英语语言学教程课后题及答案
《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版课后习题答案chapter8
Chapter 8 Language and Society1. How is language related to society? 答：There are many indications of the inter-relationship between language and society. One of them is that while language is principally used to communicate meaning, it is also used to establish and maintain social relationships. This social function of language is embodied in the use of such utterances as “ Good morning! ” , “ Hi! ” , “ How's your family? ” , “ Nice day today, isn Another indication is that users of the same language in a sense all speak differently. The kind of language each of them chooses to use is in part determined by his social background. And language, in its turn, reveals information about its speaker. When we speak, we cannot avoid giving clues to our listeners about ourselves.Then to some extent, language, especially the structure of its lexicon, reflects both the physical and the social environments of a society. For example while there is only one word in English for “ snow ” , there are several in Eskimo. This is a reflection of the need for the Eskimos tomake distinctions between various kinds of snow in their snowy living environment.As a social phenomenon language is closely related to the structure of the society in which it is used, and the evaluation of a linguistic form is entirely social. To a linguist, all language forms and accents are equally good as far as they can fulfill the communicative functions they are expected to fulfill. Therefore, judgments concerning the correctness and purity of linguistic varieties are social rather than linguistic. A case in point is the use of the postvocalic [r]. While in English accents without postvocalic [r] are considered to be more correct than accents with it, in New York city, accents with postvocalic [r] enjoys more prestige and are considered more correct than without it.2. Explain with an example that the evaluation of language is social rather than linguistic. 答：The evaluation of language is social rather than linguistic. This is because every language or language variety can express all ideas that its native speakers want to express. That is to say, language and language variety are equal in expressing meaning. For example, the much-prejudiced Black English can be used by the black people to communicate with each other without feeling any hindrance. But many other people think Black English is not pure English because it does not conform to their grammar and not adopted by educated people. As a result, many people feel shameful to use Black English. From this example we can know that the evaluation of language is social, not linguistic.3. What are the main social dialects discussed in this chapter? How do they jointly determine idiolect?答：The main social dialects discussed in this chapter are regional dialect, sociolect, gender and age. Idiolect is a personal dialect, of an individual speaker that combines elements regarding regional, social, gender, and age variations. These factors jointly determine the way he/she talks. While the language system provides all its users with the same set of potentials, the realization of these potentials is individualized by a number of social factors, resulting in idiolects.4. In what sense is the standard dialect a special variety of language? 答：First of all, the standard dialect is based on a selected variety of the language, usually it is the local speech of an area which is considered the nation's political and commercial center. Forexample, standard English developed out of the English dialects used in and around London as they were modified over the centuries by speakers in the court, by scholars from universities and writers. Gradually the English used by the upper classes in the capital city diverged markedly from the English used by other social groups and came to be regarded as the model for all those who wished to speak and write well.Second, the standard dialect is not dialect a child acquires naturally like his regional dialect. It is a superimposed variety; it is a variety imposed from above over the range of regional dialects. Some government agenc y writes grammar books and dictionaries to ,fix? this variety and everyone agrees on what is correct usage of the language. So it has a widely accepted codified grammar and vocabulary. Once codification takes place, it is necessary for an ambitious citizen tolearn to use the correct language and to avoid ,incorrect? language. Therefore, the standard dialect is the variety which is taught and learnt in schools.Then the standard dialect has some special functions. Also designated as the official or national language of a country, the standard dialect is used for such official purposes as government documents, education, news reporting; it is the language used on any formal occasions.5. What is register as used by Halliday? Illustrate it with an example of your own. 答：According to Halliday, “Languagevaries as its function varies; it differs in different situations. Th”e type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register. Halliday further distinguishes three social variables that determine the register: field of discourse, tenor of discourse, and mode of discourse.For example, a lecture on linguistics could be identified asField: scientific (linguistic)Tenor: teacher —students (formal, polite)Mode: oral (academic lecturing)6. What linguistic features of Black English do you know? Do you think Black English is an illogical and inferior variety of English? Why (not)?答：(1) A prominent phonological feature of Black English is the simplification of consonant clusters at the end of a word. According to this consonant deletion rule, the final-position consonants are often deleted; thus “ passed ” is pronouncede[np]a,:dse],smk e[dneds[]m, and told[t??l].A syntactic feature of Black English that has often been cited to show its illogicality is the deletion of the link verb“be”. In Black English we frequently come across sentences without thecopula verb: “They mine ”, “You crazy ”, “Her hands cold ”, and “That house big verb deletion is not a. In fac unique feature of Black English; it is also found in some other dialects of English and in languages like Russian and Chinese. Another syntactic feature of Black English that has been the target of attack is the use of double negation constructions, e.g.(8 —2) He don't know nothing. (He doesn't know anything.)(8 —3) I ain't afraid of no ghosts. (I'm not afraid of ghosts.)Some people consider these sentences illogical because they claim that two negatives make a positive. But in fact such double negative constructions were found in all dialects of English of the earlier periods.(2) (略)7. What peculiar features docs pidgin have?答：Pidgins arose from a blending of several languages such as Chinese dialects and English, African dialects and French, African dialects and Portuguese. Usually a European language serves as the basis of the pidgin in the sense that some of its grammar and vocabulary is derived from the European language used by traders and missionaries in order to communicate with peoples whose languages they did not know.Pidgins typically have a limited vocabulary and a very reduced grammatical structure characterized by the loss of inflections, gender end case, The “ simplified var”iety performs its functions as trading and employment.8. How do bilingualism and diglossia differ, and what do they have in common?答：Bilingualism refers to the situation that in some speech communities, two languages are used side by side with each having a different role to play; and language switching occurs when the situation changes. But instead of two different languages, in a diglossic situation two varieties of a language exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a definite role to play.The two languages of bilingualism and the two varieties of diglossia each has different role to play as situation changes.。
新编简明英语语言学教程第二版练习试题参考答案解析
新编简明英语语言学教程第二版练习试题参考答案解析(总26页)--本页仅作为文档封面，使用时请直接删除即可----内页可以根据需求调整合适字体及大小--《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版练习题参考答案Chapter 1 Introduction1. How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language.答： Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has to collect and observe language facts first, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.2. What are the major branches of linguistics What does each of them study答： The major branches of linguistics are:(1) phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication;(2) phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication;(3) morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds are arranged and combined to form words;(4) syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words are combined to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages;(5) semantics: it studies meaning conveyed by language;(6) pragmatics: it studies the meaning in the context of language use.3. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?答： The general approach thus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as “traditional grammar.” Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several basic ways.Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive. Second, modem linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.Then, modem linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.4. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic Why答： In modem linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. Because people believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.5. For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather thanto writing?答： Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. Modem linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of viewof linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today's world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. And also, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school. For modern linguists, spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised” record of speech. Thus their data for invest igation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regard as authentic.6. How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance?答： Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from apsychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.7. What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?答： First of all, language is a system, ., elements of language are combined according to rules.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.Fourth, language is human-specific, i. e., it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess.8. What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?答：The main features of human language are termed design features. They include:1) ArbitrarinessLanguage is arbitrary. This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.2) ProductivityLanguage is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.3) DualityLanguage consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.4) DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This is what “displacement” means.5) Cultural transmissionWhile human capacity for language has a genetic basis, ., we were all born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.9. What are the major functions of language Think of your own examples for illustration.答： Three main functions are often recognized of language: the descriptive function, the expressive function, and the social function.The descriptive function is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified. For example: “China is a large country with a long history.”The expressive function supplies information about the user’s feelings, preferences, prejudices, and values. For example: “I will never go window-shopping with her.”The social function serves to establish and maintain social relations between people. . For example: “We are your firm supporters.”Chapter 2 Speech Sounds1. What are the two major media of linguistic communication Of the two, which one is primary and why答： Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication.Of the two media of language, speech is more primary than writing, for reasons, please refer to the answer to the fifth problem in the last chapter.2. What is voicing and how is it caused?答： Voicing is a quality of speech sounds and a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English. It is caused by the vibration of the vocal cords.3. Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ?答： The transcription with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription. This is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes. The latter, . the transcription with letter-symbols together withthe diacritics is called narrow transcription. This is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. With the help of the diacritics they can faithfully represent as much of the fine details as it is necessary for their purpose.In broad transcription, the symbol [l] is used for the sounds [l] in the four words leaf [li:f], feel [fi:l], build [bild], and health [helθ]. As a matter of fact, the sound [l] in all these four sound combinations differs slightly. The [l] in [li:f], occurring before a vowel, is called a dear [l], and no diacritic is needed to indicate it; the [1] in [fi:l] and [bild], occurring at the end of a word or before another consonant, is pronounced diff erently from the clear [1] as in “leaf”. It is called dark [] and in narrow transcription the diacritic [] is used to indicate it. Then in the sound combination [helθ], the sound [l] is followed by the English dental sound [θ], its pronunciation is somewha t affected by the dental sound that follows it. It is thus called a dental [l], and in narrow transcription the diacritic [、] is used to indicate it. It is transcribed as [helθ].Another example is the consonant [p]. We all know that [p] is pronounced differently in the two words pit and spit. In the word pit, the sound [p] is pronounced with a strong puff of air, but in spit the puff of air is withheld to some extent. In the case of pit, the [p] sound is said to be aspirated and in the case of spit, the [p] sound is unaspirated. This difference is not shown in broad transcription, but in narrow transcription, a small raised “h” is used to show aspiration, thus pit is transcribed as [pht] and spit is transcribed as [spt].4. How are the English consonants classified答： English consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of manner of articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation. In terms of manner of articulation the English consonants can be classified into the following types: stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals and glides. In terms of place of articulation, it can be classified into following types: bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar and glottal.5. What criteria are used to classify the English vowels?答： Vowels may be distinguished as front, central, and back according to which part of the tongue is held highest. To further distinguish members of each group, we need to apply another criterion, . the openness of the mouth. Accordingly, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels. A third criterion that is often used in the classification of vowels is the shape of the lips. In English, all the front vowels and the central vowels are unfounded vowels, i. e., without rounding the lips, and all the back vowels, with the exception of [a:], are rounded. It should be noted that some front vowels can be pronounced with rounded lips.6. A. Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound descriptions:1) voiced palatal affricate2) voiceless labiodental fricative3) voiced alveolar stop4) front, close, short5) back, semi-open, long6) voiceless bilabial stopB. Give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds:1) [ t ] 2) [ l ] 3) [] 4) [w] 5) [] 6) []答：A. (1) [] (2) [ f ] (3) [d ] (4) [ ] (5) [ :] (6) [p]B. (1) voiceless alveolar stop (2) voiced alveolar liquid(3) voiceless palatal affricate (4) voiced bilabial glide(5) back, close, short (6) front, open7. How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study Who do you think will be more interested in the difference between, say, [l] and [], [ph] and [p], a phonetician or a phonologist Why答： (1) Both phonology and phonetics are concerned with the same aspect of language –– the speech sounds. But while both are related to the study of sounds,, they differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc. Phonology, on the other hand, aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.(2) A phonologist will be more interested in it. Because one of the tasks of the phonologists is to find out rule that governs the distribution of [l] and [], [ph] and [p].8. What is a phone How is it different from a phoneme How are allophones related to a phoneme答： A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. A phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. For example, the phoneme /l/ in English can be realized as dark [], clear [l], etc. which are allophones of the phoneme /l/.9. Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule, and the deletion rule.答： Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules.There are many such sequential rules in English. For example, if a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel. That is why [lbik] [lkbi] are impossible combinations in English. They have violated the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes.The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. Assimilation of neighbouring sounds is, for the most part, caused by articulatory or physiological processes. When we speak, we tend to increase the ease ofarticulation. This “sloppy” tendency may become regularized as rules of language.We all know that nasalization is not a phonological feature in English, ., it does not distinguish meaning. But this does not mean that vowels in English are never nasalized in actual pronunciation; in fact they are nasalized in certain phonetic contexts. For example, the [i:] sound is nasalized in words like bean, green, team, and scream. This is because in all these sound combinations the [i:] sound is followed by a nasal [n] or [m].The assimilation rule also accounts for the varying pronunciation of the alveolar nasal [n] in some sound combinations. The rule is that within a word, the nasal [n] assumes the same place of articulation as the consonant that follows it. We know that in English the prefix in- can be added to ma adjectiveto make the meaning of the word negative, . discreet – indiscreet, correct –incorrect. But the [n] sound in the prefix in- is not always pronounced as an alveolar nasal. It is so in the word indiscreet because the consonant that follows it, . [d], is an alveolar stop, but the [n] sound in the word incorrect is actually pronounced as a velar nasal, . []; this is because the consonant that follows it is [k], which is a velar stop. So we can see that while pronouncing the sound [n], we are “copying” a feature of the consonant that follows it.Deletion rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. We have noticed that in the pronunciation of such words as sign, design, and paradigm, there is no [g] sound although it isrepresented in spelling by the letter g. But in their corresponding forms signature, designation, and paradigmatic, the [g] represented by the letter g is pronounced. The rule can be stated as: Delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. Given the rule, the phonemic representation of the stems in sign – signature, resign – resignation, phlegm – phlegmatic, paradigm –paradigmatic will include the phoneme /g/, which will be deleted according to the regular rule if no suffix is added.10. What are suprasegmental features How do the major suprasegmental features of English function in conveying meaning答： The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation, and tone. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. There are two kinds of stress: word stress and sentence stress. For example, a shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun, to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged. Tones are pitch variations which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English. When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings.Chapter 3 Morphology1. Divide the following words into their separate morphemes by placing a “+”between each morpheme and the next:a. microfile e. telecommunicationb. bedraggled f. forefatherc. announcement g. psychophysicsd. predigestion h. mechanist答：a. micro + file b. be + draggle + edc. announce + mentd. pre + digest + ione. tele + communicate + ionf. fore + fatherg. psycho + physics h. mechan + ist2. Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning, and specify the types ofstem they may be suffixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: -orsuffix: -ormeaning: the person or thing performing the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: actor, “one who acts in stage plays, motion pictures, etc.”translator, “one who translates”答：(1) suffix: -ablemeaning: something can be done or is possiblestem type: added to verbsexamples: acceptable, “can be accepted”respectable, “can be respected”(2) suffix: -lymeaning: functionalstem type: added to adjectivesexamples: freely. “adverbial form of ‘free’ ”quickly, “adverbial form of 'quick' ”.(3) suffix: -eemeaning: the person receiving the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: employee, “one who works in a company”interviewee, “one who is interviewed”3. Think of three morpheme prefixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they may be prefixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: a-prefix: a-meaning: “without; not”stem type: added to adjectivesexamples: asymmetric, “lacking symmetry” asexual, “without sex or sex organs”答：(1) prefix: dis-meaning: showing an oppositestem type: added to verbs or nounsexamples : disapprove, “do not approve”dishonesty, “lack of honesty”.(2) prefix: anti-meaning: against, opposed tostem type: added to nouns or adjectivesexamples : antinuclear, “opposing the use of atomic weapons and power”a ntisocial, “opposed or harmful to the laws and customs of an organized community. ”(3) prefix: counter-meaning: the opposite ofstem type: added to nouns or adjectives.examples: counterproductive, “producing results oppo site to those intended”counteract, “act against and reduce the force or effect of (sth.) ”4. The italicized part in each of the following sentences is an inflectional morpheme. Study each inflectional morpheme carefully and point out its grammatical meaning.Sue moves in high-society circles in London.A traffic warden asked John to move his car.The club has moved to Friday, February 22nd.The branches of the trees are moving back and forth.答：(1) the third person singular(2) the past tense(3) the present perfect(4) the present progressive5. Determine whether the words in each of the following groups are related to one another by processes of inflection or derivation.a) go, goes, going, goneb) discover, discovery, discoverer, discoverable, discoverabilityc) inventor, inventor’s, inventors, inventors’d) democracy, democrat, democratic, democratize答：(略)6. The following sentences contain both derivational and inflectional affixes. Underline all of the derivational affixes and circle the inflectional affixes.a) The farmer’s cows escaped.b) It was raining.c) Those socks are inexpensive.d) Jim needs the newer copy.e) The strongest rower continued.f) She quickly closed the book.g) The alphabetization went well.答：(略)Chapter 4 Syntax1. What is syntax?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure rule?The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements . specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows:NP → (Det) N (PP) ...VP → (Qual) V (NP) ...AP → (Deg) A (PP) ...PP → (Deg) P (NP) ...The general phrasal structural rule ( X stands for the head N, V, A or P):The XP rule: XP → (specifier) X (complement)3. What is category How to determine a word's categoryCategory refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution. A word's distributional facts together withinformation about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have?The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction is called coordinate structures.Conjunction exhibits four important properties:1) There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction.2) A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3) Coordinated categories must be of the same type.4) The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element play?A phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier and complement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier.The role of each elementHead:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier:Specifier has both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, it helps to make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, it typically marks a phrase boundary.Complement:Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head. Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure?There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure (or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).7. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences. a) The old lady got off the bus carefully.Det A N V P Det N Advb) The car suddenly crashed onto the river bank.Det N Adv V P Det Nc) The blinding snowstorm might delay the opening of the schools.Det A N Aux V Det N P Det Nd) This cloth feels quite soft.Det N V Deg A（以下8-12题只作初步的的成分划分，未画树形图, 仅供参考）8. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each.a) rich in mineralsXP(AP) → head (rich) A + complement (in minerals) PPb) often read detective storiesXP(VP) → specifier (often) Qual + head (read) V + complement (detective stories) NPc) the argument against the proposalsXP(NP) → specifier (the) Det + head (argument) N + complement (against the proposals) PPd) already above the windowXP(VP) → specifier (already) Deg + head (above) P + complement (the window) NP9. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.（划底线的为动词的修饰语，斜体的为名词的修饰语）a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution.b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.c) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.d) A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.10. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences. （划底线的为并列的范畴）a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.c) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.11. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence. （划底线的为补语从句）a) You know that I hate war.b) Gerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.c) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.d) The children argued over whether bats had wings.12. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of these sentences. （划底线的为关系从句）a) The essay that he wrote was excellent.b) Herbert bought a house that she lovedc) The girl whom he adores majors in linguistics.13. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each of these sentences.a) Would you come tomorrow (surface structure)you would come tomorrow (deep structure)b) What did Helen bring to the party (surface structure)Helen brought what to the party (deep structure)c) Who broke the window (surface structure)who broke the window (deep structure)Chapter 5 Semantics1. What are the major views concerning the study of meaning?答：(1) The naming theory proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things.(2) The conceptualist view has been held by some philosophers and linguists from ancient times. This view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i. e., between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.(3) The contextualist view held that meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context –– elements closely linked with language behaviour. The representative of this approach was . Firth, famous British linguist.(4) Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the “situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in thehearer.” This theory, somewhat clos e to contextualism, is linked with psychological interest.2. What are the major types of synonyms in English?答： The major types of synonyms are dialectal synonyms, stylistic synonyms, emotive or evaluative synonyms, collocational synonyms, and semantically different synonyms.Examples（略）3. Explain with examples “homonymy”, “polysemy”, and “hyponymy”.答：(1) Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, ., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones.When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms(2) While different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning. This is what we call polysemy, and such a word is called a polysemic word. There are many polysemic words in English, The fact is the more commonly used a word is, the more likely it has acquired more than one meaning.(3) Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. The word which is more general in。
新编简明英语语言学教程第二版练习题参考答案
《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版练习题参考答案Chapter 1 Introduction1. How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language.答： Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has to collect and observe language facts first, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.2. What are the major branches of linguistics What does each of them study答： The major branches of linguistics are:(1) phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication;(2) phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication;(3) morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds are arranged and combined to form words;(4) syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words are combined to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages;(5) semantics: it studies meaning conveyed by language;(6) pragmatics: it studies the meaning in the context of language use.3. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar答： The general approach thus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as “traditional grammar.” Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several basic ways.Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive. Second, modem linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.Then, modem linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.4. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic Why答： In modem linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. Because people believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.5. For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing答： Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. Modem linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speec h is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today's world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. And also, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school. For modern linguists, spoken language reveals many true featuresof human speech while written language is only the “revised” record of speech. Thus their data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regard as authentic.6. How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance答： Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.7. What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language答： First of all, language is a system, ., elements of language are combined according to rules.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound. Fourth, language is human-specific, i. e., it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess.8. What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system答：The main features of human language are termed design features. They include: 1) ArbitrarinessLanguage is arbitrary. This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.2) ProductivityLanguage is productive or creative in that it makes possible the constructionand interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.3) DualityLanguage consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.4) DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This is what “displacement” means.5) Cultural transmissionWhile human capacity for language has a genetic basis, ., we were all born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.9. What are the major functions of language Think of your own examples for illustration.答： Three main functions are often recognized of language: the descriptive function, the expressive function, and the social function.The descriptive function is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted o r denied, and in some cases even verified. For example: “China is a large country with a long history.”The expressive function supplies information about the user’s feelings, preferences, prejudices, and values. For example: “I will never go window-shopping with her.”The social function serves to establish and maintain social relations between people. . For example: “We are your firm supporters.”Chapter 2 Speech Sounds1. What are the two major media of linguistic communication Of the two, which one is primary and why答： Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication.Of the two media of language, speech is more primary than writing, for reasons, please refer to the answer to the fifth problem in the last chapter.2. What is voicing and how is it caused答： Voicing is a quality of speech sounds and a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English. It is caused by the vibration of the vocal cords.3. Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ 答： The transcription with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription. This is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes. The latter, . the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called narrow transcription. This is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. With the help of the diacritics they can faithfully represent as much of the fine details as it is necessary for their purpose.In broad transcription, the symbol [l] is used for the sounds [l] in the four words leaf [li:f], feel [fi:l], build [bild], and health [helθ]. As a matter of fact, the sound [l] in all these four sound combinations differs slightly. The [l] in [li:f], occurring before a vowel, is called a dear [l], and no diacritic is needed to indicate it; the [1] in [fi:l] and [bild], occurring at the end of a word or before another consonant, is pronounced differently from the clear [1] as in “leaf”. It is called dark [] and in narrow transcription the diacritic [] is used to indicateit. Then in the sound combination [helθ], the sound [l] is followed by the English dental sound [θ], its pronunciation is somewhat affected by the dental sound that follows it. It is thus called a dental [l], and in narrow transcription the diacritic [、] is used to indicate it. It is transcribed as [helθ].Another example is the consonant [p]. We all know that [p] is pronounced differently in the two words pit and spit. In the word pit, the sound [p] is pronounced with a strong puff of air, but in spit the puff of air is withheld to some extent. In the case of pit, the [p] sound is said to be aspirated and in the case of spit, the [p] sound is unaspirated. This difference is not shown in broad transcription, but in narrow transcription, a small raised “h” is used to show aspiration, thus pit is transcribed as [pht] and spit is transcribed as [spt].4. How are the English consonants classified答： English consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of manner of articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation. In terms of manner of articulation the English consonants can be classified into the following types: stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals and glides. In terms of place of articulation, it can be classified into following types: bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar and glottal.5. What criteria are used to classify the English vowels答： Vowels may be distinguished as front, central, and back according to which part of the tongue is held highest. To further distinguish members of each group, we need to apply another criterion, . the openness of the mouth. Accordingly, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels. A third criterion that is often used in the classification of vowels is the shape of the lips. In English, all the front vowels and the central vowels are unfounded vowels, i. e., without rounding the lips, and all the back vowels, with the exception of [a:], are rounded. It should be noted that some front vowelscan be pronounced with rounded lips.6. A. Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound descriptions:1) voiced palatal affricate2) voiceless labiodental fricative3) voiced alveolar stop4) front, close, short5) back, semi-open, long6) voiceless bilabial stopB. Give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds:1) [ t ] 2) [ l ] 3) [] 4) [w] 5) [] 6) []答：A. (1) [] (2) [ f ] (3) [d ] (4) [ ] (5) [ :] (6) [p]B. (1) voiceless alveolar stop (2) voiced alveolar liquid(3) voiceless palatal affricate (4) voiced bilabial glide(5) back, close, short (6) front, open7. How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study Who do you think will be more interested in the difference between, say, [l] and [], [ph] and [p], a phonetician or a phonologist Why答： (1) Both phonology and phonetics are concerned with the same aspect of language –– the speech sounds. But while both are related to the study of sounds,, they differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc. Phonology, on the other hand, aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.(2) A phonologist will be more interested in it. Because one of the tasks of the phonologists is to find out rule that governs the distribution of [l] and [],[ph] and [p].8. What is a phone How is it different from a phoneme How are allophones related to a phoneme答： A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. A phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. For example, the phoneme /l/ in English can be realized as dark [], clear [l], etc. which are allophones of the phoneme /l/.9. Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule, and the deletion rule.答： Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules.There are many such sequential rules in English. For example, if a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel. That is why [lbik] [lkbi] are impossible combinations in English. They have violated the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes.The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. Assimilation of neighbouring sounds is, for the most part, caused by articulatory or physiological processes. When we speak, we tend to increase the ease of articulation. This “sloppy” tendency may become regularized as rules of language.We all know that nasalization is not a phonological feature in English, ., it does not distinguish meaning. But this does not mean that vowels in English are never nasalized in actual pronunciation; in fact they are nasalized in certain phonetic contexts. For example, the [i:] sound is nasalized in words like bean, green, team,and scream. This is because in all these sound combinations the [i:] sound is followed by a nasal [n] or [m].The assimilation rule also accounts for the varying pronunciation of the alveolar nasal [n] in some sound combinations. The rule is that within a word, the nasal [n] assumes the same place of articulation as the consonant that follows it. We know that in English the prefix in- can be added to ma adjective to make the meaning of the word negative, . discreet – indiscreet, correct – incorrect. But the [n] sound in the prefix in- is not always pronounced as an alveolar nasal. It is so in the word indiscreet because the consonant that follows it, . [d], is an alveolar stop, but the [n] sound in the word incorrect is actually pronounced as a velar nasal, . []; this is because the consonant that follows it is [k], which is a velar stop. So we can see that while pronouncing the sound [n], we are “copying” a feature of the consonant that follows it.Deletion rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. We have noticed that in the pronunciation of such words as sign, design, and paradigm, there is no [g] sound although it is represented in spelling by the letter g. But in their corresponding forms signature, designation, and paradigmatic, the [g] represented by the letter g is pronounced. The rule can be stated as: Delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. Given the rule, the phonemic representation of the stems in sign –signature, resign –resignation, phlegm –phlegmatic, paradigm – paradigmatic will include the phoneme /g/, which will be deleted according to the regular rule if no suffix is added.10. What are suprasegmental features How do the major suprasegmental features of English function in conveying meaning答： The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation, and tone. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. Thereare two kinds of stress: word stress and sentence stress. For example, a shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun, to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged. Tones are pitch variations which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English. When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings.Chapter 3 Morphology1. Divide the following words into their separate morphemes by placing a “+” between each morpheme and the next:a. microfile e. telecommunicationb. bedraggled f. forefatherc. announcement g. psychophysicsd. predigestion h. mechanist答：a. micro + file b. be + draggle + edc. announce + mentd. pre + digest + ione. tele + communicate + ionf. fore + fatherg. psycho + physics h. mechan + ist2. Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they may be suffixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: -orsuffix: -ormeaning: the person or thing performing the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: actor, “one who acts in stage plays, motion pictures, etc.” translator, “one who translates”答：(1) suffix: -ablemeaning: something can be done or is possiblestem type: added to verbsexamples: acceptable, “can be accepted”respectable, “can be respected”(2) suffix: -lymeaning: functionalstem type: added to adjectivesexamples: freely. “adverbial form of ‘free’ ”quickly, “adverbial form of 'quick' ”.(3) suffix: -eemeaning: the person receiving the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: employee, “one who works in a company”interviewee, “one who is interviewed”3. Think of three morpheme prefixes, give their meaning, and specify the types ofstem they may be prefixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: a-prefix: a-meaning: “without; not”stem type: added to adjectivesexamples: asymmetric, “lacking symmetry” asexual, “without sex or sexorgans”答：(1) prefix: dis-meaning: showing an oppositestem type: added to verbs or nounsexamples : disapprove, “do not approve”dishonesty, “lack of honesty”.(2) prefix: anti-meaning: against, opposed tostem type: added to nouns or adjectivesexamples : antinuclear, “opposing the use of atomic weapons and power”antisocial, “opposed or harmful to the laws and customs of an organized community. ”(3) prefix: counter-meaning: the opposite ofstem type: added to nouns or adjectives.examples: counterproductive, “producing results opposite to those intended”count eract, “act against and reduce the force or effect of (sth.) ”4. The italicized part in each of the following sentences is an inflectional morpheme. Study each inflectional morpheme carefully and point out its grammatical meaning. Sue moves in high-society circles in London.A traffic warden asked John to move his car.The club has moved to Friday, February 22nd.The branches of the trees are moving back and forth.答：(1) the third person singular(2) the past tense(3) the present perfect(4) the present progressive5. Determine whether the words in each of the following groups are related to one another by processes of inflection or derivation.a) go, goes, going, goneb) discover, discovery, discoverer, discoverable, discoverabilityc) inventor, inventor’s, inventors, inventors’d) democracy, democrat, democratic, democratize答：(略)6. The following sentences contain both derivational and inflectional affixes. Underline all of the derivational affixes and circle the inflectional affixes.a) The farmer’s cows escaped.b) It was raining.c) Those socks are inexpensive.d) Jim needs the newer copy.e) The strongest rower continued.f) She quickly closed the book.g) The alphabetization went well.答：(略)Chapter 4 Syntax1. What is syntaxSyntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure ruleThe grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements . specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule. The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows:NP → (Det) N (PP) ...VP → (Qual) V (NP) ...AP → (Deg) A (PP) ...PP → (Deg) P (NP) ...The general phrasal structural rule ( X stands for the head N, V, A or P):The XP rule: XP → (specifier) X (complement)3. What is category How to determine a word's categoryCategory refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution. A word's distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it haveThe structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction is called coordinate structures.Conjunction exhibits four important properties:1) There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction.2) A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3) Coordinated categories must be of the same type.4) The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element playA phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier and complement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier.The role of each elementHead:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier:Specifier has both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, it helps to make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, it typically marks a phrase boundary.Complement:Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structureThere are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure (or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).7. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences. a) The old lady got off the bus carefully.Det A N V P Det N Advb) The car suddenly crashed onto the river bank.Det N Adv V P Det Nc) The blinding snowstorm might delay the opening of the schools.Det A N Aux V Det N P Det Nd) This cloth feels quite soft.Det N V Deg A（以下8-12题只作初步的的成分划分，未画树形图, 仅供参考）8. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each.a) rich in mineralsXP(AP) → head (rich) A + complement (in minerals) PPb) often read detective storiesXP(VP) → specifier (often) Qual + head (read) V + complement (detective stories) NPc) the argument against the proposalsXP(NP) →specifier (the) Det + head (argument) N + complement (against the proposals) PPd) already above the windowXP(VP) → specifier (already) Deg + head (above) P + complement (the window) NP 9. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.（划底线的为动词的修饰语，斜体的为名词的修饰语）a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution.b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.c) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.d) A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.10. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences. （划底线的为并列的范畴）a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.c) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.11. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence. （划底线的为补语从句）a) You know that I hate war.b) Gerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.c) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.d) The children argued over whether bats had wings.12. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of these sentences. （划底线的为关系从句）a) The essay that he wrote was excellent.b) Herbert bought a house that she lovedc) The girl whom he adores majors in linguistics.13. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each of these sentences. a) Would you come tomorrow (surface structure)you would come tomorrow (deep structure)b) What did Helen bring to the party (surface structure)Helen brought what to the party (deep structure)c) Who broke the window (surface structure)who broke the window (deep structure)Chapter 5 Semantics1. What are the major views concerning the study of meaning答：(1) The naming theory proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things.(2) The conceptualist view has been held by some philosophers and linguists from ancient times. This view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i. e., between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of conceptsin the mind.(3) The contextualist view held that meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context –– elements closely linked with language behaviour. The representative of this approach was . Firth, famous British linguist.(4) Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the “situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.” This theory, somewhat close to contextualism, is linked with psychological interest.2. What are the major types of synonyms in English答： The major types of synonyms are dialectal synonyms, stylistic synonyms, emotive or evaluative synonyms, collocational synonyms, and semantically different synonyms.Examples（略）3. Explain with examples “homonymy”, “polysemy”, and “hyponymy”.答：(1) Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, ., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones.When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms (2) While different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning. This is what we call polysemy, and such a word is called a polysemic word. There are many polysemic words in English, The fact is the more commonly used a word is, the more likely it has acquired more than one meaning.(3) Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms. Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms to each other. Hyponymy is a relation of。
第四版语言学教程答案
第四版语言学教程答案【篇一：语言学教程(胡壮麟版)综合测试题含标准答案】 class=txt>英语语言学试卷（一）第一部分选择题i. directions: read each of the following statements carefully. decide which one of the fourchoices best completes the statement and put the letter a, b, cor d in the brackets.(2%x10=20%)1.saussure’s distinction and chomsky’s are very similar, but they differ in that ____________. a.saussure took a sociological view of language while chomsky took a psychological point of viewb. saussure took a psychological view of language while chomsky took a sociological point ofviewc. saussure took a pragmatic view of language while chomsky took a semantic point of viewd. saussure took a structural view of language while chomsky took a pragmatic point of view2. language is a system of ____________ vocal symbols used for human communication. a.unnatural b. artificialc. superficiald. arbitrary3. we are born with the ability to acquire language,_______________.a. and the details of any language system are genetically transmittedb. therefore, we needn’t learn the details of our mother tonguec. but the details of language have to be learnt.d. and the details are acquired by instinct4. a(n)________ is a phonological unit of distinctive value. it isa collection of distinctivephonetic features. a. phone b. allophonec. phonemed. sound5. the morpheme –ed in the word “worked” is a(n) __________ morpheme. a. derivationalb. inflectionalc. freed. word-forming6. wh-movement is __________ in english which changes a sentence from affirmative tointerrogative. a. obligatoryb. optionalc. selectionald. arbitrary7. naming theory, one of the oldest notions concerning meaning, was proposed by_____________. a. griceb. platoc. saussured. ogden and richards8. “john married a blond heiress.”__________ “john married a blond.” a. is synonymous withb. is inconsistent withc. entailsd. presupposes9. in semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is called ____________, which is theabstraction of the meaning of a sentence. a. utterance b. referencec. predicationd. morpheme10. in austin’s speech act theory, ___________ is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; itis the act performed in saying something. a. a perlocutionary act b. alocutionary actc. a constative actd. an illocutionary act第二部分非选择题ii. directions: fill in the blank in each of the following statements with one word, the first letter ofwhich is already given as a clue. note that you are to fill in one word only, and you are notallowed to change the letter given. (1%x10=10%)11. p___________ relates the study of language to psychology. it aims to answer such questionsas how the human mind works when people use language.12. a d_________ study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development oflanguage over a period of time.13. language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. at the lower level,there is a structure of meaningless sounds, which can be combined into a large number ofmeaningful units at the higher level. this design feature is called d___________.14. the articulatory apparatus of a human being is containedin three important areas: thepharyngeal cavity, the o_________ cavity and the nasal cavity.15. the localization of cognitive and perceptual functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain iscalled l_____________.16. s_____________ features such as stress, tone and intonation can influence the interpretationof meaning.17. phrase structure rules can generate an infinite number of sentences, and sentences with infinitelength, due to their r_________ properties.18. h__________ refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.19. some important missions of historical linguists are to identify and classify families of related languages in a genealogical family tree, and to reconstruct the p____________, the original form of a language family that has ceased to exist. iii. directions: judge whether each of the following statements is true or false. put a t for true or f for false in the brackets in front of each statement. (2%x10=20%)( ) 21. linguists believe that whatever occurs in the language people use should be described and analyzed in their investigation.( ) 22. language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between words and what these words actually refer to.( ) 23. the conclusions we reach about the phonology of one language can be generalized into the study of another language.( ) 24. the meaning-distinctive function of the tone is especially important in english because english, unlike chinese, is a typical tone language.( ) 25. the syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, and yet there is no limit to the number of sentences nativespeakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.( ) 26. when we think of a concept, we actually try to see the image of something in our mind’s eye every time we come across a linguistic symbol.( ) 27. all utterances can be restored to complete sentences. for example, “good morning!” can be restored to “i wish you a good morning.”( ) 28. two people who are born and brought up in the same town and speak the same regional dialect may speak differently because of a number of social factors.( ) 29. black english is linguistically inferior to standard english because black english is not as systematic as standard english.( ) 30. any child who is capable of acquiring some particular human language is capable of acquiring any human language spontaneously and effortlessly.iv. directions: explain the following terms. (3%x10=30%)31. parole:32. broad transcription:33.allophones:34.phrase structure rules:35.context36.historical linguistics:37.standard language:38.linguistic taboo:39.acculturation:40.care-taker speech:v. answer the following questions. (10%x2=20%)41. enumerate three causes that lead to the systematic occurrence of errors in second language acquisition and give your examples.42. english has undergone tremendous changes since its anglo-saxon days. identify the major periods in its historical development and name major historical events that led to the transition from one period to the next.英语语言学试卷答案(一)第一部分选择题i. directions: read each of the following statements carefully. decide which one of the four choices best completes the statement and put the letter a, b, c or d in the brackets.(2%x10=20%)1. a2. d3. c4. c5.b6. a7. b8. c9. c 10. d第二部分非选择题ii. directions: fill in the blank in each of the following statements with one word, the first letter of which is already given as a clue. note that you are to fill in one word only, and you are not【篇二：语言学课后答案4】the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.co-occurrence: it means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence. for instance, what can precede a noun (dog) is usually the determiners and adjectives, and what can follow it when it takes the position of subject will bepredicators such as bark, bite, run, etc. in short, co-occurrence is the syntactic environment in which a construction, with its relevantelements, can appear grammatically and conventionally. thus relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic relations, partly to paradigmatic relations.construction: it refers to any syntactic construct which is assigned one or more conventional functions in a language, together with whatever is linguistically conventionalized about its contribution to the meaning or use construct contains. it can be further divided into the external and internal properties. take sentence the boy kicked the ball as an example, we will determine the external syntax as an independentclause, while np (―the boy‖), vp (―kicked‖) and np (―theb all‖) will be assigned respectively to the different elements in this clause.constituent: constituent is a term used in structural sentence analysis for every linguistic unit, which is a part of a largerlinguistic unit. several constituents together form a construction: for example, in the sentence the boy ate the apple, s (a), the boy (b), ate the apple(c), each part is a constituent. constituents can be joined together with other constituents to form larger units. if two constituents, in the case of the example above, b (the boy) and c (ate the apple), are joined to form ahierarchically higher constituent a (―s‖, here a sentence), then b and c are said to be immediate constituents of a.endocentric: endocentric construction is one whose distribution isfunctionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head. in the phrase two pretty girls, girls is the centre or head of this phrase or word group.exocentric: exocentric construction refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable centre or head inside the group. exocentric construction usually includes basic sentence, prepositional phrase, predicate (verb + object) construction, andconnective (be + complement) construction. in the sentence a whole.coordination: a common syntactic pattern in english and other languages is formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but or or. this phenomenon is known as coordination. in the construction the lady or the tiger, both nps the lady and the tiger have equivalent syntactic status, each of the separate constituents can stand for the original construction functionally.subordination: subordination refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other. thus the subordinate constituents are words which modify the head. consequently, they can be called modifiers. in the phrase swimming in the lake, swimming is the head and in the lake are the words modifying the head.category: the term category in some approaches refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense, e.g., noun, verb, subject, predicate, noun phrase, verb phrase, etc. more specifically, it refers to the defining properties of these general units: the categories of the noun, forexample, include number, gender, case and countability; andof the verb, for example, tense, aspect, voice, and so on.agreement: agreement (or concord) may be defined as the requirement that the forms of two or more words of specific word classes that stand in specific syntactic relationship with one another shall also be characterized by the same paradigmatically marked category (orcategories). for instance, the syntactic relationship between this pen and it in the following dialogue:--.embedding: embedding refers to the means by which one clause is included in another clause in syntactic subordination.e.g., i saw the recursiveness: it mainly means that a phrasal constituent can beembedded within (i.e., be dominated by) another constituent having the same category, but it can be used to any means to extend any constituent. together with openness, recursiveness is the core of creativity of language. for example, ―i met a man who had a son whose wife sold cookies that she had baked in her kitchen that was fully equipped with electrical appliances that were new‖.grammatical subject logical subject: grammatical and logical subjects are two terms accounting for the case of subject in passive voice. take the sentences and as examples. since the core object noun (john in this case) sits in the slot before the verb in the passive, it is called grammatical subject, for the original object noun phrase occupies the grammatical space before a verb, the space that a subject normally occupies; the core subject (a dog), now the object of a preposition (by a dog), is called a logical subject, since semantically the core subject still does what a subject normally does: it performs an action.cohesion: cohesion refers to relations of meaning that exist within the text, and that define it as a text. the cohesivedevices usually include: conjunction, ellipsis, lexicalcollocation, lexical repetition, reference, substitution, and so on. in the following example, the cohesive deviceis ―reference‖, that is, ―it‖ refers back to the door: .2.(1) the instructor told the students to study.[np(det.+n.)+v+np(det.+n.)+inf.]【篇三：语言学教程第四版练习第一章】inguisticsi. mark the choice that best completes the statement.1.all languages’ have three major components: a sound system ,a system of___and a system of semantics.a. morphologyb. lexicogrammarc. syntaxd. meaning2.which of the following words is entirely arbitrary?3.the function of the sentence water boils at 100 degrees centigrade is ___.a.interpersonalb.emotivermatived.performative4.in chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say 碎碎（岁岁）平安as a means of controlling the forces which they believe might affect their lives. which function does it perform?a.interpersonalb.emotivermatived.performative5.which of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place of speaking (due to this feature of language, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situation)?a. transferabilityb. dualityc. displacementd. arbitrariness6. what language function does the following conversation play?(the two chatters just met and were starting their conversation by the following dialogue.)a：a nice day, isn’t it?b : right! i really enjoy the sunlight.a. emotiveb. phaticc. performatived. interpersonal7.------- refers to the actual realization of the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language in utterances.8.when a dog is barking, you assume it is barking for something or at someone that exists here and now. it couldn’t be sorrowful for some lost love or lost bone. this indicates that dog’s language does not have the feature of --------- .a. referenceb. productivityc. displacementd.duality9.--------- answers such questions as we as infants acquire our first language.a. psycholinguisticsb. anthropological linguisticsc. sociolinguisticsd. applied linguistics10.-------- deals with the study of dialects in different social classes in a particular region.a. linguistic theoryb. practical linguisticsc. sociolinguisticsd. comparative linguisticsii. mark the following statements with “t” if they are true or “f” if they are false.(10%)1. the widely accepted meaning of arbitrariness was discussed by chomsky first.2. for learners of a foreign language, it is arbitrariness that is more worth noticing than its conventionality.3. displacement benefits human beings by giving them the power to handlegeneralizations and abstractions.4. for jakobson and the prague school structuralists, the purpose of communication is to refer.5. interpersonal function is also called ideational function in the framework of functional grammar.6. emotive function is also discussed under the term expressive function.7. the relationship between competence and performance in chomsky’s theory is that between a language community and an individual language user.8.a study of the features of the english used in shakespeare’s time is an example of the diachronic study of language.9.articulatory phonetics investigates the properties of the sound waves.10.the nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with prescription instead of description.iii．fill in each of the following blanks with an appropriate word. the first letter of the word is already given(10％)1. nowadays, two kinds of research methods co-exist in linguistic studies, namely,qualitative and q__________ research approaches.2. in any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can becombined into innumerable sentences based on limited rules. this feature is usually termed as p__________.nguage has many functions. we can use language to talk about language. this function is m__________function.4.the claim that language originated by primitive man involuntary making vocal noises while performing heavy work has been called the y＿theory.5.p________ is often said to be concerned with the organization of speech within specific language, or with the systems and patterns of sounds that occur in particular language.6.modern linguistics is d＿ in the sense that linguist tires to discover what language is rather than lay down some rules for people to observe.7.one general principle of linguistics analysis is the primacy of s___________over writing.8.the description of a language as it changes through time is a d___________ linguistic study.9.saussure put forward the concept l__________ to refer to the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.10.linguistic potential is similar to saussure’ s langue and chomsky’ s c__________.iv. explain the following concepts or theories.1.design features2.displacement4.synchronic linguisticsv. answer the following question briefly.(10%)1.why do people take duality as one of the important design features of human languages?can you tell us what language would be like if it had no such design features?2.how can we use language to do things? please give two examples to show this point.ii. fill in each of the following blanks with (an) appropriate word(s).1. language is ____________in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act.2. language is_____________ and__________ in that language is a social semiotic and communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction.3.the features that define our human languages can becalled_____________, which include____________,_____________, ______________, _____________.4.________is the opposite side of arbitrariness.5.the fact that in the system of spoken language, we have the primary units as words and secondary units as sound shows that language has the property of___________.nguage is resourceful because of its_____________ andits___________, which contributes to the_____________ of language.7._______benefits human beings by giving them the power to handle generalization and abstractions.8.in jakobson’s version, there are six functions of language, namely, ____________, _____________, _______________,________________, ________________and metalingual function.9.when people use language to express attitudes, feelings and emotions, people are using the _____________ function of language in jakobson’s version.10.in functional grammar, language has three metafunctions, namely,_____________,____________________,__________________.11.among halliday’s three metafunctions______________creates relevance to context.12.the________________function of language is primary to change the social status of persons.13.please name five main branch oflinguistics:___________________________,_________________ __,__________________, _____________________and____________________.14.in________________phonetics,we study the speech sounds produced by articulatory organs by identifying and classifying the individual sounds.15.in________________phonetics,we focus on the way in which the listener analyzes or processes a sound wave16.________________is the minimal unit of meaning.17.the study of sounds used in linguistic communication is called_______________.18.the study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication iscalled_________________.19.the study of the way in which symbols represent sounds in linguist communicate are arranged to form words has constituted the branch of study called_____________.20.the study of rules which governs the combinations of words to form permissible sentences constitutes a major branch of linguistic studies that is_________________.21.the fact that we have alliteration in poems is probably because of the__________________ function of language.iii. mark the choice that best completes the statement.1.the description of a language at some print in time isa_______________ study.a. descriptiveb. prescriptivec. synchronicd. diachronic2. according to chomsky, a speaker can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentencebecause_______a. he has come across all of them in his lifeb. he has internalized a set of rules about his languagec. he has acquired the ability through the act of communicating with others language3.saussure’s distinction between langue and parole is very similar to chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance, but saussure takes a ____________view of language and chomsky looks at language from a__________ point of viewa. sociological, psychologicalb. psychological, sociologicalc. biological, psychologicald. psychological, biological4.the fact that there is no intrinsic connection between the word pen and the thing we write with indicates languageis______a. arbitraryb. rule-governedc. appliedd. illogical5.we can understand and produce an infinitely large number of sentence including sentences we never heard before, because language is______a. creativeb. arbitraryc. limitlessd. resourceful6.______means language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situation of the speakera. dualityb. displacementc. productivityd. arbitrariness7.______examines how meaning is encoded in a languagea. phoneticsb. syntaxc. semanticd. pragmatics8.______is concerned with the internal organization of words.a.morphologyb. syntaxc. semanticd. phonology9.______refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaninga.dualityb. arbitrarinessc .replacementd. creativity10.______of language makes it potentially creative, and______ of language makes learning a language laboriousa. conventionality, arbitrarinessb. arbitrariness, replacementc. arbitrariness, conventionalityd. conventionality, arbitrariness11.when people use language to indulge in itself for its own sake, people are using the______ function of languagea.poeticb. creativec. phaticd. metalingual12.____proposes a theory of metafunctions of language.a. chomskyb.saussurec.jacobsond. halliday13.____function constructs a model of experience and constructs logical relations.a.interpersonalb. textualc. logicald. ideational14.interpersonal function enacts_________ relationship.a. socialb. experientialc. textuald. personal15.by_____________ function people establish and maintain their status in society.a. experientialb. referentialc. metalinguald. interpersonal16.the study of the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech belongs to the studyof_____.a.phonologyb. phoneticsc. morphologyd. syntax17.in__________ phonetics, we investigate the properties of the sound waves.a.articulatoryb. acousticc. auditoryd. sound18.french distinguishes between nouns likegare(station)which is feminine and nouns like train which is masculine. this shows that french is a language which____.a.is illogicalb. has grammatical genderc.has biological genderd. has two casesa.pragmatic skillb. intuitive knowledge of languagec.perfect knowledge of language skilld. communicative ability20.french has tu (means: you) aimera (means: will love) jean and english has you will love jean. this shows us that____.a. both languages are alike in expressing future timeb. both languages have a future tense but english requires more wordsc. english is loose while french is compactd. french forms its future tense by adding a special suffix21.knowing how to say something appropriate in a given situation and with exactly the effect you intend is a question of the_____a. lexisb. syntaxc. semanticsd. pragmatics22.a(n)_____is a speaker/listener who is a member of homogeneous speech community, who knows language perfectly and is not affected by memory limitations or distractions.a. perfect language userb. ideal language userc. proficient userd. native language useriv. analyze the following with your linguistic knowledge.e the following two examples to support the idea that language is not all arbitrary. a.they married and had a baby.b.they had a baby and married.2.examine the way the following words are separated. comment on the way of separation in relation to bloomfield’s idea that word is minimal unit of meaning.a.typical,success.ful.ly,organiz.action,hard.ly,wind.y,word3.what is the difference between the following two statements in terms of attitude to grammar? what kind of linguistic concepts do they represent?。
语言学教程中文版
将英语译成中文(简体)胡壮麟“语言学教程”课后答案定义以下条款：1。
设计特点：是他们的特点来定义，如任意性，双重性，创造性，位移，文化传播等，我们人类的语言，2。
功能：语言的使用ommunicate，思考，等anguage功能inclucle imformative 功能，人际功能，表演功能，人际功能，表演功能，情感功能，寒暄交流，娱乐功能和工具功能。
3。
客位：在与主位是从美国语言学家派克的语音和音位的区别源于长期的对比。
作为客位芒作出太多，以及behaviously无关紧要，鉴别，就像是多嚼不语言学与语音正确vx.phonemic分析实例。
4。
主位：在与客位的是从美国语言学家派克的语音和音位的区别源于长期的对比。
作者：主位言语行为和事件必须被作为一个有意义的资源，验证通过的最后一次演说communith本地成员，而不是通过qppeal到研究者的ingenuith或直觉孤单。
‘5。
同步：一类是描述以一个固定的瞬间（通常，但不一定，目前的）作为观察点。
大多数语法是这样的。
6。
历时：一种语言的研究是通过其进行的历史过程。
7。
规范：一种语言的研究是通过其进行的历史过程。
8。
规范：这类研究的语言，一切事都应该是如何规定的，ielaying下来的语言使用规则。
9。
描述：这类研究的语言，一切事都只是描述。
10。
独断性：一种人类的语言，这是指语言符号的脸，不承担任何形式的关系，其意义自然的设计特点。
11。
对偶：一种人类的语言，这是指有两对是二次元素组成的各级物业设计功能。
水平和两级各有自己的组织原则。
12。
排量：一种人类的语言，这意味着人类语言的设计特点，使他们的用户，象征着在目前的通信对象，事件和概念并不在时间和空间目前ç。
13。
寒暄交流：人类语言的一种功能，它是指语言的社会互动。
14。
元语言：语言符号或特定的分析和研究方面的某些种类的描述。
15。
macrolinguistics：他的语言之间的相互作用，如心理学，社会学，人种学，法学和人工智能等门类的macrolinguistics科学语言相关的学科研究，包括心理语言学，社会语言学，人类语言学，等16。
英语语言学第五单元课后答案
英语语言学第五单元课后答案1、You can borrow my book, _____ you promise to give it back to me by the end of this month. [单选题] *A.even ifB. as long as(正确答案)C. in caseD. even though2、The children are playing wildly and making a lot of?_______. [单选题] *A. cryB. voicesC. noises(正确答案)D. music3、The black coal there shows a sharp（）white snow. [单选题] *A. contract withB. content withC. contact toD. contrast to(正确答案)4、They returned successfully from ______ moon to _____ earth. [单选题] *A. /; /B. /; theC. the; the(正确答案)D. the; /5、You must pay more attention to your pronunciation. [单选题] *A. 词汇B. 拼写C. 发音(正确答案)D. 语法6、( ) Do you have any difficulty _____ these flowers？I’d like to help you if you need.[单选题] *A in planting(正确答案)B for plantingC with plantingD to plant7、Although the story is written for children, it can be read by adult, _____. [单选题] *A. alsoB. eitherC. as wellD. too(正确答案)8、Don’t swim in the river. It’s too _______. [单选题] *A. interestingB. easyC. difficultD. dangerous(正确答案)9、—These shoes look cool. ______ are they?—They are on sale, only $（）[单选题] *A. How much(正确答案)B. How longC. How manyD. How soon10、Sometimes only（）10 out of 500 or more candidates succeed in passing all the tests. [单选题] *A. as many asB. as few as(正确答案)C. as much asD. as little as11、I got caught in the rain and my suit____. [单选题] *A. has ruinedB. had ruinedC. has been ruined(正确答案)D. had been ruined12、77．–Hey! Any idea about learning abroad? --You （)google the College Board to learn the names of college you ____ be interested in [单选题] *A. may;needB. can; might (正确答案)C. will; shouldD. shall; must13、His mother’s _______ was a great blow to him. [单选题] *A. diedB. deadC. death(正确答案)D. die14、I had _______ egg and some milk for breakfast this morning. [单选题] *A. aB. an(正确答案)C. theD. /15、You can buy some pieces of bread from "_______". [单选题] *A. Bakery(正确答案)B. Travel AgencyC. LaundryD. Ticket Office16、He has two sisters but I have not _____. [单选题] *A. noneB. someC. onesD. any(正确答案)17、Her （）for writing was that she wished women to get the right to higher education. [单选题] *A. motivation(正确答案)B. motivateC. effectD. concentration18、My brother is _______ actor. He works very hard. [单选题] *A. aB. an(正确答案)C. theD. one19、The boy lost his（）and fell down on the ground when he was running after his brother. [单选题] *A. balance(正确答案)B. chanceC. placeD. memory20、There is something wrong with my teeth. I’ve had?a _______. [单选题] *A. toothache(正确答案)B. headacheC. stomachacheD. heartache21、Mr. Bliss became the first person to die in a car accident. [单选题] *A. 事故(正确答案)B. 竞赛C. 检阅D. 交易22、-We’ve spent too much money recently–well,it isn’t surprising. Our friend and relatives_______around all the time [单选题] *ingB. had comeC. were comingD have been coming(正确答案)23、26．There’s some fruit in the kitchen. We ________ buy any. [单选题] *A．need toB．needn’t toC．don’t needD．don’t need to(正确答案)24、( ). The old man enjoys ______ stamps. And now he has1300 of them [单选题] *A. collectB. collectedC. collecting(正确答案)D. to collect25、Both Mary and Linda don't care for fish. [单选题] *A. 喜欢(正确答案)B. 关心C. 照料D. 在乎26、_____ to wait for hours,she brought along a book to read. [单选题] *A. ExpectedB. Expecting(正确答案)C. ExpectsD. To expect27、Then the speaker _____the various factors leading to the economic crisis. [单选题] *A.went onB.went afterC.went into(正确答案)D.went for28、The book is very _______. I’ve read it twice. [单选题] *A. interestB. interestedC. interesting(正确答案)D. interests29、—______ pencils are these?—They are Tony’s.（）[单选题] *A. WhatB. WhereC WhoD. Whose(正确答案)30、2．The villagers want to have a bridge. Can this dream ________? [单选题] * A．come outB．get awayC．come true(正确答案) D．get out。
语言学教程课后答案
Define the following terms:1. design feature: are features that define our human languages, such as arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement, cultural transmission, etc.2. function: the use of language tocommunicate, to think ,etc. Language functions inclucle imformative function, interpersonal function, performative function, interpersonal function, performative function, emotive function, phatic communion, recreational function and metalingual function.3. etic: a term in contrast with emic whi ch originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics. Being etic mans making far too many, as well as behaviously inconsequential, differentiations, just as was ofter the case with phonetic vx. phonemic analysis in linguistics proper.4. emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics. An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech communith rather than via qppeal to the investigator’s ingenuith or intuition alone.5. synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant(usually, but not necessarily, the present),as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.6. diachronic: study of a language is carried through the course of its history.7. prescriptive: the study of a language is carried through the course of its history.8. prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be, i.e. laying down rules for language use.9. descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.10. arbitrariness: one design feature of human language, which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.11. duality: one design feature of human language, which refers to the property of having two levels of are composed of elements of the secondary. level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.12. displacement: one design feature of human language, which means human language enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present c in time and space, at the moment of communication.13. phatic communion: one function of human language, which refers to the social interaction of language.14. metalanguage: certain kinds of linguistic signs or terms for the analysis and description of particular studies.15. macrolinguistics: he interacting study between language and language-related disciplines such as psychology, sociology, ethnograph, science of law and artificial intelligence etc. Branches of macrolinguistics include psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics, etc.16. compete nce: language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.17. performance: the actual use of language in concrete situation.18. langue: the linguistic competence of the speaker.19. parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics (utterances).20. Articulatory phonetics: the study of production of speechsounds.21. Coarticulation: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved. Coarticulation can be further divided into anticipatory coarticulation and perseverative coarticulation.22. Voicing: pronouncing a sound (usually a vowel or a voiced consonant) by vibrating the vocal cords.23. Broad and narrow transcription: the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription; while, the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as narrow transcription.24. Consonant: are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.25. Phoneme: the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a particular language.26. Allophone: any of the different forms of a phoneme(e.g. <th>is an allophone of /t/in English. When /t/occurs in words like step, it is unaspirated <t>.Both <th> and <t> are allophones of the phoneme /t/.27. Vowel: are sound segments produced without such obstruction, so no turbulence of a total stopping of the air can be perceived.28. Manner of articulation; in the production of consonants, manner of articulation refers to the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract.29. Place of articulation: in the production of consonants, place of articulation refersto where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstruction of air.30. Distinctive features: a term of phonology, i.e. a property which distinguishes one phoneme from another.31. Complementary distribution: the relation between two speech sounds that never occur in the same environment. Allophones of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution.32. IPA: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet, which is devised by the International Phonetic Association in 1888 then it has undergone a number of revisions. IPA is a comprised system employing symbols of all sources, such as Roman small letters, italics uprighted, obsolete letters, Greek letters, diacritics, etc.33. Suprasegmental: suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal supra-segmental features are syllable, stress, tone, and intonation.34. Suprasegmental: aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principle suprasegmental features are syllable, stress, tone, and intonation.第三章1. morpheme: the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.2 .compound : oly morphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes, such as classroom, blackboard, snow-white, etc.3. inflection: the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.4. affix: the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme(the root or stem).5. derivation: different from compounds, derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.6. root: the base from of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total lass of identity.7. allomorph: any of the different form of a morpheme. For example, inEnglish the plural mortheme is but it is pronounced differently in different environments as /s/in cats, as /z/ in dogs and as/iz/ in classes. So /s/, /z/, and /iz/ are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.8 Stem: any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.9. bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the world it is added to, e.g. the plu ral morpheme in “dog’s”. 10. free morpheme: an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word.11. lexeme: A separate unit of meaning, usually in the form of a word(e.g. “dog in the manger”)12. lexicon: a list of all the words in a language assigned to various lexical categories and provided with semantic interpretation.13. grammatical word: word expressing grammatical meanings, such conjunction, prepositions, articles and pronouns.14. lexical word: word having lexical meanings, that is ,those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and verbs.16. open-class: a word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and many adverbs.17. blending: a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words.18. loanword: a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adaptation, in some cases, to eh phonological system of the new language that they enter.19. loanblend: a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed.20. leanshift: a process in which the meaning is borrowed, but the form is native.21. acronym: is made up form the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword.22. loss: the disappearance of the very sound as a morpheme in the phonological system.23. back-formation: an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a long form already in the language.24. assimilation: the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sou nd, which is more specifically called. “contact” or “contiguous” assimilation.25. dissimilation: the influence exercised. By one sound segment upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds become less alike, or different.26. folk etymology: a change in form of a word or phrase, resulting from an incorrect popular nation of the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous.60. category: parts of speech and function, such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech, the identification of terms of parts of speech, the identification of functions of words in term of subject, predicate, etc.61. concord: also known as agreement, is the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories.62. syntagmatic relation between one item and others in a sequence, or between elements which are all present.63. paradigmatic relation: a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure, or between one element present and he others absent.64. immediate constituent analysis: the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents---word groups(or phrases),which are in trun analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached.65. endocentric construction: one construction whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents, which serves as the centre, or head, of the whole. Hence an endocentric construction is also known as a headed construction. 66. exocentric construction: a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any to any of its constituents.67. deep structure: the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction, i.e. the underlying level of structural relations between its different constituents ,such as the relation between, the underlying subject and its verb, or a verb and its object.68. surfacte structure: the final stage in the syntactic derivation ofa construction, which closely corresponds to the structural organization of a construction people actually produce and receive.69. c-command: one of the similarities, or of the more general features, in these two government relations, is technically called constituent command, c-command for short.70. government and binding theory: it is the fourth period of development Chomsky’s TG Grammar, which consists of X-bar theme: the basis, or the starting point, of the utterance.71. communicative dynamism: the extent to which the sentence element contributes to the development of the communication.72. ideational function: the speaker’s experience of the real world, including the inner world of his own consciousness.73. interpersonal function: the use of language to establish and maintain social relations: for the expression of social roles, which include the communication roles created by language itself; and also for getting things done, by means of the interaction between one person and another.74. textual function: the use of language the provide for making links with itself and with features of the situation in which it is used.75. conceptual meaning: the central part of meaning, which contains logical, cognitive, or denotative content.76. denotation: the core sense of a word or a phrase that relates it to phenomena in the real world.77. connotation: a term in a contrast with denotation, meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes.78. reference: the use of language to express a propostion,meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes.79. reference: the use of language to express a proposition,i.e. to talk about things in context.80. sense: the literal meaning of a word or an expression,independent of situational context.81. synonymy: is the technical name for the sameness relation.82. complentary antonymy: members of a pair in complementary antonymy are complementary to each field completely, such as male, female, absent.83. gradable antongymy: members of this kind are gradable, such as long: short, big; small, fat; thin, etc.84. converse antonymy: a special kind of antonymy in that memembers ofa pair do not constitute a positive-negative opposition, such as buy; sell, lend, borrow, above, below, etc.85. relational opposites: converse antonymy in reciprocal social roles, kinship relations, temporal and spatial relations. There are always two entities involved. One presupposes the other. The shorter, better; worse.etc are instances of relational opposites.86. hyponymy: a relation between tow words, in which the meaning of one word(the superordinate)is included in the meaning of another word(the hyponym).87. superordinate: the upper term in hyponymy, i.e. the class name. A superordinate usually has several hyponyms. Under animal, for example, there are cats, dogs, pigs, etc.88. semantic component: a distinguishable element of meaning in a word with two values, e.g. <+human>89. compositionality: a principle for sentence analysis, in which the meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combined.90. selection restriction: semantic restrictions of the noun phrases thata particular lexical item can take, e.g. regret requires a human subject.91. prepositional logic: also known as prepositional calculus or sentential calculus, is the study of the truth conditions for propositions: how the truth of a composite propositions and the connection between them.92. proposition; what is talk about in an utterance, that part of the speech act which has to do with reference.93. predicate logic: also predicate calculus, which studies the internal structure of simple.94. assimilation theory: language(sound, word, syntax, etc.)change or process by which features of one element change to match those of another that precedes or follows.95. cohort theory: theory of the perception of spoken words proposed in the mid-1980s.It assumes a “recognition lexicon” in which each word isrepresented by a full and independent “recognition element”. When the system receives the beginning of a relevant acoustic signal, all elements matching it are fully acticated, and, as more of the signal is received, the system tries to match it independently with each of them, Wherever it fails the element is deactivated; this process continues until only one remains active.96. context effect: this effect help people recognize a word more readily when the receding words provide an appropriate context for it.97. frequency effect: describes the additional ease with which a word is accessed due to its more frequent usage in language.98. inference in context: any conclusion drawn from a set of proposition, from something someone has said, and so on. It includes things that, while not following logically, are implied, in an ordinary sense, e.g. in a specific context.99. immediate assumption: the reader is supposed to carry out the progresses required to understand each word and its relationship to previous words in the sentence as soon as that word in encountered.100. language perception: language awareness of things through the physical senses, esp. sight.101. language comprehension: one of the three strand of psycholinguistic research, which studies the understanding of language.102. language production: a goal-directed activity, in the sense that people speak and write in order to make friends, influence people, convey information and so on.103. language production: a goal-directed activity, in the sense that people speak and write in order to make friends, influence people, convey information and so on.104. lexical ambiguity: ambiguity explained by reference to lexical meanings: e.g. that of I saw a bat, where a bat might refer to an animal or, among others, stable tennis bat.105. macroproposition: general propositions used to form an overall macrostructure of the story.106. modular: which a assumes that the mind is structuied into separate modules or components, each governed by its own principles and operating independently of others.107. parsing: the task of assigning words to parts of speech with their appropriate accidents, traditionally e.g. to pupils learning lat in grammar.108. propositions: whatever is seen as expressed by a sentence which makes a statement. It is a property of propositions that they have truth values.109. psycholinguistics: is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structure. Psycholinguistics can be divided into cognitive psycholing uistics (being concerned above all with making inferences about the content of human mind, and experimental psycholinguistics (being concerned somehow whth empirical matters, such as speed of response to a particular word).110. psycholinguistic reality: the reality of grammar, etc. as a purported account of structures represented in the mind of a speaker. Often opposed, in discussion of the merits of alternative grammars, to criteria of simplicity, elegance, and internal consistency.111. schemata in text: packets of stored knowledge in language processing.112. story structure: the way in which various parts of story are arranged or organized.113. writing process: a series of actions or events that are part of a writing or continuing development.114. communicative competence: a speaker’s knowledge of the total set of rules, conventions, etc. governing the skilled use of language in a society. Distin guished by D.Hymes in the late 1960s from Chomsley’s concept of competence, in the restricted sense of knowledge of a grammar.115. gender difference: a difference in a speech between men and women is “genden difference”116. linguistic determinism: one of the two points in Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, i.e. language determines thought.117. linguistic relativity: one of the two points in Spir-Whorf hypotheis, i.e. there’s no limit to the structural diversity of languages.118. linguistic sexism: many differences between me and women in language use are brought about by nothing less than women’s place in society.119. sociolinguistics of language: one of the two things in sociolinguistics, in which we want to look at structural things by paying attention to language use in a social context.120. sociolinguistics of society; one of the two things in sociolinguistics, in which we try to understand sociological things of society by examining linguistic phenomena of a speaking community.121. variationist linguistics: a branch of linguistics, which studies the relationship between speakers’ social starts and phonological variations.122. performative: an utterance by which a speaker does something does something, as apposed to a constative, by which makes a statement which may be true or false.123. constative: an utterance by which a speaker expresses a proposition which may be true or false.124. locutionary act: the act of saying something; it’s an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon, and phonology. Namely, the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense and reference.125. illocutionary act: the act performed in saying something; its force is identical with the speaker’s intention.126. perlocutionary act: the act performed by or resulting from saying something, it’s the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.127. conversational implicature: the extra meaning not contained in the literal utterances, underatandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker’s knowledge or knows why and how he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the cooperative principle.128. entailment: relation between propositions one of which necessarily follows from the other: e.g. “Mary is running” entails, among other things, “Mary is not standing still”.129. ostensive communication: a complete characterization of communication is that it is ostensive-infer-ential.130. communicative principle of relevance: every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance.131. relevance: a property that any utterance, or a proposition that it communicates, must, in the nature of communication, necessarily have.132. Q-principle: one of the two principles in Horn’s scale, i.e. M ake your contribution necessary (Gradation, Quantity2, Manner); Say no more than you must (given Q).133. division of pragmatic labour: the use of a marked crelatively complex and/or expression when a corresponding unmarked a(simpler, less “effortful”)alt ernate expression is available tends to be interpreted as conveying a marked message(one which the unmarked alternative would not or could not have conveyed).134. constraints on Horn scales: the hearer-based o-Principle is a sufficiency condition in the sense that information provided is the most the speaker is able to.135. third-person narrator: of the narrator is not a character in the fictional world, he or she is usually called a third-person narrator.136. I-narrator: the person who tells the story may also be a character in the fictional world of the story, relating the story after the event.137. direct speech: a kind of speech presentation in which the character said in its fullest form.138. indirect speech: a kind of speech presentation in which the character said in its fullest form.139. indirect speech: a kind of speech presentation which is an amalgam of direct speech.140. narrator’s repreaentation of speech acts: a minimalist kind of presentation in which a part of passage can be seen as a summery of a longer piece of discourse, and therefore even more backgruonded than indirect speech representation would be.141. narrator’s representation of thought acts: a kind of categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their of characters are exactly as that used to present speech acts. For example, she considered his unpunctuality.142. indirect thought: a kind of categories used by novelist to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly as that used to present indirect speech. For example, she thought that he would be late.143. fee indirect speech: a further category which can occur, which is an amalgam of direct speech and indirect speech features.144. narrator’s representation of thought acts: a kind of the c ategories used by novelists to present the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech e.g. He spent the day thinking.145. indirect thought: a kind of categories used by novelist to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly as that used to present indirect speech. For example, she thought that he would be late.146. fee indirect speech: a further category which can occur, which is an amalgam of direct speech and indirect speech features.147. narra tor’s representation of thought: the categories used by novelists to present the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech e.g. He spent the day thinking.148. free indirect thought: the categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech, e.g. He was bound to be late.149. direct thought: categories used by novelists to represent the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as those used to represent a speech..150. computer system: the machine itself together with a keyboard, printer, screen, disk drives, programs, etc.151. computer literacy: those people who have sufficient knowledge and skill in the use of computers and computer software.152. computer linguistics: a branch of applied liguistics, dealing with computer processing of human language.153. Call: computer-assisted language learning(call),refers to the use of a computer in the teaching or learning of a second or foreign language.154. programnded instruction: the use of computers to monitor student progress, to direct students into appropriate lessons, material, etc.155. local area network: are computers linked together by cables in a classroom, lab, or building. They offer teachers a novel approach for creating new activities for students that provide more time and experience with target language.156. CD-ROM: computer disk-read only memory allows huge amount of information to be stored on one disk with quich access to the information. Students and teachers can access information quickly and efficiently for use in and out of the classroom.157. machine translation: refers to the use of machine(usually computer)to translate texts from one language to another.158. concordance: the use of computer to search for a particular word, sequence of words. or perhaps even a part of speech in a text. The computer can also receive all examples of a particular word, usually in a context, which is a further aid to the linguist. It can also calculate the number of occurrences of the word so that information on the frequency of the word may be gathered.159. annotation: if corpora is said to be unannotated-it appears in its existing raw state of plain text, whereas annotated corpora has been enhanced with various type of linguistic information,160. annotation: if corpora is said to be unannotated—it appears in its existing raw state of plain text, whereas annotated corpora has been enhanced with various type of linguistic information.161. informational retrieval: the term conventionally though somewhat inaccurately, applied to the type of activity discussed in this volume. An information retrieval system does not inform (i.e. change the knowledge of) the user on the subject of his inquiry. It merely informs on the existence(or non-existence)and whereabouts of documents relating to his request.162. document representative: information structure is concerned with exploiting relationships, between documents to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of retrieval strategies. It covers specifically a logical organization of information, such as document representatives, for the purpose of information retrieval.163. precision: the proportion of retrieval documents which are relevant.164. recall: the proportion of retrieval documents which are relevant.165. applied linguistics: applications of linguistics to study of second and foreign language learning and teaching, and other areas such as translation, the compiling of dictionaries, etc.166. communicative competence: as defined by Hymes, the knowledge and ability involved in putting language to communicative use.167. syllabus: the planning of course of instruction. It is a description of the cousr content, teaching procedures and learning experiences.168. interlanguage: the type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who are still in the process of learning a language, i.e. the language system between the target language and the learn er’s native language.169. transfer: the influence of mother tongue upon the second language. When structures of the two languages are similar, we can get positive transfer of facilitation; when the two languages are different in structures, negative transfer of inference occurs and result in errors.170. validity: the degree to which a test meansures what it is meant to measure. There are four kinds of validity, i.e. content validity, construct validity, empirical valiodity, and face validity.171. rebiability: can be defined as consistency. There are two kinds of reliability, i.e. stability reliability, and equiralence reliability.172. hypercorrection: overuse of a standard linguistic features, in terms of both frequency, i.e. overpassing the speakers of higher social status, and overshooting the target, i.e. extending the use of a form inalinguistic environment where it is not expected to occur, For example, pronouncing ideas as[ai'dier],extending pronouncing post-vocalic[r] in an environment where it’s not supposed to occur.173. discrete point test: a kind of test in which language structures or skills are further divided into individual points of phonology, syntax and lexis.174. integrative test: a kind of test in which language structures or skills are further divided into individual points of phonology, syntax。
语言学教程课后习题答案第一章
语言学教程课后习题答案第一章Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1. Define the following terms:design feature: the distinctive features of human language that essentially make human language distinguishable from languages of animals.function: the role language plays in communication (e.g. to express ideas, attitudes) or in particular social situations (e.g. religious, legal).synchronic: said of an approach that studies language at a theoreti cal ‘point’ in time.diachronic: said of the study of development of language and languages over time. prescriptive: to make authoritarian statement about the correctness of a particular use of language.descriptive: to make an objective and systematic account of the patterns and use of a language or variety.arbitrariness: the absence of any physical correspondence between linguistic signals and the entities to which they refer.duality: the structural organization of language into two abstract levels: meaningful units (e.g. words) and meaningless segments (e.g. sounds, letters).displa cement: the ability of language to refer to contexts removed from the speaker’s immediate situation.phatic communion: said of talk used to establish atmosphere or maintain social contact.metalanguage: a language used for talking about language.macrolinguistics: a broad conception of linguistic enquiry, including psychological, cultural, etc.competence: unconscious knowledge of the system ofgrammatical rules in a language.performance: the language actually used by people in speaking or writing.l angue: the language system shared by a “speech community”.parole: the concrete utterances of a speaker.2. Consult at least four introductory linguistics textbooks (not dictionaries), and copy the definitions of “language” that each gives. After careful ly comparing the definitions, write a paper discussing which points recur and explaining the significance of the similarities and differencesamong the definitions.ANSWER:All the definitions should not exclude the description of design features that have been mentioned in this course book. Also it will be better if other design features, say, interchangeability or cultural transmission is included. But it seems impossible to give an unimpeachable definition on language, because the facets people want to emphasize are seldom unanimous. To compare several definitions can make you realize where the argument is.3. Can you think of some words in English which are onomatopoeic?ANSWERS:creak: the sound made by a badly oiled door when it opens.cuckoo: the call of cuckoo.bang: a sudden loud noise.roar: a deep loud continuing sound.buzz: a noise of buzzing.hiss: a hissing sound.neigh: the long and loud cry that a horse makes.mew: the noise that a gull makes.bleat: the sound made by a sheep, goat or calf.4. Do you think that onomatopoeia indicates a non-arbitrary relationship between form and meaning?ANSWER:4. No matter you say "Yes" or "No", you cannot deny that onomatopoeia needs arbitrariness. Before we feel a word is onomatopoeic we should first know which sound the word imitates. Just as what is said in Chapter One, in order to imitate the noise of flying mosquitoes, there are many choices like "murmurous" and "murderous". They both bear more or less resemblance to the genuine natural sound, but "murmurous" is fortunately chosen to mean the noise while "murderous" is chosen to mean something quite different. They are arbitrary as signifiers.5. A story by Robert Louis Stevenson contains the sentence “As the night fell, the wind rose.” Could this be expressed as “As the wind rose, the night fell?” If not, why? Does this indicatea degree of non-arbitrariness about word order? (Bolinger, 1981:15)5. Yes. It is a case in point to illustrate non-arbitrariness about word order. When the two parts interchange, the focus and the meaning of the sentence is forced to change, because clauses occurring in linear sequence without time indicators will be taken as matching the actual s equence of happening. The writer’s original intention is distorted, and we c an feel it effortlessly by reading. That is why systemic-functionalists and American functionalists think language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.6. Does the traffic light system have duality? Can you explain by drawing a simple graph?6. Traffic light does not have duality. Obviously, it is not adouble-level system. There is only one-to-one relationship between signs and meaning but the meaning units cannot be divided into smaller meaningless elements further. So the traffic light only has the primary level and lacks the secondary level like animals’ calls.ANSWER:Red→stopGreen→goYellow→get ready to go or stop7. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the creativity of language. Can you write a recursive sentence following the example in section 1.3.3.ANSWER:Today I encountered an old friend who was my classmate when I was in elementary school where there was an apple orchard in which we sl id to select ripe apples that…8. Communication can take many forms, such as sign, speech, body language and facial expression. Do body language and facial expression share or lack the distinctive properties of human language?ANSWER:On a whole, body language and facial expression lack most of the distinctive properties of human language such as duality, displacement, creativity and so on. Body language exhibits arbitrariness a little bit. For instance, nod means "OK/YES" for us but in Arabian world it is equal to saying "NO". Some facial expressions have non-arbitrariness because they are instinctive such as the cry and laugh of a newborn infant.9. Do you agree with the view that no language is especially simple?ANSWER:Yes. All human languages are complicated systems of communication. It is decided by their shared design features.10. What do you think of Bertrand Russell’s observation of the dog language: “No matter how eloquently a dog may bark, he cannot tell you that his parents were poor but hon est”? Are you familiar with any type of ways animals communicate among themselves and with human beings? ANSWER:When gazelles sense potential danger, for example, they flee and thereby signal to other gazelles in the vicinity that danger is lurking. A dog signals its wish to be let inside the house by barking and signals the possibility that it might bite momentarily by displaying its fangs.11.Can you mention some typical expressions of phatic communion in Chinese? There is the dialog between Ms. P and Ms. Q. in section 1.5.5. When someone sneezes violently, do you say anything of the nature of phatic communion? Have you noticed your parents or grandparents say something special on such an occasion?Some of the typical phatic expressions in Chinese are: 吃了吗？家里都好吧？这是去哪里啊？最近都挺好的？ANSWER:If someone is sneezing violently, ma ybe you parents and grandparents may say: “Are you ok?”, “Do you need to see a doctor?”, “Do you need some water?”, “Do you need a handkerchief?”, “Do you have a cold?” or something like t hese to show their concerns.12．There are many expressions in language which are metalingual or self-reflexives, namely, talking about talk and think about thinking, for instance, to be honest, to make a longstory short, come to think of it, on second thought, can you collect a few more to make a list of these expressions? When do we use them most often?ANSWER:To tell the truth, frankly speaking, as a matter of fact, to be precise, in other words, that is to say Such expressions are used most frequently when we want to expatiate the meaning of former clauses in anther way in argumentation.13. Comment on the following prescriptive rules. Do you think they are acceptable?(A) It is I.(B) It is me.You should say A instead of B because “be” should be followed by the nominative case, not the accusative according to the rules in Latin.(A) Who did you speak to?(B) Whom did you speak to?You should say B instead of A.(A) I haven't done anything.(B) I haven't done nothing.B is wrong because two negatives make a positive.ANSWER:(1) the Latin rule is not universal. In English, me is informal and I is felt to be very formal.(2) Whom is used in formal speech and in writing; who is more acceptable in informal speech.(3) Language does not have to follow logic reasoning. Here two negative only make a more emphatic negative. This sentence is not acceptable in Standard English not because it is illogical, but because language changes and rejects this usage now.14. The prescriptivism in grammar rules has now shifted to prescriptions in choice of words. In the “guid elines on anti-sexist language” issued by the British sociological association, some guidelines are listed below. Do you think they are descriptive and prescrip tive? What’s your comment on them?(1) Do not use man to mean humanity in general. Use person, people, human beings, men and women, humanity and humankind.(2) colored: This term is regarded as outdated in the UK and should be avoided as it is generally viewed as offensive to many black people.(3) civilized: This term can still carry racist overtones which derive from a colonialist perception of the world. It is often associated with social Darwinist thought and is full of implicit valuejudgments and ignorance of the history of the non-industrialized world.ANSWER:They are undoubtedly descriptive. Guidelines are not rules that can determine whether a sentence is right or not. The guidelines advise you to avoid the use of particular words that are grammatically correct but offensive to some certain groups. Actually, they describe the way anti-sexist advocators speak and write.15. Why is the distinction between competence and performance an important one in linguistics? Do you think the line can be neatly drawn between them? How do you like the concept “communicative competence”?ANSWER:This is proposed by Chomsky in his formalist linguistictheories. It is sometimes hard to draw a strict line. Some researchers in applied linguistics think communicative competence may be a more revealing concept in language teaching than the purely theoretical pair—competence and performance.16. Which branch of linguistics do you think will develop rapidly in China and why?It is up to you to decide after you have gone through the whole book. At this stage, we suggest all branches of linguistics have the potential to flourish.17. The following are some well-known ambiguous sentences in syntactic studies of language. Can you disambiguate them?The chicken is too hot to eat.Flying planes can be dangerous.ANSWER:The chicken is too hot to eat.The chicken meat is too hot, so it cannot be eaten at the moment.The chicken feels so hot (maybe after some intense aerobic exercises) that it cannot start eating and needs to calm down first.Flying planes can be dangerous.The ambiguity comes from "flying planes". It can be deciphered as "the planes that is flying" or "to fly planes".18. There are many reasons for the discrepancy between competence and performance in normal language users. Can you think of some of them?ANSWEREthnic background, socioeconomic status, region of the country, and physical state (such as intoxication, fatigue,distraction, illness) vary from individual to individual.19. What do these two quotes reveal about the different emphasis or perspectives of language studies?(1) A human language is a system of remarkable complexity. To come to know a human language would be an extraordinary intellectual achievement for a creature not specifically designed to accomplish this task. A normal child acquires this knowledge on relatively slight exposure andwithout specific training. He can then quite effortlessly make use of an intricate structure of specific rules and guiding principles to convey his thoughts and feelings to others, ... Thus language is a mirror of mind in a deep and significant sense. It is a product of human intelligence, created anew in each individual by operations that lie far beyond the reach of will or consciousness.(Noam Chomsky: Reflections on Language. 1975: 4)(2) It is fairly obvious that language is used to serve a variety of different needs, but until we examine its grammar there is no clear reason for classifying its uses in any particular way. However, when we examine the meaning potential of language itself, we find that the vast numbers of options e mbodied in it combine into a very few relatively independent “networks”; and these networks of options correspond to certain basic functions of language. This enables us to give an account of the different functions of language that is relevant to the general understanding of linguistic structure rather than to any particular psychological or sociological investigation. (M. A. K. Halliday, 1970: 142)ANSWER:The first quote shows childre n’s inborn ability of acquiringthe knowledge of intricate structure of specific rules. It implies that the language user's underlying knowledge about the system of rules is the valuable object of study for linguists. The second attaches great importance to the functions of language. It regards the use of language as the choice of needed function. The meaning of language can be completely included by a few “networks” which is directly related to basic functions of language. It indicates the necessity to study the functions of language.20. You may be familiar with the following proverbs. How do you perceive them according to the arbitrariness and conventionality of language?The proof of the pudding is in the eating.Let sleeping dogs lie.You can’t make a silk purse out of a sow’s ear.Rome was not built in a day.When in Rome, do as the Romans do.All roads lead to Rome.ANSWER:20. Arbitrariness and conventionality derive from the choice of the subject matter. For example, in the “The proof of the pudding is in the eating.” The word “pudding” is selected arbitrarily, for w e can use another word such as cheese instead of pudding without changing the associative meaning of the proverb. On the other hand, once such links between particular words and associative meaning are fixed, it becomes a matter of conventionality.21. Give examples of situations in which a usage generally considered non-standard (e.g. ain’t) would be acceptable, even appropriate.ANSWER21. In the talks between intimate friends, one may say “gimme that!” instead of “give me that!” and “wachya doin’?” instead of “what are you doing?” and this list may go on.22. The following are some book titles of linguistics. Can you judge the diachronic and diachronic orientation just from the titles?English Examined: Two centuries of Comment on the Mother-Tongue.Protean Shape: A Study in Eighteenth-century V ocabulary and Usage.Pejorative Sense Development in English.The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation.Language in the Inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular.ANSWER22. Synchronic:Protean Shape: A Study in Eighteenth-century V ocabulary and Usage.The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation.Language in the Inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular.Diachronic:English Examined: Two centuries of Comment on the Mother-Tongue.Pejorative Sense Development in English。
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英语语言学教程课后题及答案
1、The scenery is so beautiful. Let’s _______. [单选题] *
A. take photos(正确答案)
B. take maps
C. take bus
D. take exams
2、 Patrick bought her two handbags as gifts,but _____ of them was her style. [单选题] *
A. either
B. none
C. neither(正确答案)
D. all
3、 _______ your help, I can’t finish my job. [单选题] *
A. with
B. without(正确答案)
C. in
D. into
4、26．—Mary, is this your pen?—No, it isn't. ________ is black. [单选题] *
A．My
B．I
C．Me
D．Mine(正确答案)
5、( )He gave us____ on how to keep fit. [单选题] *
A. some advices
B. some advice(正确答案)
C. an advice
D. a advice
6、 — Excuse me, how long does it ______ to walk to the library? — About 15 minutes, I’m
afraid.（） [单选题] *
A. take(正确答案)
B. spend
C. cost
D. pay
7、The hall in our school is _____ to hold 500 people. [单选题] *
A. big enough(正确答案)
B. enough big
C. very small
D. very big
8、_______ travelers come to visit our city every year. [单选题] *
A. Hundred of
B. Hundreds of(正确答案)
C. Five Hundreds
D. Five hundred?of
9、I have a _____ every day to keep fit. [单选题] *
A. three thousand meter walk
B. three-thousands-meters walk
C.three-thousand-meters walk
D. three-thousand-meter walk(正确答案)
10、 --It is Sunday tomorrow, I have no idea what to do.--What about _______? [单选题] *
A. play computer games
B. go fishing
C. climbing the mountain(正确答案)
D. see a film
11、He was very excited to read the news _____ Mo Yan had won the Nobel Prize for literature
[单选题] *
A. which
B. what
C. how
D. that(正确答案)
12、Miss Smith is a friend of _____. [单选题] *
A. Jack’s sister’s(正确答案)
B. Jack’s sister
C. Jack sister’s
D. Jack sister
13、36．The students will go to the Summer Palace if it __________ tomorrow. [单选题] *
A．won’t rain
B．isn’t raining
C．doesn’t rain (正确答案)
D．isn’t rain
14、 In fact, Beethoven did something brave than dying. [单选题] *
A. 勇敢(正确答案)
B. 冒险
C. 可怕
D. 奇妙
15、27．My father is a professor and he works in__________ university. [单选题] *
A．a (正确答案)
B．an
C．/
D．the
16、They took _____ measures to prevent poisonous gases from escaping. [单选题] *
A.efficient
B.beneficial
C.valid
D.effective(正确答案)
17、My father always gets up early. He’s never late _______ work. [单选题] *
A. to
B. for(正确答案)
C. on
D. at
18、I will _______ from Hunan University next year. [单选题] *
A. learn
B. study
C. graduate(正确答案)
D. come
19、 These oranges look nice, but _______ very sour. [单选题] *
A. feel
B. taste(正确答案)
C. sound
D. look
20、We had ____ wonderful lunch last Saturday. [单选题] *
A. /
B. the
C. one
D. a(正确答案)
21、I’m _______ I must be leaving now. [单选题] *
A. afraid(正确答案)
B. think
C. thought
D. free
22、 Hearing that he had passed _____ health examination, he immediately made _____ call to
his parents. [单选题] *
A. a; /
B. the; /
C. the; a(正确答案)
D. a; the
23、We have ______ homework today. （） [单选题] *
A. too many
B. too much(正确答案)
C. much too
D. very much
24、Tom didn’t _______ his exam again. It was a pity. [单选题] *
A. win
B. pass(正确答案)
C. beat
D. Fail
25、1．I saw ________ action film with my friend yesterday, and ________ film was amazing. [单
选题] *
A．a...a
B．a...the
C．an...the(正确答案)
D．an...a
26、 She _______ love cats, but one attacked her and she doesn’t like them anymore. [单选题]*
A. got used to
B. was used to
C. was used for
D. used to(正确答案)
27、At half past three she went back to the school to pick him up. [单选题] *
A. 等他
B. 送他(正确答案)
C. 抱他
D. 接他
28、These two films are very interesting. I like them _____. [单选题] *
A. either
B. neither
C. all
D. both(正确答案)
29、 — Whose book is it? Is it yours?— No, ask John. Maybe it’s ______.（） [单选题] *
A. hers
B. his(正确答案)
C. he’s
D. her
30、14．He is cutting the apple ________ a knife. [单选题] *
A．in
B．to
C．with(正确答案)
D．by