”。
4、本书讨论的语汇学主要包括两个方面的内容：一是，二是。
5、语法是语言中关于词的和词的规则。
6、各种文字的字符大体上可以归纳成三大类，即、和。
7、文字起源于和。
二、单项选择题（每小题1分，共10分）1、人类最重要的交际工具是（）A．文字B．语音C．语言D．手势、表情等非言语手段2、语言是（）A．写成的作品或发表的言论B．个人说的行为和结果C．从言语中概括出来的为社会所公认的词语和规则的总和D．说话3、应用语言学最早是指（）A．计算语言学B．语言教学C．交际语言学D．心理语言学4、汉语普通话的辅音音位[ ]的区别特征是（）A．舌叶清擦音B．舌面中浊擦音C．舌面前清擦音D．舌面后清擦音5、“拼死拼活”和“风风火火”是（）A．成语B．惯用语C．歇后语D．谚语6、“所以”是一个（）A．词B．词组C．句子D．语素7、词类的本质属性是（）A．形态B．意义C．分布D．结构8、由语法形式表达的语义叫做（）A．理性意义B．非理性意义C．词汇意义D．语法意义9、下面几个词语具有贬义色彩的是（）A．成果B．勾结C．顽强D．鼓励10、在述谓结构中（）是处于支配地位的核心成分A．情态B．命题C．谓词D．变元三、名词解释（每小题4分，共16分）1、能指2、韵律特征3、向心词组4、语系四、简答题（每小题7分，共21分）1、义素分析的步骤2、为什么说语言学理论和应用研究应该区分？3、划分词类有哪些标准？五、分析题（每小题8分，共16分）1、在[ ]里写出相应的音标，在（）里写出包含这个音的例子（语种不限）。
如：舌尖中不送气浊塞音：[d]（英：dog狗）（1）舌根浊鼻音：[ ]、（）（2）舌尖前不送气清塞擦音：[ ]、（）（3）舌面后清擦音：[ ]、（）（4）舌尖后送气清塞擦音：[ ]、（）（5）双唇不送气浊塞音：[ ]、（）（6）唇齿浊擦音：[ ]、（）2、下面几组英语片段中的划线部分都是通过一定语法手段表示了不同的语法意义，属什么语法范畴，以及采用了什么语法手段。
(完整word)岑运强主编的语言学概论期末资料复习,重点
总论：一、语言学的性质和任务专门研究人类语言的学科叫做语言学。
语言学是高校中文系必修的专业基础课。
大学中文系的语言学课程包括古代汉语、现代汉语和语言学概论等.古代汉语课程主要研究中国古代的语言，包括上古、中古、近代等若干阶段；现代汉语课程主要研究五四以来的语言；语言学概论不但涉及以上两门课程内容，还涉及大量外语知识，具有明显的交叉性，着重从理论上去研究语言.它着重在理论上对人类语言的共同规律进行研究，而这种研究又必须建立在个别的、实际的语言研究的基础上。
索绪尔对语言学的分类：1、语言的语言学和言语的语言学.2、历时语言学（研究语言历史）和共时语言学（研究语言现状）3、微观(内部）语言学和宏观（外部）语言学五段两线解放1、五段：（1)语文学阶段：研究古文献和书面语的学问。
目的让人读懂古文献，而不在于研究语言。
使得语言研究成为其他学科的附庸，还没有成为一门独立的科学.（2）历史比较语言学阶段19世纪初，英国人威廉·琼斯提出“印欧语假设”，成为历史比较语言学的先驱。
德国学者施列格尔提出“比较语法”，是历史比较语言学的草创者。
这以后，一大批学者建立了一套科学的历史比较方法，找出了不同语言的亲属关系，产生了历史比较语言学。
从而把语言研究从哲学、逻辑学等学科的附庸地位中解放出来，标志语言学已经成为一门真正独立学科。
19世纪中期，从理论上研究语言一般规律的普通语言学诞生。
奠基人先后分别是德国人洪堡特与瑞士人索绪尔。
（3）结构主义语言学阶段结构主义鼻祖——索绪尔结构主义语言学派又分为三派：布拉格学派（功能派）、哥本哈根学派（符号派）、美国派（描写派，影响最大)掌握每个学派2名代表人物。
结构主义语言学派推崇直接成分分析法（层次分析法)。
结构主义语言学派对中国的语言研究产生过巨大的影响。
（4）形式语言学阶段美国转换生成语法创始人-—乔姆斯基，目标是一个能生成所有句子的语法系统,主要包括生成和转换两个方面。
英语语言学概论期末复习
第一章绪论1.1什么是语言1.2语言的性质（1）语言具有系统性（systematic ）（2）语言是一个符号系统语言符号是一种象征符号。
（3）语言符号的任意性（arbitrariness ）与理据性（motivation ）（4）口头性（5）语言是人类特有的（6）语言是用于交际的寒暄交谈（phatic communion ）马林诺夫斯基提出的，认为语言除了用于表达思想、交流感情外，还可以用语言营造一种气氛或保持社会接触。
这种不用于表达思想、交流感情的语言使用，叫寒暄交谈。
1.3语言的起源1.4语言的分类1.4.1系属分类（Genetic Classification ）历史比较语言学通过比较各种语言在不同时期语音、词性、曲折变化、语法结构上的相同特点来建立语言族系。
将语言分为语系（family ）——语族（group ）——语支（branch ）——语言英语、德语属印欧语系日耳曼语族西日耳曼语支。
法语属印欧语系罗曼语族中罗曼语支。
汉语属汉藏语系汉语族。
1.4.2 类型分类（Typological Classifacation ）根据词的结构类型，可分为（1）孤立语（isolating isolating languagelanguage ）又叫词根语，一个词代表一个意思，缺少形态变化，语序和虚词是表达语法意义的主要手段。
汉语是典型的孤立语。
（2）粘着语（agglutinative language ）简单词组成复合词，而词性和意义不变。
在词根前、中、后粘贴不同的词缀实现语法功能。
日语、韩语、土耳其语是典型的黏着语。
（3）屈折语（inflectional inflectional languagelanguage ）词形变化表语法关系的语言。
英语是不太典型的屈折语。
（4）多式综合语（polysynthesis polysynthesis languagelanguage ）把主、宾和其它语法项结合到动词词干上以构成一个单独的词，但表达一个句子的意思。
语言学概论期末突击复习资料.doc
一、名词解释1、语言类型：词根语——又称孤立语，其特点是缺乏形态变化，语法意义主要靠词序和虚词来表示。
汉语就是一种比较典型的词根语，例如，“我喜欢他”中的“我”是主语，“他”是宾语，主要取决于词序。
又如，“买菜”是述宾结构，“买的菜”是偏正结构，主要取决于虚词。
除汉语外，属词根语的还有越南语、彝语、苗语、缅甸语等。
屈折语一屈折语的特点是通过各种屈折方式来表示语法意义。
屈折可以分为内部屈折和外部屈折两种。
内部屈折是通过词的语音交替（改变部分语音）来构成不同的语法形式，表示不同的语法意义。
如英语的foot （脚，单数），feet （脚，复数）。
外部屈折是通过附加词缀的方式表示不同的语法意义。
如英语的book （单数，书）在后面加上词缀-s,就表示复数意义books （复数，书）。
屈折语的一个构形词缀可以同时表示几种不同的语法意义。
印欧语系各语言以及阿拉伯语等，一般都属于屈折语，德语和俄语最为典型。
2、条件变体与自由变体：条件变体一一音位的条件变体是指那些出现条件受环境限制的音位变体，即一个音位的各个变体从不在相同的语音环境中出现，只出现在不同的语音环境下，处于互补分布的状态。
例如英语的/p/、/〃、/k/三个辅音音位，当它们出现在词首时是送气的（如kill[k'il]）,而出现在/s/后就变为不送气的了（skill[skil] ）。
自由变体一一音位的自由变体是指那些在相同的语音环境中可以无条件变读的音位变体，即一个音位的各个变体可以自由替换而不会造成意义的改变。
3、语法形式与语法范畴语法形式一语法形式是反映词语的组合规则和语法类别的形式标志，是表示语法意义的形式手段，又称语法手段。
语法形式可分显性和隐性两种。
显性语法形式可以直接感知，主要包括语序、虚词、词缀、重叠以及各种语音形式。
隐性语法形式不能直接感知，但可通过能否组合、替换、扩展、变换等方式分析抽象出来。
语法范畴一一语法范畴有广义和狭义之分，广义的语法范畴是各种语法形式表示的语法意义的概括。
语言学概论期末复习题(2)
语言学概论期末复习题（2）Ⅰ. Read each of the following statements carefully. Decide which one of the four choices best completes the statement and choose the letter A, B, C or D.(20%)“I can refer to Confucius even though was dead 2000 years ago.” This shows that language has the design feature of ___________.A. arbitrarinessB. creativityC. DualityD. displacement2. “ Don’t end a sentence with a preposition”. This is an example of __________grammar.A. prescriptiveB. descriptiveC. transformationalD. functional3. Using language for sheer joy of using it shows that language has a ____________function.A. metalingualB. recreationalC. informativeD. performative4. ___________ is the smallest meaning unit in the lexical system of languageA. wordB. lexemeC. morphemeD. Stem5. The “semantic triangle” was first proposed by _______.A. Plato and AristotleB. Ogden and RichardsC. Chomsky and HalleD. Leech and Palmer6. Saussure believed that language is a system of signs. This sign is the union of aform and an idea, which Saussure called _______.A. langue and paroleB. signifier and signifiedC. speech and writingD. system and function7. Many modern linguists have criticized traditional grammarians for adopting a_____ approach to language study.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. descriptive8. The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is goodproof that human language is .A. arbitraryB. rationalC. logicalD. cultural9. Morphemes that represent “tense”, “number”, “gender”, “case” and so forth arecalled morphemes.A. inflectionalB. boundC. freeD. derivational10. The English word “modernizers” is composed of morphemes.A. fourB. threeC. twoD. five11. “Unless I hear from her, I won’t leave this town” is a sentence.A. simpleB. coordinateC. complexD. compound12. In the following pairs of words, are a pair of complementary antonyms.A. old and youngB. male and femaleC. hot and coldD. buy and sell13. The stimulus-response theory was proposed by .A. FirthB. HallidayC. BloomfieldD. Chomsky14. As far as the sentence “My bag is heavy” is concerned, linguists of pragmatics aremore interested in its ______ meaning.A. literalB. logicalC. contextualD. grammatical15. A speaker’s knowledge of the total set of rules, conventions, etc., governing theskilled use of language in a society is termed ______.A. competenceB. performanceC. communicative competenceD. communicative strategy16. Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connection between_____ and meanings.A. senseB. soundsC. objectsD. ideas17. Modern linguistics regards the written language as _____.A. primaryB. betterC. secondaryD. unchangeable18. Which of the following is not a design feature of human language?A. ArbitrarinessB. DisplacementC. DualityD. Meaningfulness19. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it issaid to be ______.A. prescriptiveB. analyticC. descriptiveD. linguistic20.The branch of linguistic study called _____ is concerned with how speakers usethe sentences of a language to achieve effective and successful communication.A. sociolinguisticsB. pragmaticsC. syntaxD. computational linguisticsⅡ. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. Write T for true and F for false. (20%)1.Bound morphemes cannot occur “unattached”.( )2.“He is easy to please” has the same deep structure as “he is eager to please”.( )3.According to Palmer, there are no real synonyms in a language.( )4.English is a tone language while Chinese is an intonation language. ( )5.Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in differentsituations. ( )6.The word “unacceptability” has four morphemes. ( )7.The word ‘lead’ (领导) and the ‘lead’ (铅) homographs. ( )8.The word ‘buy’ and ‘purchase’ are dialectal synonyms. ( )9. The limited range of sounds that are meaningful in human communicationconstitute the phonic medium of language. ( )10. The task of a linguist is to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system.( )11. Phonetics studies human sound patterning and the meaning of sounds in communication. ( )12. General linguistics deals with the general aspects of language application. ( )13. Modern linguistics aims at prescribing models for language users to follow. ( )14. Synchronic linguistics deals with a series of language phenomena at the same time. ( )15. Duality of language means language is a two-level system. ( )16. Chomsky regards competence as an act of doing things with a sentence. ( )17. Displacement of language means language use in a far-away place. ( )18. Parole is a French word; it means the concrete language events. ( )19. ‘His friend is coming.’ presupposes ‘He has a f riend. ( )20. The five types of associative meaning was given by Ogden and Richard. ( )III. Fill the blanks (10%)1. C__________ refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, noun phrase, or a verb.2. A m__________ pair is such a pair of different forms as identical in every way except for onesound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings (as ‘pill’ and ‘till’).3. P____________ linguistics is a linguistic study which aims to lay down rules for“correct and standard” behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say.4. S_____________ linguistics is the description of a language at some point of time in history.5. Antonyms include (a) gradable antonyms (old/young), (b) c____________ antonyms(alive/dead; male/female), (c) converse antonyms and (d) relational opposites.6. Componential analysis is a way to analyze word meaning, or dissecting the meaning of a wordinto meaning c____________, called semantic features (such as ‘man’ analyzed as ‘+HUMAN, + ADULT, + ANIMATE, +MALE’).7. The c____________ theory of meaning is a view that relates words and things through themediation of concepts of the mind.8. The naming theory, proposed by the ancient Greek scholar P________, is one of the oldestnotions concerning meaning9. D____________ morphemes refer to morphemes (such as ‘-ic’ and ‘-ism’) that can beconjoined to other morphemes or words to derive a new word.10. __________ morphemes are morphemes (such as ‘boy’ and ‘play’) that can occurindependently and freely.IV. Explain the following linguistic terms or notions in English. (20%)1. semantic triangle2. Immediate constituent analysis3. syntax4. applied linguistics5. competenceV. Short Answers Questions. (30%)1. What are the most widely used metaphors of language as far as you know? (clue:give as many as possible)2. What have you learned from the course of linguistics in this semester? ( clue: you can say whatever, linguistic or non linguistic, you have learned from this course. But make sure your answer is clear and logic)。
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语言学概论期末复习
一、语言学的定义与分类
1.语言学的定义：语言学是研究语言的科学，主要研究语音、语义、词汇、语法、语用等方面。
2.语言学的分类：一般分为描述性语言学和理论性语言学。
描述性语言学关注语言事实的描写和整理，而理论性语言学着重于推理和解释这些语言事实。
二、语音学与音系学
1.语音学：研究语音的发音、感觉和认知等方面。
2.音系学：研究不同语言中具有区别意义的音位和音位组合。
三、语义学与词汇学
1.语义学：研究词语和句子的意义。
2.词汇学：研究单词的构成、意义和使用。
四、句法学与语法学
1.句法学：研究句子结构、句法关系和句法规则等。
2.语法学：研究一种具体语言的结构和规则，包括形态学、句法学和语义学。
五、语用学
研究语言在特定说话情景中的使用规则和效果，以及语用上的意义和功能。
六、语言变异与语言变化
1.语言变异：指在同一语言系统中，由于不同地区、社会阶层、年龄、性别、职业等因素的影响而导致的语言差异。
2.语言变化：指随着时间的推移，语言的音、词、句结构等方面发生
的变化。
七、语言习得与语言教学
1.语言习得：指儿童在自然环境中学会和使用语言的过程。
2.语言教学：指通过教育和训练，使学习者能够掌握一门或多门语言
的过程。
八、语言研究方法
1.实证研究方法：通过观察和实验来收集语言数据，运用统计学和计
量学的方法进行分析和解释。
2.理论分析方法：运用逻辑推理和归纳方法，通过对语言现象的分析
和解释来推导出理论。
九、跨学科研究
十、未来发展趋势
1.数字化语言研究：随着科技的发展，数字化语料库的建立和分析方
法的创新将对语言研究提供更多资源和方法。
2.跨学科研究的深入发展：语言学与其他学科的交叉合作将带来新的
理论和方法的发展。
3.语言多样性的保护和研究：对于濒危语言和语言多样性的保护和研究将成为未来的重点。
以上是对语言学概论课程的复习内容的总结。
通过对这些内容的学习和理解，我们可以更加深入地了解语言学的研究领域和方法，为进一步深入学习语言学提供基础。