词汇学-大纲
《词汇学》课程英语专业教学大纲
《词汇学》课程英语专业教学大纲《词汇学》课程教学大纲一、课程说明：《词汇学》是英语翻译专业的一门选修课程。
该课程以现代语言学理论为指导，以英语词汇为研究对象，主要内容包括词汇基本知识、词汇的形态结构、词汇的构成方式、词汇的意义及语义关系、英语词汇的来源及发展、词义的变化、习语及词典知识等。
该课程有助于学生加强对英语词汇的认识，有助于翻译专业课程的学习。
从第四学期到第八学期，学生可根据具体情况在其中任一学期选修该课程。
二、教学目的及要求：该课程教学旨在使学生对英语词汇具有比较系统和完整的知识，深入地了解英语词汇的现状及其历史演变过程，并能对现代英语词汇发展所出现的现象作出分析和解释，提高词语的理解、释义和综合运用的能力，为学习翻译专业课程奠定词汇知识方面的基础。
三、教学重点及难点：英语词汇的发展过程和历史源源，有关英语词汇的基本理论、基本概念以及词的形态结构、构成方式、意义及语义关系、词意的变化、习语、词典知识等。
四、与其它课程的关系：该课程同其它语言学课程密切相关，均有助于学生从理论高度对英语语言有更加深入的认识，有助于翻译专业理论课程和技能课程的学习。
五、学时与学分：学时：36学时。
学分：2分。
六、教学内容：Chapter 1 A General Survey of English Vocabulary本章主要教学内容：1. Definition of language, linguistics, lexicology and words.2. Connection of Lexicology with Other Branches of Linguistics.3. Development of the English V ocabulary.4. Characteristics of the English Vocabulary Resulting from the Historical Development.5. The rapid growth of present-day English vocabulary and its causes.6. Classification of English words according to different criteria.本章教学目的及要求：通过本章的学习，使学生了解词和词汇的定义和区别，弄清词汇学与其它学科的联系，掌握词汇划分的基本原则及各类词的主要特点以及词汇的分类原则，领会基本词汇及本族语词在英语中的地位和重要性。
英语词汇学复习提纲 lexicology
Chapter 1 Lexicology and WordsWhat is lexicology?Lexicology = study of words / the lexiconIt is closely related to morphology, semantics, etymology and lexicography.Morphology: the study of the forms of words and their components.Semantics: the study of meaning.Etymology: the study of the whole history of words.Lexicography: the writing and compilation of dictionariesWhat is a word?A Word is an uninterruptible unit of structure consisting of one or more morphemes; a unit of sound and meaning.The total stock of English words is structured and organized in a systematic way.→word class; semantic field.⏹Word class: closed class (grammatical or function words):preposition, pronoun,determiner（限定词: the, every..）, conjunction, auxiliary verb(助动词)；open class(lexical words): noun, adjective, verb, adverb.⏹Lexical words and grammatical words⏹Semantic (or lexical) field: semantic field of color terms, kinship terms, military ranksand vehicles; semantic field analysis used in the descriptions of vocabulary in dictionaries like Roget‟s Thesaurus& Longman Lexicon of Contemporary English(McArthur) & Longman dictionary of Scientific Usage & Longman Language Activator . Componential analysis: a method for establishing semantic field(e.g. the meaning of woman: [+human],[+adult],[+female]Chapter 2—Some basic concepts and Word MeaningsMorpheme: the smallest meaningful unit in a language;(e.g. moralizers is composed of 4 morphemes: moral+lize+er+s.)A morpheme may be: A complete word; a word form such as an affix(e–able); a combining form(bio-, geo-)⏹Free morpheme:lexical morpheme: ordinary nouns, adjectives and verbs, the words which carry the “content”of messages we convey, e.g. boy, house, tiger, sad, long, sincere, open, look, follow, bread.functional morpheme: consists largely of the functional words in the language such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns, e.g. and, but, when, because, on, near, in, the, that, it.⏹Bound morpheme(prefix or suffix):Derivational morpheme: used to make new words in the language. e.g. (-ness, -ly, -ish, ment, re-, pre-, ex-, pre-, dis-, co-, un-); good—goodness, fool—foolish, bad—badly, pay—payment Inflectional morpheme: indicate aspects of the grammatical function of a word. e.g. –ed, -s, -ing, -er, -est, -‟s. In English, all inflectional morphemes are suffixes.Morph/allomorphLexeme(lexical item): The base form of a word;A unit of lexical meaning (Crystal, 1995); An abstract vocabulary item;The headwords in a dictionary;May consist of one word or more than one word;Stem: the word to which inflectional affixes are added and which carries the basic meaning of the resulting complex word; e.g. work, worker.A stem may consist of one or more morphemes; Root: A stem consisting of a single morpheme is labeled as root; e.g. work.⏹Roots which are capable of standing independently are called free morphemes/roots;⏹Roots which are incapable of occurring independently are called boundmorphemes/roots.7 types of Word Meaning⏹Conceptual meaning概念义(or denotative meaning, cognitive meaning) [meanings indictionaries]⏹Connotative meaning隐含义: the communicative value of an expression by virtue ofwhat is refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content.Politician&statesman, colors, kitty&cat.⏹Social meaning: Information about the speaker, such as their background or theirrelationship to the hearer.E.g., if Jo says wee instead of little, it may communicate to you that she’s Scottish; AmE /BrE differences and other dialectal or accent differences; terms of address etc; Mummy, dogie—child.⏹Affective meaning: Information about the speaker’s attitude toward the subject that’scommunicated by the words s/he’s chosen or the way s/he says theme.g. strong-willed vs. pig-headed; slim vs. skinny; Bob vs. Bobby⏹Reflective meaning: the meaning which arises in cases of multiple conceptual meaning,when one sense of a word forms part of our response to another sense.E.g. words which have a taboo meaning(intercourse)⏹Collocative meaning: consists of the associations a word acquires on account of themeanings of words which tend to occur in its environment.Pretty+woman, flower, garden, village vs handsome+man, car, vessel, overcoat, typewriter; cow+wander vs man+stroll; tremble with fear vs quiver with excitement;highly: important, intelligent, profitable, recommended, sensitive;a bit, a little: drunk, jealous, unkind;wide awake, fully awake, sound asleep, far apart⏹Thematic meaning: mainly a matter of choice btw alternative grammatical constructionsMrs Bessie Smith donated the first prize.The first prize was donated by Mrs Bessie Smith.Polysemy一词多义: One lexical item that has more than one sense. Bank, eat, court, watch, dart, stuff.Homonymy同形异义: More than one lexical item that just coincidentally sound/look the same.⏹Complete homonymy (bat, pupil, , firm, bear, grave, stick, jam, steep, fleet, pad, stem)⏹Homophone = same sound(to/ two, right/rite/write, root/route, knows/nose )⏹Homograph = same spelling (wind, lead,)◆How to distinguish polysemy and homonymy?Whether the senses are related;Whether they come from the same source;Whether under one headword in a dictionary;Ambiguity & VaguenessChapter 3 The origin of English WordsEnglish belongs to West Germanic branch of Indo-European family.Historical development of English vocabulary and characteristics of each period.⏹The Old English period (450 -1066)✧OE: the speech of the earliest Germanic inhabitants of Britain;The first OE manuscripts (around 700): glossaries of Latin words translated into OE, and a few early inscriptions and poems;Most important literary work: the heroic poem Beowulf (written around 1000);✧ 1.A frequent use of coinages known as ‗kennings‘[古英语中的隐喻语] (vivid figurativedescriptions often involving compounds);2. Preference for expressions that are synonymous;3. The absence of a wide-ranging vocabulary of loanwords force people to rely more onword-formation process based on native elements4. The introduction of a number of ‗loan translation‘;5. Grammatical relationships in OE were expressed mainly by the use of inflectionalendings;6. OE is believed to contain about 24,000 different lexical items.⏹The Middle English period (1066 -1500)✧Norman Conquest;✧Extensive changes:In grammar, Eng. changed from a highly inflected language to an analytical one.In vocabulary, Eng. was characterized by the loss of a large part of the OE word-stock and the addition of thousands of words from French and Latin.⏹The Early Modern English period (1500 -1800)✧Transitional period from Middle Eng. to Modern English;✧Printing revolution marked its beginning;✧Eng. vocabulary grew very fast through extensive borrowing and expansion ofword-formation patterns;✧ A great many semantic changes, as old words acquire new meanings.◆Two most important influencesWilliam Shakespeare; James Bible of 1611◆Two dictionariesDictionary of Hard Words (1604), Dictionary of the English Language (1775)⏹The Modern English period (1800-present)✧The unprecedented growth of scientific vocabulary;The assertion of American Eng. as a dominant variety of the lang.;The emergence of other varieties known as ‗New Englishes‘.Types of meaning change(7)⏹Metaphor隐喻: using a word to refer to sthng it doesn‘t literally denote, but that hassome kind of similarity to the literal meaningHead-- …body part above the neck‟ > …a person in charge‟baby --…infant‟ > …loved one‟⏹Metonymy转喻: using a word to refer to something that is associated with its literaldenotation.Downing Street ‗place where the PM lives‘ > ‗the PM‘crown ‗an item of headwear worn by a monarch‘ > ‗the monarch‘, ‗the sovereignty of the monarch‘⏹Synecdoche提喻: using a part to refer to the whole (or vice versa):All hands on deck! - ‗man, sailor‘I got a new motor - ‗car‘⏹Broadening (/generalisation)扩大: a word refers to a more inclusive category:manage ‗to handle a horse‘ > ‗to handle anything‘bullish ‗causing or associated with a rise in prices‘ > ‗optimistic‘⏹Narrowing (/specialisation)缩小: a word refers to a less inclusive category:accident ‗an event‘ > ‗unintended/injurious event‘undertaker ‗someone who undertakes‘ > ‗mortician‘⏹Amelioration (/elevation)升格: the mng of a word becomes more positivenice ‗ignorant, stupid‘ > ‗pleasant‘fond ‗foolish‘ > ‗appreciative‘⏹Pejoration (/degradation)降格: the mng of a word becomes more negativesinister < ‗left(-handed)‘mistress < ‗a woman in a position of power‘--an adulterous womanChapter 4 Word Formation✧Inflection and derivationInflection refers to a general grammatical process which combines words and affixes toproduce alternative grammatical forms of words.new word by means of the addition of an affix to a stem. lexical process.✧Inflectional affixes and derivational affixes p58Inflectional affixes: (only suffixes: plural marker –s, possessive marker ‗s, comparative and superlative markers –er and –est, tense markers –s and –ed, present participle –ing…) (regular and irregular)Derivational affixes: (class-changing slow-ly and class-maintaining child-hood)prefix: re-, de-, in-, im-, un-, pre-, dis-suffix: -ish, -ous, -ary, -ful, -er, -ence, -y, -ly, -ate, -able, -ation, -ure, -dom, -ful, -ment, -en,I doesn‘t change the word class and grammatical category while d changes.Prefixes and suffixesTypes of Word Formation (6)⏹Derivation派生法: using derivational affixes:final+ize, teach+er, sex+ism, eco+tourism, trans+atlantic⏹Compounding复合法: putting existing wds together:couch+potato, lap+topCompounds: stems consisting of more than one rootOrthographic treatment of compounds: bedside, black market, car-wash✧Three features of compound:●Phonological feature: (nominal compounds) A single primary stress; lack of juncture;e.g. ‗blackbird vs black bird;hardcover vs hard cover;greenhouse vs green house;redcoat vs red coatstonewall vs stone wall●Syntactic feature: Single lexical unit, specific syntactic features●Semantic feature: specialized meaningse.g. blackboard, dustbin, redcoat, stonewall, cathouse, turncoat, mother wit, Indian paper,dog days✧4 types of compound:An endocentric compound: consists of a head and its modifier (doghouse);A exocentric compound: does not have a head (white-collar, must-have)A copulative compound: two semantic heads(bittersweet, sleepwalk)An appositional compound: two attributes which classify the compound.(actor-director, maidservant)⏹Conversion（词类）转化法: a change in word class without the addition of an affix.✧ A change within the same class; e.g. some beer/sugar/tea→two beers/sugars/teas; vi →vt✧ A change from one class to another: n→v; v→n; adj.→n; adj.→v p67⏹Blending拼缀法: combining parts of two words to form a third word which containssome of the meaning of each part.smog (smoke + fog), motel (motor + hotel),Eurovision (European + television)brunch, chunnel, dawk, slanguage, bit, psywar, paratroops, guestimate●Four types [69]⏹Back formation逆生法:removal of perceived affixes (related to notion of folketymology):to edit < editor (cf. to accelerate > accelerat-or)；to automate < automation；to beg < beggar；to lase < laser (n.)；to drowse < drowsy (adj.)；to housekeep < housekeeper⏹Shortening缩略法✧Clipping截短–the process by which a word is shortened without a change in meaningor function. lab (laboratory); plane (aeroplane); flu (influenza)Three major types of clippings: fore clipping, hind clipping, midclipping[71]✧Initialisms:●Alphabetism首字母缩略词/abbreviations- spelt out as letters :o OTT < over the topo DIY < do it yourself●Acronyms首字母拼音词– using initial letters of a phrase to form a word, pronounced aswords:o scuba < Self-Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatuso NATO < North Atlantic Treaty OrganisationChapter 5 Sense RelationsSynonymy同义关系：sameness⏹Strict (or absolute) synonymy: gorse=furze⏹Loose synonymy (Distinguishing synonyms): E.g. mislay ≈lose; foggy ≈misty; mob ≈crowd, find/discover; forest/woods.Antonymy反义关系：oppositeness⏹Complementary antonyms (also called contradictory antonyms, binary antonyms)互补词: In an either/or relation of oppositenessE.g. asleep/awake; dead/alive (of e.g. animal); remember/forget; win/lose; open/shut;hit/miss (a target); pass/fail (a test)⏹Gradable antonyms可分级反义词: a more/less relation, 多为形容词E.g. cheap/expensive, rich/poor, fast/slow, sweet/sour, young/old, beautiful/ugly,tall/short, wide/narrow, clever/stupid, near/far, interesting/boring, love/hate⏹Converse antonyms (also called reciprocal antonyms, relational opposites) 对立词：two-way contrasts that are interdependente.g. precede/follow, buy/sell, lend/borrow, give/receive, speak/listen, rent/let,employer /employee, husband/wife, parent/child, debtor/creditor, teacher/pupil, above/below, before/afterHyponymy下义关系：subtype relation⏹Hyponym（下义词）= ‗type of’Robin is a hyponym of bird.⏹Hypernym / superordinate（上义词）= refers to the larger categoryBird is the hypernym of robin, penguin, and pigeon.Meronymy局部—整体关系：part/whole relation⏹Meronym = ‗part of‘：Arm is a meronym of chair.⏹Holonym = ‘whole of’：Chair is a holonym of arm, back, and seat.Collocation搭配关系components are not freely interchangeable; certain restrictions; (differ from free combinations); e.g. decide on a boat⏹Grammatical collocation: e.g. rely of, afraid of, good at, angry with, approve of, adhereto, admiration for, allegiance to, amazement at…⏹Lexical collocation: e.g. run a business/ a company/ a school/ a gym, make a decision,put forward a strong argument…Major relations: synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy, meronymy—paradigmatic ‘sense relations’[纵聚合关系的]Collocation—syntagmatic meaning relation[横组合关系的]Chapter 6 Idioms, Multiword Verbs and ProverbsIdiom: a group of words with a meaning of its own that is different from the meanings of each separate word put together.Characteristics of English idioms⏹Semantic featuresMany idioms have dual meanings: literal and idiomatic meaning; Some literal meanings go against the logic of thinking and life; A great number of idiomatic meanings come from figurativeness. (simile and metaphor)let the cat out of the bag/spill the beans说漏了嘴，泄漏秘密; under the weather身体不适; take in欺骗; have an axe to grind另有企图；know the ropes 懂行；了解情况；as blindas a bat;⏹Structural features: structural stability / syntactic frozenness;to smell a rat觉得可疑; to see red突然大怒; to kick the bucketClassification of English idioms⏹Idioms verbal in nature: v. + particleface the music; spill the beans; beat about the bush; bark up the wrong tree攻击错了目标; burn the candle at both ends过分地耗费精力; have a head on one‟s shoulder有见识; poke one‟s nose into; get wind of风闻; go easy从容不迫; come clean全盘招出; sit pretty 处于极为有利的条件；过舒服的生活；成功⏹Idioms nominal in natureblue chip优值股票; narrow escape九死一生; white elephant无用而累赘apple of的东西; an discord争端，祸根; a snake in the grass; the lion’s share; Achilles’heel致使弱点; Penelope’s web永远完不成的任务; wear and tear磨损; flesh and blood; brain trust智囊团; sheet anchor最后的/主要的靠山;⏹Idioms adjectival in naturehigh and mighty趾高气扬; cut and dried呆板的; on edge; on the go忙个不停; up in the air十分激动；气愤; wet behind the ears缺乏经验的; as cool as a cucumber; as slippery as an eel;⏹Idioms adverbial in natureheart and soul; tooth and nail竭尽全力地; in a breeze轻而易举地; behind the scenes秘密地; between the devil and the deep blue sea进退维谷; through thick and thin不顾艰难险阻Multiword verb：Units in which the main verb occurs with one or two particles(not, to, up, out…);⏹Classification of multiword verbs;✧Prepositional verbs介词动词: v.+prep+(n). Call for, look for, ask for, refer to, gointo, come by, attend to, burn for, bump into, depend on, enter upon, work under.✧Phrasal verbs短语动词: v.+adv. Bring up, look up, give in, sit down, blow up, boilover, drop in, end up, play around, stand up, take off…✧Phrasal-prepositional verbs短语介词动词: v.+adv.+prep. Check up on, get awaywith, stand up for, walk away with, put up with, keep out of, look down on, look up to…Proverb: short well-known statements that give practical advice about life; they capture the shared beliefs or collective wisdom of a society.Chapter 7 English DictionariesPrescriptive dictionary and descriptive dictionary; historical dictionary;⏹Prescriptive = s aying how the lg ‗should‘ be used.⏹Descriptive = recording the language exactly as it is used. E.g. W3Three important dictionaries⏹The Dictionary of the English Language by Samuel Johnson; (prescriptivism)⏹OED; (historical principle)The greatest of all unabridged Eng. Ds.;The only Eng. D compiled totally from its own citation files;⏹Webster‟s New International Dictionary; (descriptive principle)English corpora;CollinsGeneral-purpose dictionary and specialized dictionary; learner‘s dictionary⏹General-purpose dictionary✧Desk size(=college Ds in the USA),e.g. Collins English Dictionary, LongmanDictionary of the English Language, the New Oxford Dictionary of English;[中型词典，案头词典]✧Concise size, e.g. the Concise Oxford Dictionary, Collins Concise English Dictionary,Longman Concise English Dictionary; [简明词典]✧Pocket size, e.g. the Pocket Oxford Dictionary, etc. [袖珍词典]⏹specialized dictionary: restricted to one variety(e.g. a dialect, technical jargon, slang) ortype of entry word(e.g. verbs, adjectives…)Etymological Dictionary of English Language; Webster‟s Dictionary of Synonyms;Oxford Dictionary of Current Idiomatic English; An English Pronouncing Dictionary (Daniel Jones); A Pronouncing Dictionary of American English (John S. Kenyon) Roget‟s International Thesaurus; A Dictionary of Modern English Usage (Henry Watson Fowler);⏹Learner‘s Dictionaries✧Learner‘s Ds for native speakers, e.g. Chamber‟s Student‟s Dictionary; CollinsCOBUILD Learner‟s Dictionary;✧Learner‘s Ds for ESL students, e.g.Oxford Advanced Learner‟s Dictionary of Current English (1st edn. 1948; 3rd edn. 1974;7th edn. 2005) Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (1978, 1987, 1995, 2003, 2009) Collins COBUILD English Language Dictionary; Collins COBUILD English Learner‟s Dictionary; Cambridge International Dictionary of English ; Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners.Monolingual dictionary and bilingual dictionary;⏹Monolingual dictionary: the language of description is the same as the language beingdescribed.⏹bilingual dictionary: give information about equivalences between two languages.Chapter 8 Words in ContextDialect: Dialect: a variety of a language that is characteristic of a particular group of the language‘s speakers; e.g. regional dialect, social dialect.⏹regional dialect✧Same word, different meaningpants, cupboard, public school, cracker, faculty;✧Same object, different wordspost-graduate [graduate]; staff [faculty]; lorry [truck]; bonnet [hood]; petrol [gas]; sweets [candy]; tin [can];✧Words only used in Br. or Am. EngBr. duke, marquis, count, viscount, baron, knight;Am. canyon, everglades, gopher, sagebrush;⏹Social dialect: Varieties of language used by groups defined according to class,education, age, sex, and a number of other social parameters.E.g. old people talk about it “icebox and wireless”; but don‟t know what is “totallystoked”; women tend to “use sort of, kind of, isn‟t it? don‟t you?”Register:a form of language appropriate to a specific situation; a variety of language distinguished according to context, which consists of the field of discourse, the relations between participants, and the mode of discourse.Word choice is a feature among registers.e.g. Tone refers to ―the interval between the first two degrees of a major scale‖ in music,to ―a musical pitch of the voice that serves to change the meaning of a word‖in linguistics, to ―the color of a photograph‖ in photography, and to ― the state of the body with respect to the health and vigor of it s functions‖ in physiology.Style: (formal, informal and colloquial)Slang: used by a specific social group;E.g. spaced out飘飘然的, right on好极了，你说得对, hang-up大难题, rip-off偷窃，索要高价, cool, hot, rave, ecstasy, crib, posse支持者, grass, pot, rap, cool, dig, stoned, bread, split, suck, gork, dis;underworld slang, e.g. crack, payola, C-note, G-man, sawbuck; con, brek, burn, screw;particularly rich in certain domain, such as violence, crime, drugs, sex;Taboo：a strong social prohibition against words, objects, actions, or discussions that are considered undesirable or offensive by a group or community.Euphemism：a mild, comforting, or evasive expression that takes the place of one that is taboo, negative, offensive, or too direct. P122E.g. Gosh God,terminate kill, pass water/relieve oneself/urinate Piss, pass away, departed his life die, chest and limb breast and leg, heavens hell, bless it damn it, developing backward/underdeveloped countries, visually impaired blind.Jargon: the language peculiar to a trade, profession, or other group; functions as a technical or specialized language; allow its users to talk precisely about technical issues in a given field;Linguistic jargon, e.g. lexeme, morpheme, case, lexicon;Jargon of ‗computerese‘, e.g. modem, bit, byte; ROM, RAM, CPU;‗Green‘ jargon, e.g. lead-free, meat-free, zero-emission vehicle, eco-friendly, eco-tourism;Sports jargonReligious language。
(0057)词汇学复习大纲
（0057）《词汇学》复习大纲Chapter One Introduction1. Definitions (In the final exam, all definitions should be completed with at least examples.):Lexicology (p. 1)V ocabulary (p. 1)Morphology (p. 1)Etymology (p. 2)Semantics (p. 2)Stylistics (p. 2)Phonetics (p.2)2. Some fundamental ideas (the five points in section 1.3.2)1) The vocabulary of any language never remains stable, but is constantlychanging, growing and decaying, together with the development of humansociety.2) The word is the principal and basic unit of the language. The word is astructural and semantic entity within the language system.3) The word is a two-facet unit possessing both form and content.4) Structurally words are inseparable lexical units taking shape in a definitesystem of grammatical forms and syntactic characteristics, whichdistinguishes them both from morphemes and words groups.5) Two approaches of investigations lexicology. The synchronic approach isconcerned with the vocabulary of a language as it exists are given time, forinstance, at the present time. The Diachronic approach deals with the changesand the development of vocabulary in the course of time. The twoapproaches should be interconnected and interdependent.3. The Division of the History of English1) The Old English (Anglo-Saxon) periodDuration: roughly from 450-1150The three characteristics of Old English (page 7-8)(1) pronunciation difference; (2) Teutonic vocabulary; (3) full of inflectional2) The Middle English periodDuration: 1150-1500The three Characteristics of Middle English (page 8)(1) resemblance to Old English; (2) borrowing and loss in vocabulary; (3) less inflectional3) The Modern English period (page 8)Early Modern English (1500-1700)Late Modern English (Since 1700)Chapter Two Sources of English Vocabulary1. The naive elements of English V ocabulary1) The nine characteristics of the native element (pp. 10-11)a. all-national characterb. great stabilityc. mono-syllabic wordsd. Great word-forming abilitye. wide collocabilityf. plurality of meaningsg. high frequency valueh. stylistically neutral2. The foreign elements of English V ocabulary (pp. 11-26)1) The three ways of the foreign elements entering into the Englishvocabulary (p. 12)a. through oral speechb. through written speechc. through invaders2) Classification of the foreign borrowings (or, the four types of foreignelements in English vocabulary) (pp. 12-13)a. aliens ;b. denizens;c. translation loan;d. semantic loan3) Some useful Latin phrases and abbreviationsvice versa, per cent, per cap., persona non grata; a.m., p.m., i.e., e.g., c.f.,viz.4) doublets, hybrids and international words in English (pp. 26-30)5) The three types of assimilated words: completely assimilated words,partly assimilated words and non-assimilated words. (pp. 32-33) Chapter Three Word-Building1. Definitions (In the final exam, all definitions should be completed withexamples.):morpheme, free morpheme, bound morpheme, root, stem2. Ways of word-building (attentions should also be paid to the examplesappearing the ways of word-building)1) affixation (pp. 39-51)2) conversion (pp.51-55)3) compounding (pp.55-59)4) backformation (pp. 59-60)5) shortening (pp. 60-63)6) blending (pp. 63-64)7) imitation (p. 64)3. All the exercises of this chapter are possible sources for the final exam!Chapter Four Semantics1. definitions (In the final exam, all definitions should be completed withexamples.):polysemy (p. 72), homonymy (p. 77), perfect homonym (p. 77), homograph(p. 78), homophone p. 78), synonym (p. 80), antonym (p. 86),2. important points1) the relation between a word and its meaning (p. 70)2) the relation between words and concepts (p. 70-71)3) the meaning of “nice” (p. 72)4) types of synonyms (pp. 83-84)5) the origin of synonyms (p. 84)6) the example words of antonym (pp. 86-88)7) ways of coining neologism (p. 91)8) the exercises of Chapter Four (pp. 94-100)Chapter Five Change of Meaning1. Definitions (In the final exam, all definitions should be completed withexamples.):extension of meaning (p. 101), narrowing of meaning (p. 102), degradationof meaning (p. 104), metonymy (p. 114), synecdoche (p. 116), oxymoron (p.119)2. All the exercises of this chapter are possible sources for the final exam! Chapter Six English Idioms1. Characteristics of English idioms (four points) (pp. 124-128)2. Characteristics of phrasal verbs (three points) (pp. 133-134)3. All the exercises of this chapter are possible sources for the final exam! Chapter Seven Varieties of English1. Definitions (In the final exam, all definitions should be completed withexamples.):slang (p. 149), jargon (p. 149),2.All the exercises of this chapter are possible sources for the final exam!Chapter Eight American English1. Characteristics of American English (pp. 158-162)2. Differences between British English and American English (pp. 162-164)3.All the exercises of this chapter are possible sources for the final exam! Chapter Nine Application and Comprehension1. Attention should be paid to the example words given in this chapter2. All the exercises of this chapter are possible sources for the final exam! Chapter Ten English Lexicography1. Definitions (In the final exam, all definitions should be completed withexamples.):monolingual dictionary (p. 185), bilingual dictionary (p. 185), encyclopedia(p. 186), encyclopedic dictionary (p. 186).（0057）《词汇学》样题Part I Definition (20 points)Directions: Defining the following terms with examples.1. aliens2. homophone3. jargon4. compounding5. bilingual dictionaryPart II True or False Decision (15 points)Directions: Decide whether the following statements are T (true) or F (false).1.Every word has two aspects: the outer aspect —written form and the inner aspect —sound.2.Some affixes are free morphemes while some others are bound morphemes.3.Old English is a language of full inflections.4.“Popular words” mainly refer to words of French origin in the English language.5.Strictly speaking, in the English language, there are no two words which are absolutelyidentical in meaning6.We should put our hands on the deck, when we hear “All hands on deck” on a boat.7.In the word “modify”, the root is “mod”, the stem is “modi” and the suffix is “-fy”.8.Most of the affixes are derived from Old English, or from Latin and Greek.9.In the compound word “blood test”, the second part, i.e. “test”, indicates the action upon thefirst part.10.Absolute synonyms can be found in ordinary life, e.g. begin —commence.11.Simile, metaphor and personification are figures of speech based on resemblances.12.Phonologically, compounds can often be identified as having a main stress on the first elementand secondary stress on the second element.13.Actual meaning refers to the meaning of an isolated word in a dictionary.14.Most of the English words are polysemic.15.American English is characterized by creativeness but not conservativeness in usage.Part III Multiple Choice (15 points)Directions: There are 15 sentences in this section. Beneath each sentence there are 4 wordsor phrases marked A, B, C, and D. Choose the one word or phrase that correctly completes the sentence.1. The word “question” is a word borrowed from .A. LatinB. FrenchC. GreekD. Scandinavian2. He is wise enough to see all these fine pretensions.A. outB. toC. throughD. over3. You should remember that the building is a war memorial and speak more .A. respectivelyB. respectablyC. respectfullyD. respected4. The crown jewels are kept in the Tower of London.A. valuedB. valuelessC. invaluableD. usable5. When the crowd saw the prize-fighter stretched out on the canvas, shouts and cheersfrom it.A. broke upB. broke forthC. broke throughD. break upon6. The scientists realized it would be too to ship all people in one boatbecause it was fragile.A. boldB. daringC. riskyD. dangerous7. The energy gained from the sun can then be used during the night to enable the necessarychemical reactions to in his body.A. precedeB. proceedC. progressD. practise8. There is a of vegetables in Shanghai at the moment because of the coldweather.A. shortageB. wantC. needD. desire9. When the Victorians had family reunions, the hosts went their way to entertainthe guests.A. in forB. overC. out ofD. back on10. Having pushed her son, Eve gave him a dismissive towards the car.A. pushB. pullC. drawD. drag11. Which of the following usually appears in poems?A. horseB. steedC. gee-geeD. nag12. Which of the following words is INCORROCT in word formation?A. unhorseB. unmannedC. unfrostD. unhappy13. Which of the following is formed by blending?A. popB. sightseeC. copterD. boatel14. The antonym of “fresh” in “fresh bread” is ________.A. staleB. stuffyC. fadedD. tired15. I will take you to a most interesting ________ of nineteenth century.A. wonderB. exhibitionC. expositionD. displayPart IV Translation (10 points)Directions: Translating the following sentences into Chinese.1.The sea has smoothed down.2.Kissinger got the plans and helicoptered to Camp David.3.He commanded a fleet of thirty sails.4.Strike while the iron is hot.5.Most of the city families have a fridge.Part V Answer the following questions with examples (20 points)1.What are the relations between a word and its meaning? (6 points)2.What are the classifications of Homonyms? (6 points)3.What are the characteristic features of English idioms? (8 points)]（0057）《词汇学》样题答案Part I Definition (20 points)1.aliensAliens are words borrowed from a foreign language without any change of the foreign sound and spelling. These words are immediately recognizable as foreign in origin. For examples, “coup d‟état”, “résumé”, “régime”, etc. are all Aliens of French borrowings.2.homophonesHomophones are words identical in sound but different in spelling and meaning, e.g. sun, son;piece and peace; etc.3.jargonJargon are terms peculiar to a class, sect, trade or profession. For example, when the chemist says “Chlorophyll makes food by photosynthesis.”he is talking jargon, which in plain language means “green leaves build up food with the help of light”.poundingCompounding is the word forming process by which tow or even more words are joined to form a new entity. For example, “darkroom (meaning …a room used for photographic processing‟) is formed by joining “dark” and “room” into a new word.5. bilingual dictionaryA bilingual dictionary involves two languages. The main entries are generally defined orexplained in the same language with translations as Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English with Chinese Translation and Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English with Chinese Translation, etc.Part II True or False Decision (15 points)1~15. FFTTT 6~10 FTTTF 11~15TTFTFPart III Multiple Choice (15 points)1~5 ACCCB 6~10 CBACA 11~15 BCDABPart IV Translation (10 points)1.大海已经平静下来了。
《现代汉语词汇学》教学大纲
第五章 词义和语境的关系................................................................................................................... 670 一、语境对理解词义的作用 ................................................................................................... 670 二、语境对词义的影响 ........................................................................................................... 670 复习与思考题........................................................................................................................... 670 拓展阅读书目........................................................................................................................... 670
英语词汇学 大纲
英语词汇学》课程教学大纲一、说明适用专业四年制本科英语专业先修课程语言学基础总学时36总学分2（一）本课程的目的、要求英语词汇学是英语专业高年级的一门专业课程。
通过本课程的教学，应达到以下的目的和要求：1.初步掌握英语词汇学的基本理论，了解英语词汇的规律。
2.比较系统地理解、掌握英语词汇，扩大词汇量，提高英语语言实践能力。
3.了解英语词汇的来源、发展历史及现状。
4.学会分析英语词汇的结构、类型、意义、理据，相互关系，语义变化方式，过程及用法。
5.了解英国英语和美国英语在词汇上的差异。
6.了解英语词典的发展历史和学会选用英语词典。
（二）内容选取和实施中注意的问题英语词汇学是研究英语语言词汇的一门重要学科。
英语专业的学生在比较熟悉英语语音、语法的情况下，系统地学习和研究英语词汇就显得更加重要。
在内容的选取和具体实施过程中应注意下面一些问题：1．处理好基本理论与语言实践之间的关系，学习基本理论是为了更好地进行语言实践。
在实践的基础上了解和掌握现代英语词汇学的一些基本观点和基本理论。
2.英语词汇学的部分内容在其它课程中学生已零碎地接触过，在教学中应突出系统性，避免简单的重复。
3.强调课前预习，并要求学生查阅指定的参考资料，课堂教学以讲授为主,适当进行小组讨论和练习。
4.充分利用现代化教学手段，加大课堂教学量，提高教学效果。
5.为培养学生分析问题和解决问题的能力，对每章后的练习题挑选出一部分进行讲解，引导学生正确运用所学的知识解决问题。
（三）教学方法课前学生充分预习。
1.教师根据教材内容，安排适当的小组讨论。
2.教师要精讲，并补充一些课外内容，使用多媒体教学手段，增加教学容量。
（四）考核方式（1）本课程的考核方式为考查。
（2）三次平时作业成绩占30%。
（3）课程结束前要求学生设计一份试卷，占70%。
（五）教学内容与学时分配教学章节教学内容学时安排备注1词的概述42词的结构和词的构成方式4词的理据24词的语义特征25词义的变化46词的语义分类47词的联想与搭配48英语习语4补充材料英语字典4考核2机动2二、大纲内容第一章词的概述1. 为词的定义2. 词的语音和意义3. 词的词汇意义和语法意义4. 词的意义与概念5. 词与词项6. 词与词汇说明：（1）本章从词的定义讲起，分别介绍一些哲学家、语言学家对词的定义，着重介绍马克思主义语言学家对词的定义。
《法语词汇学》课程教学大纲
《法语词汇学》课程教学大纲
一、课程信息
二、课程目标
通过本课程的学习，学生应具备以下方面的目标：
1. 通过本课程的学习，学生需掌握法语词汇学基础知识。
了解法语词汇的发展演变、结构组成和词义特征。
在掌握好语言知识的基础上，了解法语各种应用文的规范书面语言表达方式，并能应用于实践。
2.通过本课程的学习，学生掌握词汇结构的分析方法和各种词汇现象（借词，缩略词，派生，词义演变）等法语词汇的理论知识。
3.通过本课程的学习，学生掌握词汇内在规律，有效地记忆词汇，扩大词汇量，提高学习效率。
4.通过本课程的学习，提高对词语的理解、释义和综合运用的能力, 学生具
备一定的词汇总结与归纳能力，增强学习词汇的兴趣。
课程目标对毕业要求的支撑关系表
三、教学内容与预期学习成效
四、成绩评定及考核方式
五、课程建议教材及主要参考资料
1. 建议教材
1.程依荣.法语词汇学概论.上海外语教育出版社，2007年
2.主要参考书
1.程依荣.法语词汇学导论.外语教学与研究出版社，2002年。
词汇学教学大纲
《词汇学》课程教学大纲课程名称：《词汇学》课程类别：专业选修课考核类别：考查适用对象：本科适用专业：英语总学时、学分：36学时2学分一、课程教学目的本课程是英语专业的一门专业方向选修课。
本课程的教学目的在于要求学生掌握英语词汇学的基本知识和基本理论，从而更科学地学习英语词汇，运用词汇学中所学到的基本知识和理论来分析和理解英语词汇，正确地使用英语词汇。
二、课程教学要求词的基本知识、英语的亲属关系与英语词汇的形成和发展、词的形态结构和构成方法、词的意义、语义关系、词义的演变、英语习语、英语词典等。
三、先修课程语音、语法、听力、口语等专业基础课程，基础英语等专业核心课程以及阅读等专业方向课程。
四、课程教学重、难点重点：词的基本知识；英语词汇的形成与发展；英语构词法；词义的演变；英语习语；难点：词的意义；语义关系和语义场。
五、课程教学方法（或手段）（一）教学手段1. 教师讲解，学生做笔记（采用多媒体教学）；2. 学生自学、撰写学期或章节论文；3. 引导学生结合自己学习中碰到的问题进行讨论。
（二）教学方法采用教师为主导，学生为主题的教学模式，注重培养学生的系统思维能力和实际解决问题的能力，采用启发式、讨论式的教学方法，充分调动学生的积极性，发挥学生的能动性和创造性，并注重语言理论与实践结合起来，引导学生用理论解决学习中的实际问题。
教师布置阅读任务要求学生在课下阅读，然后在课上一起讨论，也可以在本课程网站上发帖讨论，或在线完成作业等。
六、课程教学内容第一章词汇学和词（2学时）一、教学内容（一）什么是词汇；（二）什么是词；（三）语言分析中的词；（四）词的类别；（五）词汇词和语法词；（六）词和语义场。
二、重、难点提示（一）重点：词的分类；词汇词和语法词；（二）难点：词的定义；词和语义场；基本词汇的特点。
第二章一些基本概念和词的意义（4学时）一、教学内容（一）语素，词位和语子；（二）词的意义；（三）七种意义；（四）词根和词干；（五）多义关系；（六）同音同形异义关系；二、重、难点提示（一）重点：词素；词素变体；（二）难点：词素的分类；词根和词干；多义关系；同音同形异义关系。
英语词汇学大纲
《教学设计》教学大纲课程名称：英语词汇学（English Lexicology）课程代码：课程类别：专业课程学时：50学时学分：考核方式：考试适用对象：英语专业一、课程简介《英语词汇学》是英语专业本科生高年级阶段开设的一门专业任选课。
作为语言学的一门独立分支的实用学科，它已成为英语研究及英语教学的重要方面。
本课程主要是培养学生学习与英语词汇相关的基础理论，帮助学生系统掌握现代英语词汇的性质、构成和变化规律等方面知识, 比较深入地了解英语词汇的现状及其历史演变过程, 并能对现代英语词汇发展所出现的现象做出分析和解释, 从而不仅提高学生对词语的理解、释义和综合运用的能力，而且提高学生英语语言运用的整体水平。
二、教学基本要求通过本课程的学习，要求学习者：1.使学生了解词的来源、词的形态、词的构成方式、词的语义特征、各种词汇之间的相互关系和变化、词的联想与搭配等内容；2.了解英语词汇的形态结构和构词法规则有助于学生扩大自己的词汇量并自觉运用词汇；3.掌握词汇的历史发展和对词汇划分的原则将会使学生更深刻地理解词的意义，使他们能够有效地组织、划分和贮存词汇；4.认识词汇的语义结构、语义类型和语义关系会使学生增强对词汇意义和用法的了解，增强准确用词的能力。
三、教学重点及难点教学重点：1. 明确词汇学常用术语的定义；2. 词汇的语义结构、语义类型和语义关系并达到准确用词等等。
四、与其它课程的关系根据课程之间的衔接关系，英语词汇学课程的相关课程为《英语语言学》、《英语词源学》、《英语语义学》、《英语句法学》等专业基础课程，同时与后续的专业学习或实践紧密联系，是专业培养计划中承前启后的主干专业课。
五、教学内容Introduction （4学时）本章主要教学内容：Brief introduction of lexicology本章教学目的及要求：U nderstanding the definition of …lexicology‟Studying the relation between lexicology and other disciplines本章教学重点及难点：The relation between lexicology and other disciplinesChapter 1 Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabulary （4学时）本章主要教学内容：1.1 What is a word1.2 Sound and Meaning1.3 Sound and form1.4 Vocabulary1.5 Classification of words本章教学目的及要求：1. Understanding the definition of word2. Studying the relation between sound, form and meaning3. Mastering the different types of words本章教学重点及难点：1.The relation between sound, form and meaning2.Native words and borrowed wordsChapter 2 The Development of the English Vocabulary （4学时）本章主要教学内容：2.1 The Indo-European Language Family2.2 A historical overview of the English vocabulary2.3 Growth of present-day English vocabulary2.4 Modes of Vocabulary development本章教学目的及要求：1. Understanding the historical development of English2. Studying modes of vocabulary development本章教学重点及难点：The three historical periods of EnglishChapter 3 Word Formation I （4学时）本章主要教学内容：3.1 Morphemes3.2 Allomorphs3.3 Types of morphemes3.4 Root and stem本章教学目的及要求：1. Understanding the different morphemes2. Studying the difference between root and stem本章教学重点及难点：Different types of morphemesChapter 4 Word Formation（6学时）本章主要教学内容：4.1 Affixation4.2 Compounding4.3 Conversion4.4 Blending4.5 Clipping4.6 Acronymy4.7 Back-formation4.8 Words from proper names本章教学目的及要求：1. Understanding major types of word processes2. Studying some minor processes of word formation本章教学重点及难点：The major ways of forming wordsChapter 5 Word Meaning （4学时）本章主要教学内容：5.1 The meanings of “meaning”5.2 Motivation5.3 Types of meaning本章教学目的及要求：1. Understanding the difference between reference, concept and sense.2. Studying the different types of motivation本章教学重点及难点：1. The difference between reference, concept and sense.2. The different types of motivationChapter 6 Sense Relation and Semantic Field（6学时）本章主要教学内容：6.1 Polysemy6.2 Homonymy6.3 Synonymy6.4 Antonymy6.5 Hyponymy本章教学目的及要求：1. Understanding the definitions of sense relations2. Studying the classification of sense relations3. Mastering the use of sense relations本章教学重点及难点：1. The difference between polysemy and homonymy, form and meaning2. SynonymsChapter 7 Changes in Word Meaning （4学时）本章主要教学内容：7.1 Types of Change7.2 Causes of Changes本章教学目的及要求：1. Understanding the four types of changes2. Studying causes of changes本章教学重点及难点：The four types of changesChapter 8 Meaning and Context （4学时）本章主要教学内容：8.1 Types of Context8.2 The role of Context本章教学目的及要求：1. Understanding the two types of context2. Studying the role of context本章教学重点及难点：1. Linguistic context2. The role of context to eliminate ambiguityChapter 9 English Idioms （4学时）本章主要教学内容：9.1 Characteristics of idioms9.2 Classification of idioms9.3 Use of idioms本章教学目的及要求：1. Understanding the definition and classification of idiom.2. Studying the use of idioms本章教学重点及难点：The classification of idiomChapter 10 English Dictionaries （4学时）本章主要教学内容：10.1 Types of dictionaries10.2 Use of dictionaries10.3 Three good general dictionaries本章教学目的及要求：1. Understanding the different kinds of dictionaries.2. Studying the choice of dictionaries3. Mastering the different types of words本章教学重点及难点：1. the choice and use of dictionaries综合复习（2学时）六、教材及参考书1、教材：《英语词汇学》外语教学与研究出版社1999年2、教学参考书：Bauer, L. . Introducing Linguistic Morphology. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.(1988)Bloomfield, L. . Language. Beijing: FLTRP.(2002)Foster, Brian . The Changing English Language. New Y ork: Penguin Books Ltd.(1971) Ginburg, E. S. et al . A Course in Modern English Lexicology. Moscow: Higher School Publishing.(1966)。
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1 / 18 Chapter 1 Basic Concepts 基本概念 1.1 the definition of a word （he definition of a word comprises the following points: (1) a minimal free form of a language; (2) a sound unity; (3) a unit of meaning; (4) a form that can function alone in a sentence. A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.） 1.2 sound and meaning ：symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary and conventional. A dog is called a dog not because the sound and the three letters that make up the word just automatically suggest the animal in question.
1.3 sound and form ：
1.4 vocabulary 1.5 classification of words 词汇分类
basic word stock 基本词汇 nonbasic vocabulary 非基本词汇 by use frequency 按使用频率分： basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary 基本词汇和非基本词汇 by notion 按概念分： content words and functional words 实义词和功能词 by origin 按起源分： native words and borrowed words 本地词和外来词 all national character 全民性 stability 稳定性 productivity 多产性 polysemy 一词多义 collocability 搭配性 terminology 术语 jargon 行话 slang 俚语 argon 黑话 dialectal words 方言词 archaism 古语词 neologism 新词 neutral in style 文体上中性 frequent in use 使用频繁 native words 本地词 borrowed words 外来词 denizens 同化词 aliens 异形词 translation-loans 译借词 semantic-loans 借义词 1. No enough letters: alphabet from latin 2. Pronunciation changed more rapidly 3. Early scribes: change spelling for easier recognition 4. Borrowing: different rules of pronunciation and spelling obvious characteristics 明显的特点 2 / 18
Chapter 2 Development It is assumed that the world has approximately 3, 000 (some put it 5, 000 ) languages, which can be grouped into roughly 300 language families on the basis of similarities in their basic word stock and grammar.
2.1 Indo-European 印欧语
Eastern set： 东部诸语族：
Western set： 西部诸语族： Balto-Slavic 波罗的海-斯拉夫语 Indo-Iranian 印度-伊朗语 Armenian 亚美尼亚语 Albanian 阿尔巴尼亚语 Celtic 凯尔特语 Italic 意大利语 Hellenic 希腊语 ——Greek Germanic 日耳曼语 Persian 波斯语 Bengali 孟加拉国语 Hindi 印地语 Romany 普吉赛语 Prussian 普鲁士语 Lithuanian 立陶宛语 Polish 波兰语 Czech 捷克语 Bulgarian 保加利亚语 Slovenian 斯洛文尼亚语 Russian 俄语 Norwegian 挪威语 Icelandic 冰岛语 Danish 丹麦语 Swedish 瑞典语 German 德语 Dutch 荷兰语 Flemish 佛兰德语 Portuguese 葡萄牙语 Spanish 西班牙语 French 法语 Italian 意大利语 Roumanian 罗马尼亚语 Scottish 苏格兰语 Irish 爱尔兰语 Welsh 威尔士语 Breton 布里多尼语 Scandinavian languages 斯堪的纳维亚语 Latin 拉丁语言 3 / 18
2.2 Historical review 历史概述
2.3 Growth of Present-day English Vocabulary
50000-60000 words 5万~6万间词汇 Highly inflected 高度转折 complex endings 复杂的结尾 vowel changes 元音变化 French words 法语词汇 leveled endings 水平结尾 Early Modern English (1500-1700) 早期现代英语 Late Modern English (1700-up to the present) 晚期现代英语 Borrow 借词 new words 新词 no endings 无结尾 from a synthetic language (Old English) to the present analytic language。 从古英语的综合型语言发展成了现在的分析型语言。 the rapid development of modern science and technology （45 ％ ） 现代科学和技术的迅猛发展（ 45 ％ ） social, economic and political changes（11 ％ ） 社会，经济和政治的变化（ 11 ％ ） the influence of other cultures and languages（ 24 ％ ） 其它文化和语言的影响（ 24 ％ ） Creation 创词 —— formation of new words, most important semantic change 旧词新义 —— old form with new meaning, new usages borrowing 借词 —— vital role Old English (450--1150) —— Anglo-Saxon 古英语 盎格鲁-撒克逊语
Middle English (1150-1500) 中古英语
Modern English (1500-up to now) 现代英语
three main sources 三种主要来源 4 / 18
2.4 Modes of Vocabulary Development Chapter 3 Word Formation 3.1 Morphemes 词素 Definition: These minimal meaningful units are known as morphemes. In other words, the morpheme is "the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words".词素是“构词中最小功能单位”。 3.2 Allomorphs 语素变体 Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units known as morphs. 'They are actual spoken , minimal carriers of meaning'. The morpheme is to the morph what a phoneme is to a phone. 词素是一个音素发音的语素。词素是真正能发音的最小的意义载体。
morpheme
3.3 Types of Morphemes
3.4 Root and Stem
monomorphemic words：can stand by themselves and function freely in a sentence. 单语素词 在句子中独立起作用 allomorphs：the alternative morphs of the same morpheme 词素变体 可替换语素（音标）的相同词素
free morpheme —— free root 自由语素 自由词根
bound morpheme 粘着语素 bound root ：fundamental meaning 粘着词根 基本意义 affix 词缀（附加物） attach, modify 附着，修饰
Inflectional affix —— attached to the end of words 附在词尾 曲折词缀 Grammatical relationships 文法关系
derivational affix 派生词缀
prefix 前缀
Suffix 后缀
affix 词缀
root or stem 词根或词干
Independent 独立 free grammatical units 自由的语法单位 complete meanings 完整的意义