《新编简明英语语言学教程》PPT课件
新编简明英语语言学教程
新编简明英语语言学教程Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of h islanguage.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。
新编简明英语语言学教程 by zhang.
新编简明英语语言学教程A N E W C O N C I S E C O U R S E O N L I N G U I S T I C S F O R S T U D E N T S O FE N G L I S HH a p p y N a t i o n a l D a yC o n t e n t s•12 Chapters / 4 Parts•Part 1 Chapter 1 (The general introduction about linguistics, to give an answer about what is linguistics and what is language, and some of their characteristics.)•Part 2 Chapter 2/3/4/5/6 (It mainly introduces the differentbranches .[brɑ:ntʃ]分支of linguistics such as Phonetics[fəu‘netik]语音学, Phonology（fəˈnɒlədʒi]音系学, Morphology[mɔ:ˈfɒlədʒi]形态学, Syntax[ˈsɪntaks]句法学, [siˈmæntiks]语义学, Pragmatics.[præɡˈmætiks]语用学。
)•Part 3 Chapter 7/8/9 （This part mainly discusses the development of language and the relationship between language and society or culture.）•Part 4 Chapter 10/11/12 (This part is about the learning of language, how could a person get the ability of speaking one language, of course, no matter it is first language or second language, there must be quite a strong relationship with the brain of us.)C h a p t e r O n e I n t r o d u c t i o nL i n g u i s t i c s• 1. What is linguistics (definition)?• 2. Its scope [skəup]范围and some distinctions that are important?W h a t i s l i n g u i s t i c s(d e f i n i t i o n)?•The scientific study of language.•To answer the questions such as:•What is language?•How does language work?•How does language change?•What do all languages have in common?H o w t o s t u d y a n d w h a t t o s t u d y?•By systematic[sɪstəˈmatɪk]有系统的，有规则的investigation of linguistic data语言材料,with reference to关于some theories, to find the nature种类and rules underlying 基础的language system. •linguistics studies languages in general, not any particular language.T h e s c o p e a n d s o m e d i s t i n c t i o n s o f l i n g u i s t i c s•Branches of linguistics: (page 2-3)•Phonetics语音学，Phonology音系学, Morphology形态学, Syntax句法学, Semantics语义学, Pragmatics语用学。
新编简明英语语言学教程chapter 1 Introduction
Example:
男生做完头发:
甲：呀，剃头了？ 乙：呵呵，剃了。 甲：真“瓜”。 乙：滚！
1.1.2 The Scope of Linguistics
Phonetics Phonology Morphology Syntax Semantics Pragmatics
语音学 音系学 词汇学 句法学 语义学 语音学
Writing: later developed
Langue vs. Parole (Saussure)
Langue: the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of the speech community.
Parole: the realization of langue in actual use.
Example:
甲：就是呀，我觉得她长得多漂亮呀！特别像ⅹⅹⅹ。 乙：哦，对了。听说ⅹⅹⅹ拍了一部新电视剧，你看 了吗？ 甲：我也听说了，不过一直没找到什么地方能下载呀。 怎么？你下了？ 乙：没有，不过男朋友给我带来了。 甲：你看看，你男朋友对你多好。我男朋友能有他一 半就好了。 乙：你男朋友也不错的，那次你感冒了看把他忙的！ 甲：什么呀！我感冒还不是因为他！要不是陪他去买 电影票能感冒吗？乙：哦，那次你们看的什么电影？ 甲：是ⅹⅹⅹ，没意思。不过主演ⅹⅹ还是很帅的。 乙：ⅹⅹ？哦，就是演ⅹⅹⅹⅹⅹ的那个吧！ 甲：就是了，他其实演技一般，就是那双眼睛特别迷 人。
(2) Class attendance and participation 30%
Chapter One Introduction
简明英语语言学教程 Chapter 7
• Children's acquisition of language is quickly and effortlessly. It seems that their acquisition process is simple and straightforward . • In the learning of language , children's grammar is never exactly like that of the adult community . • Language has a lot of dialects and many individual styles.The features of these grammers may the merge(合并)----lead to certain rules of language may be simplified or overgeneralized.
• The reasons for some changes are relatively obvious. For example, the rapid development of science and technology has led to the creation of many new words.Such as bullet train ,laser printer,CD-ROM , laptop computer, iphone. • Social and political changes and political needs have supplied the English vocabulary with a great number of new words and expressions: shuttle diplomacy,mini-summit,jungle war,Scientific Outlook on Development • Some other words have also changed as women have taken up activities formerly reserved for men .
新编简明英语语言学教程 第二版 戴炜栋4 Syntax
Word-level categories
Major lexical categories: p. 43 N, V, Adj, Prep. Minor Lexical categories: p.43 Det（限定 词）, Deg, Qual（修饰语）, Auxi, Conj.
The criteria on which categories are determined
Transformational Generative Grammar (TG) Norm. Chomsky, the most influential linguist in 20th century, some important works: (1957) Syntactic Structure; (1965) Aspects of the Theory of Syntax; (1981) Lectures on Government and Binding; (1986) Barriers (1993) A Minimalist Program for Linguistic Theory; (1995) The Minimalist Program; (1998) The Minimalist Inquiry……
Coordination rule
Coordinate structures-----the structures that are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, or, etc. ----Coordination has four important properties: no limit on the number of coordinated categories before the conjunction; a category at any level can be coordinated; the categories must be of the same type; the category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.
新编简明英语语言学教程 by zhang
新编简明英语语言学教程A N E W C O N C I S E C O U R S E O N L I N G U I S T I C S F O R S T U D E N T S O FE N G L I S HH a p p y N a t i o n a l D a yC o n t e n t s•12 Chapters / 4 Parts•Part 1 Chapter 1 (The general introduction about linguistics, to give an answer about what is linguistics and what is language, and some of their characteristics.)•Part 2 Chapter 2/3/4/5/6 (It mainly introduces the differentbranches .[brɑ:ntʃ]分支of linguistics such as Phonetics[fəu‘netik]语音学, Phonology（fəˈnɒlədʒi]音系学, Morphology[mɔ:ˈfɒlədʒi]形态学, Syntax[ˈsɪntaks]句法学, [siˈmæntiks]语义学, Pragmatics.[præɡˈmætiks]语用学。
)•Part 3 Chapter 7/8/9 （This part mainly discusses the development of language and the relationship between language and society or culture.）•Part 4 Chapter 10/11/12 (This part is about the learning of language, how could a person get the ability of speaking one language, of course, no matter it is first language or second language, there must be quite a strong relationship with the brain of us.)C h a p t e r O n e I n t r o d u c t i o nL i n g u i s t i c s• 1. What is linguistics (definition)?• 2. Its scope [skəup]范围and some distinctions that are important?W h a t i s l i n g u i s t i c s(d e f i n i t i o n)?•The scientific study of language.•To answer the questions such as:•What is language?•How does language work?•How does language change?•What do all languages have in common?H o w t o s t u d y a n d w h a t t o s t u d y?•By systematic[sɪstəˈmatɪk]有系统的，有规则的investigation of linguistic data语言材料,with reference to关于some theories, to find the nature种类and rules underlying 基础的language system. •linguistics studies languages in general, not any particular language.T h e s c o p e a n d s o m e d i s t i n c t i o n s o f l i n g u i s t i c s•Branches of linguistics: (page 2-3)•Phonetics语音学，Phonology音系学, Morphology形态学, Syntax句法学, Semantics语义学, Pragmatics语用学。
《新编英语教程》PPT课件
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6. Well
A seemingly ordinary but actually magic word!!!
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Discussion/Exercises
Free debate
Are you for or against the opinion that to learn English is to learn the formal and standard English?
whereas—but; on the other hand. This is used to introduce contrast.
More examples: The Longs lived in a house, whereas Tom’s uncle and aunt lived in
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5. many ? Much
Do you have more precise and effective way to give the description of numbers?
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vast quantities of —lot of
To express the idea of many, the following words and phrases can be used:
新编英语教程4
For your promising future
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Unit Two
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Objectives
1. to get familiar with the features of an exposition
2. to learn the usage of euphemism in English
《新编简明英语语言学教程》(戴伟栋+何兆熊编)
Chapter 1nguage can be generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Language is a system. Systematic---- rule-governed, elements in it are arranged according to certain rules; can’t be combined at will. e.g. *bkli, *I apple eat.Language is arbitrary. Arbitrary---- no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing it denotes, e.g. “pen” by any other name is the thing we use to write with.Language is symbolic in nature. Symbolic---- words are associated with objects, actions ideas by convention. “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet”----Shakespeare2. The design/defining features of human language(Charles Hockett)⑴ArbitrarinessNo logical (motivated or intrinsic) connection between sounds and meanings①Onomatopoeic words (which imitate natural sounds) are somewhat motivated ( English: rumble, crackle, bang, …. Chinese: putong, shasha, dingdang… )②Some compound words are not entirely arbitrary, e.g. type-writer, shoe-maker, air-conditioner, p hotocopy…⑵Productivity/CreativityPeculiar to human languages，users of language can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before, e.g. we can understand sentence like “ A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the hotel bed”, though it does not describe a common happening in the world.①A gibbon call system is not productive for gibbon draw all their calls from a fixed repertoire which is rapidly exhausted, making any novelty impossible.②The bee dance does have a limited productivity, as it is used to communicate about food sources in any direction. But food sources are the only kind of messages that can be sent through the bee dance; bees do not “talk” about themselves, the hives, or wind, let alone about people, animals, hopes or desires⑶Duality①Lower level----sounds (meaningless)②Higher level----meaning (larger units of meaning)③A communication system with duality is considered more flexible than one without it, for a far greater number of messages can be sent. A small number of sounds can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning (words), and the units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences. (We make dictionary of a language, but we cannot make a dictionary of sentences of that language.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to things, which are not present: real or imagined matters in the past, present or future, or in far-away places.①A gibbon never utters a call about something he ate last year②There is something special about the bee dance though. Bees communicate with other bees about the food sources they have found when they are no longer in the presence of the food. In this sense, the bee dance has a component of displacement. But this component is very insignificant. For the bees must communicate about the food immediately on returning to the hive. They do not dance about the food they discovered last month nor do they speculate about future discoveries.⑸Cultural transmissionLanguage is culturally transmitted (through teaching and learning; rather than by instinct).①Animal call systems are genetically transmitted. All cats, gibbons and bees have systems which are almost identical to those of all other cats, gibbons and bees.②A Chinese speaker and an English speaker are not mutually intelligible. This shows that language is culturally transmitted. That is, it is pass on from one generation to the next by teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.③The story of a wolf child, a pig child shows that a human being brought up in isolation simply does not acquire human language.3. Some important distinctions in linguistics⑴Prescriptive vs. Descriptive①Descriptive ---- describe/analyze linguistic facts observed or language people actually use (modern linguistic)②Prescriptive ----lay down rules for “correct” linguistic behavior in using language (traditional grammar)⑵Synchronic vs. diachronic①Synchronic study---- description of a language at some point of time (modern linguistics)②Diachronic study---- description of a language through time (historical development of language over a period of time)⑶Speech vs. writing①Speech ---- primary medium of language②Writing ---- later developed⑷Langue vs. parole (F. de Saussure)①Langue ---- the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of the speech community.②Parole ---- the realization of langue in actual use.Saussure takes a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions.⑸Competence and performance (Chomsky)①Competence ---- the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language②Performance ---- the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.Chapter 21. Speech organs: three important areasPharyngeal cavity ---- the throat;The oral cavity ---- the mouth;Nasal cavity ---- the nose.2. The diagram of speech organsLips Tip of tongueTeeth Blade of tongueTeeth ridge (alveolar) Back of tongueHard palate Vocal cordsSoft palate (velum) Pharyngeal cavityUvula Nasal cavity3.Minimal pai r----when two different forms are identical (the same) in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair, e.g. beat, bit, bet, bat, boot, but, bait, bite, boat.4. Phone, phoneme, allophoneA phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, some don’t, e.g. [ bI:t ] & [ bIt ], [spIt] & [spIt].A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context, e.g. the phoneme /p/ can be represented differently in [pIt], [tIp] and [spIt].Allophones ---- the phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments5. The features that a phoneme possesses, making it different from other phonemes, are its distinctive features. Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair6. Suprasegmental features⑴Stress①Word stressThe location of stress in English distinguishes meaning, e.g. a shift in stress in English may change the part of speech of a word:Verb: im’port; in’crease; re’bel; re’cord …Noun: ’import; ’increase; ’rebel; ’record …Similar alteration of stress also occurs between a compound noun and a phrase consisting of the same elements:Compound: ’blackbird; ’greenhouse; ’hotdog…Noun phrase: black…bird; green ’house; hot ’dog…The meaning-distinctive role played by word stress is also manifested in the combinations of -ing forms and nouns:Modifier: ’dining-room; ‟readingroom; ‟sleepingbag…Doer: sleeping ’baby; swimming ’fish; flying ’plane…②Sentence stressSentence stress----the relative force given to the components of a sentence. Generally, nouns, main verbs, adjectives, adverbs, numerals and demonstrative pronouns are stressed. Other categories like articles, person pronouns, auxiliary verbs prepositions and conjunctions are usually notstressed.Note: for pragmatic reason, this rule is not always right, e.g. we may stress any part in the following sentences.He is driving my car.My mother bought me a new skirt yesterday.⑵ToneTones are pitch variations,which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords. English is not a tone language, but Chinese is.mā妈(level)má麻(the second rise)mǎ马(the third rise)mà骂(the fourth fall)⑶IntonationWhen pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence rather than to the word, they are collectively known as intonation.English has three types of intonation that are most frequently used:falling tone (matter of fact statement)rising tone (doubts or question)the fall-rise tone (implied message)For instance,“That‟s not the book he wants.”7. The manner of articulationStops/plosives: [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [g];Fricatives: [f], [v], [s], [z], [W], [T], [F], [V], [h];Affricates: [tF], [dV]; Liquids: [l](lateral), [r];Nasals: [m], [n], [N]; Glides/semivowels: [w], [j].Chapter 31.Morpheme--the minimal unit of meaningWords are composed of morphemes. Words may consist of one morpheme or more morphemes, e.g.1-morpheme boy, desire 2-morpheme boy+ish, desir(e)+ble3-morpheme boy+ish+ness 4-morpheme gentle+man+li+ness, un+desir(e)+abl(e)+ity 5-morpheme un+gentle+man+li+ness 6-morpheme anti+dis+establish+ment+ari+an+ism ⑴Affix①Prefix ---- morphemes that occur only before others, e.g.un-, dis, anti-, ir-, etc.②Suffix ---- morphemes that occur only after others, e.g.-ful, -er, -ish, -ness, -able, -tive, tion, etc.⑵Free morpheme & bound morpheme①Free morpheme----is one that may constitute a word (free form) by itself, such as bed, tree, sing, dance, etc.②Bound morpheme----is one that may appear with at least one other morpheme. They can not stand by themselves, such as “-s” in “dogs”, “al” in “national”, “dis-” in “disclose”, “ed” in “recorded”, etc.2. Derivational morpheme & inflectional morpheme①Derivational morphemes---- the morphemes which change the category, or grammatical class of words, e.g. modern---modernize, length---lengthen, fool---foolish, etc.②Inflectional morphemes---- the morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense, number, case and so on; they never change their syntactic category, never add any lexical meaning, e.g.a) number: tables apples carsb) person, finiteness and aspect: talk/talks/talking/talkedc) case: John/John’s3. Some points about compounds⑴Noun compoundsdaybreak (N+V) playboy (V+N) haircut (N+V) callgirl (V+N) windmill (N+N)⑵Verb compoundsbrainwash (N+V) lipread (N+V) babysit(N+V)⑶Adjective compoundsmaneating (N+Ving) heartfelt (N+Ved) dutyfree (N+adj.)⑷Preposition compoundsinto (P+P) throughout (P+P)⑸①When the two words are in the same grammatical category, the compound will be in this category, e.g. postbox, landlady, icy-cold, blue-black…②When the two words fall into different categories, the class of the second or final word will be the grammatical category of the compound, e.g. head-s trong, pickpocket…③Compounds have different stress patterns from the non-compounded word sequence, e.g. red coat, green house…④The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts.Chapter 41.Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. The most central categories to the syntactic study are the word-level categories (traditionally, parts of speech)⑴Word-level categories①Major lexical categories: N, V, Adj, Prep.②Minor Lexical categories: Det, Deg, Qual, Auxi, Conj.⑵Phrase categories and their structures①Phrase categories----the syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called ⑵phrase categories, such as NP(N), VP(V), AP(A), PP(P).②The structure: specifier + head + complement③Head---- the word around which a phrase is formed④Specifier---- the words on the left side of the head s⑤Complement---- the words on the right side of the headsChapter 51. The conceptualist viewThe conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i.e. between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.2. The contextualism①Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context—elements closely linked with language behavior. Two types of contexts are recognized:②Situational context: spatiotemporal situation③Linguistic context: the probability of a word’s co-occurrence or collocation.④For example, “black” in black hair& black coffee,or black sheep differs in meaning; “The president of the United States” can mean either the president or presidency in different situation.3. Behaviorism①Behaviorists attempted to de fine meaning as “the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”.②The story of Jack and Jill:Jill JackS_________r--------s_________R4. Sense and referenceSense and reference are both concerned with the study of word meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning.①Sense---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.②Reference----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.5. Major sense relationsSynonymySynonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.1) Dialectal synonyms---- synonyms used in different regional dialects, e.g. autumn - fall, biscuit - cracker, petrol –gasoline…2) Stylistic synonyms----synonyms differing in style, e.g. kid, child, offspring; start, begin, commence…3) Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning, e.g. collaborator- accomplice…4) Collocational synonyms, e.g. accuse…of, charge…with, rebuke…for; …5) Semantically different synonyms, e.g. amaze, astound…Antonymy1) Gradable antonyms----there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair,e.g. old-young, hot-cold, tall-short …2) Complementary antonyms----the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other, e.g. alive-dead, male-female …3) Relational opposites----exhibits the reversal of the relationship between the two items, e.g. husband-wife, father-son, doctor-patient, buy-sell, let-rent, employer-employee, give-receive, above-below …6. Sense relations between sentences(1) X is synonymous with Y①X: He was a bachelor all his life. Y: He never got married all his life.②X: The boy killed the cat. Y: The cat was killed by the boy.If X is true, Y is true; if X is false, Y is false.(2) X is inconsistent with Y①X: He is single. Y: He has a wife.②X: This is my first visit to Beijing .Y: I have been to Beijing twice.If X is true, Y is false; if X is false, Y is true.(3) X entails Y①X: John married a blond heiress. Y: John married a blond.②X: Marry has been to Beijing. Y: Marry has been to China.Entailment is a relation of inclusion. If X entails Y, then the meaning of X is included in Y.If X is true, Y is necessarily true; if X is false, Y may be true or false.(4) X presupposes Y①X: His bike needs repairing. Y: He has a bike.②Paul has given up smoking. Paul once smoked.If X is true, Y must be true; If X is false, Y is still true.(5) X is a contradiction*My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.*The orphan‟s parents are pretty well-off.(6) X is semantically anomalous*The man is pregnant.*The table has bad intentions.*Sincerity shakes hands with the black apple.7. Analysis of meaning⑴Componential analysis---- a way to analyze lexical meaning. The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features. For example,Man: [+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE]Boy: [+HUMAN, -ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE]Woman: [+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, -MALE]Girl: [+HUMAN, -ADULT, +ANIMATE, -MALE]⑵Predication analysis1) The meaning of a sentence is not to be worked out by adding up all the meanings of its component words, e.g. “The dog bites the man” is semantically different from “The man bites the dog” though their components are exactly the sam e.2) There are two aspects to sentence meaning: grammatical meaning and semantic meaning, e.g. *Green clouds are sleeping furiously.*Sincerity shook hands with the black apple.Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called selectional restrictions.3) Predication analysis---- a way to analyze sentence meaning (British G. Leech).4) Predication----the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. A predication consists of argument(s) and predicate.①An argument is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal elements in a sentence.②A predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.5) According to the number of arguments contained in a predication, we may classify the predications into the following types:①One-place predication: smoke, grow, rise, run …②Two-place predication: like, love, save, bite, beat…③Three-place predication: give, sent, promise, call …④No-place predication: It is hot.Tom smokes.→ TOM (SMOKE) The tree grows well.→ TREE (GROW)The kids like apples.→KIDS (LIKE) APPLE I sent him a letter.→I (SEND) HIM LETTER Chapter 61. Context---- a basic concept in the study of pragmatics. It is generally considered as constituted knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer, such as cultural background, situation (time, place, manner, etc.), the relationship between the speaker and the hearer, etc.….Context determines the speaker’s use of language and also the hearer’s interpretation of what is said to him.2. Speech act theorySpeech acts is a term derived from the work of the philosopher J. L. Austin (1962) and now used to refer to a theory which analyzes the role of utterances in relation to the behavior of the speaker and the hearer in interpersonal communication. It aims to answer the question “What do we do when using language?”⑴Austin’s new model of speech act sAccording to Austin’s new model, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking: locutionary act, illocutionary act and perlocutionary act.①The locutionary act----an act of saying something, i.e. an act of making a meaningful utterance (literal meaning of an utterance);②The illocutionary act----an act performed in saying something: in saying X, I was doing Y (the intention of the speaker while speaking).③The perlocutionary act----an act performed as a result of saying something: by saying X and doing Y, I did Z.Ⅰ.For example,“It is cold in here.”①Its locutionary act is the saying of it with its literal meaning the weather is clod in here;②Its illocutionary act can be a request of the hear to shut the window;③Its perlocutionary act can be the hearer’s shutting the window o r his refusal to comply with the request.Ⅱ.Analyze one more example: “You have left the door wide open.”Note: Of the three acts, what speech act theory is most concerned with is the illocutionary act. It attempts to account for the ways by which speakers can mean more than what they say.Ⅲ.Analyze the illocutionary acts of the following conversation between a couple:----(the telephone rings)----H: That‟ the phone. (1)----W: I‟m in the bathroom. (2)----H: Okay. (3)Ⅳ.This seemingly incoherent conversation goes on successfully because the speakers understand each other’s illocutionary acts:① Making a request of his wife to go and answer the phone.② A refusal to comply with the request; issuing a request of her husband to answer the phone instead.③Accepting the wife’s refusal and accepting her request, meaning “all right, I‟ll answer it.”⑵Searle’s classification of speech acts (1969)①Assertives/representatives(陈述) Stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true, e.g.I think the film is moving.I‟m certain I have never seen the man before.I solemnly swear that he had got it.②Directives(指令) Trying to get the hearer to do something, e.g.I order you to leave right now.Open the window, please.Your money or your life!③Commissives(承诺) Committing the speaker himself to some future course of action, e.g.I promise to come.I will bring you the book tomorrow without fail.④Expressives(表达) Expressing the speaker’s psychological state about something, e.g.I‟m sorry for being late.I apologize for the sufferings that the war has caused to your people.⑤eclarations(宣布) Bringing about an immediate change in the existing state or affairs, e.g.I now appoint you chairman of the committee.You are fired.I now declare the meeting open.Note: (1) All the acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose but differ in their strength or force, e.g.I guess / am sure / swear he is the murderer.Note: (2) In order to get someone open the door, we can choose one from a variety of the forms in below:Could you open the door, please!Can you open the door!Do you mind opening the door?Open the door!The door please!3. Principle of conversation (Paul Grice)Cooperative principle (CP)---- According to Grice, in making conversation, there is a general principle which all participants are expected to observe. It goes as follows:Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.Four maxims of CP①The maxim of quality----Do not say what you believe to be false.----Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.②The maxim of quantity----Make your contribution as informative as required for the current purpose of the exchange.----Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.③The maxim of relation----Be relevant ( make your contribution relevant).④The maxim of manner----Avoid obscurity of expression.----Avoid ambiguity.----Be brief.----Be orderly.Chapter 71. Addition of new words①coinage(创新词)----A new word can be coined outright to fit some purpose, e.g.Walkman Kodak Xerox Ford Benz Toyota②clipped words(缩略词) ----The abbreviation of longer words or phrases, e.g. Gym—gymnasium memo—memorandum disco—discotheque fridge—refrigerator③blending(紧缩法) ----A blend is a word formed by combining parts of other words, e.g. Smog—smoke + fog motel—motor + hotel camcorder—camera + recorder④acronyms(词首字母缩略词) ----Acronyms are words derived from the initials of several words,e.g. CBS---- Columbia Broad casting systemISBN----International Standard Book NumberWTO WHO PLA AIDS UNESCO APEC OPEC CAD SARS⑤back-formation(逆构词法) ----New words may be coined from already existing words by “subtracting” an affix thought to be part of the old word.Edit ⇐ editor hawk ⇐ hawker beg ⇐ beggar baby-sit ⇐baby-sitter⑥functional shift ----Words may shift from one part of speech to another without the addition of affixes, e.g. Noun⇒verb: to knee, to bug, to tape, to brake…Verb⇒noun: a hold, a flyby, a reject, a retreat…Adj⇒verb: to cool, to narrow, to dim, to slow…Adj⇒noun: a daily, a Christian, the rich, the imposs ible…⑦borrowing ----When different cultures come into contact, words are often borrowed from one language to another. The following are some of the loan words in English (see more in P100-101). Latin bonus education exitGerman beer waltz quartzChinese tea kowtow sampanRussian sputnik commissar vodkaArabic zero algebra alcohol2. Loss of wordsWords can be lost from a language as time goes by. The following words, taken from Romeo and Juliet, have faded out of the English language.Beseem →to be suitableWot →to knowGyve →a fetterWherefore →why3. Changes in the meaning of words①Widening of meaningHoliday: [+specific] holy day[+general] any rest dayTail: [+specific] tail of a horse[+general] tail of any animal②Narrowing of meaningHound: any doga special kind of dogGirl: young person of either sexyoung people of female sex③Meaning shiftinn: a small, old hotel or pubwell-known, nice hotelnice: ignorant (1000 years ago)good, fineChapter 81. The relatedness between language and societyThere are many indications of the inter-relationship between language and society.①Language is often used to establish and maintain social relationships. (e.g. greeting)②The use of language is in part determined by the user’s social background. (social class, age, sex, education level, etc.)③Language, especially the structure of its lexicon, reflects both the physical and the social environments of a society. (“snow” for Eskimo)④As a social phenomenon language is closely related to the structure of the society in which it is used, the evaluation of a linguistic form is entirely social ( the postvocalic [r] ).2. Speech community and speech variety①Speech community---- the social group that is singled out for any special sociolinguistic study is called the speech community.②Speech variety or language variety---- any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker ora group of speakers. In sociolinguistic study three types of speech variety are of special interest,i.e. regional dialects, sociolects and registers.3. Two approaches to sociolinguistic studies①Macro sociolinguistics, i.e. a bird’s-eye view of the languages used in society;②Micro sociolinguistics, i.e. a worm’s-eye view of language in use.4. Sociolect is a linguistic variety characteristic of a particular social class. (e.g. Received Pronunciation)5. Ethnic dialect----a social dialect of a language that cuts across regional differences; it is mainly spoken by a less privileged population that has experienced some form of social isolation such as racial discrimination or segregation (e.g. Black English).6. Register, in a restricted sense, refers to the variety of language related to one’s occupation.In a broader sense, according to Halliday, “language varies as its function varies; it differs in different situations.” The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register.Halliday further distinguishes three social variables that determine the register: field of discourse, tenor of discourse, mode of discourse.Three social variables:①Field of discourse: what is going on: to the area of operation of the language activity. It is concerned with the purpose (why) and subject matter (about what) of communication. It can beeither technical or non-technical.)②Tenor of discourse: the role of relationship in the situation in question: who are the participants in the communication and in what relationship they stand to each other. (customer-shop-assistant, teacher-student, etc.)③Mode of discourse: the means of communication. It is concerned with how communication is carried out. (oral, written, on the line…)7. Standard dialect①The standard variety is a superimposed, socially prestigious dialect of a language. It is the language employed by the government and the judiciary system, used by the mass media, and taught in educational institutions, including school settings where the language is taught as a foreign or second language.②The standard variety has a number of featuresFirst of all, the standard dialect is based on a selected variety of the language, usually it is the local speech of an area which is considered the nation’s political and commercial center.Second, the standard dialect is not a dialect a child acquires naturally like his regional dialect. It is a superimposed variety; it is a variety imposed from above over the range of regional dialects. Then the standard dialect has some special functions.Chapter 91. The relationship between language and culture①The same word may stir up different associations in people under different cultural background,e.g. the word “dog”.②Language expresses cultural reality, reflects the people’s attitudes, beliefs, world outlooks, etc.③The culture both emancipates and constrains people socially, historically and metaphorically.④Culture also af fects its people’s imagination or common dreams which are mediated through the language and reflected in their life.⑤On the one hand, language as an integral part of human being, permeates in his thinking and way of viewing the world, language both expresses and embodies cultural reality; on the other, language, as a product of culture, helps perpetuate the culture, and the changes in language uses reflect the cultural changes in return.2. Sapir-Whorf hypothesis⑴①Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf, proclaimed that the structure of the language people habitually use influences the ways they think and behave, i.e. different languages offer people different ways of expressing the world around, they think and speak differently, this is also known as linguistic relativity.②Sapir and Whorf believe that language filters people’s perception and the way they categorize experiences. This interdependence of language and thought is now known as Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis.⑵Strong version & weak versionStrong version bel ieves that the language patterns determine people’s thinking and behavior; Weak version holds that the former influence the latter.----The study of the linguistic relativity or SWH has shed two important insights:①There is nowadays a recognition that language, as code, reflects cultural preoccupations and constrains the way people think.②More than in Whorf’s days, however, we recognize how important context is in complementing。
新编简明英语语言学教程
新编简明英语语言学教程Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of h islanguage.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。
《简明英语语言学教程》Chapter-3-Morphology320
Can pre- and dict be structurally and semantically further analyzed?
3.2 Morphemes
1. word:
a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.
3.1 Introduction
Discussion:
➢ If we look at the following words simplify, falsify, justify, diversify, qualify, identify and beautify, we feel that they bear sth. similar in their internal structures. What is it?
3.1 Introduction
Morphology: ➢ a branch of grammar which studies the
internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.
predict: ➢ pre: before ➢ dict: speak
the act of bringing something under international control