英文文献：年产万吨的苹果汁工厂设计

英文文献

2.5.

3. Design and construction of the building

Roofs and ceilings

Walls

Windows and doors

Floors

Lighting and power

Water supply and sanitation

Layout of equipment and facilities

In general, a building should have enough space for all production processes to take place without congestion and for storage of raw materials, packaging materials and finished products. However, the investment should be appropriate to the size and expected profitability of the enterprise to reduce start-up capital, the size of any loans taken out and depreciation and maintenance charges.

Roofs and ceilings

In tropical climates, overhanging roofs keep direct sunlight off the walls and out of the building. This is particularly important when processing involves heating, to make working conditions more comfortable. Fiber-cement tiles offer greater insulation against heat from the sun than galvanized iron sheets do. High level vents in roofs both allow heat and steam to escape and encourage a flow of fresh air through the processing room. The vents must be screened with mesh to prevent insects, rodents and birds from entering the room. If heat is a serious problem, the entrepreneur could consider fitting electric fans or extractors, although this clearly increases capital and operating costs.

Rafters or roof beams within the processing and storage rooms are unacceptable. They allow dust to accumulate, which can fall off in lumps to cause gross contamination of products. Similarly, insects can fall from them into products. They also allow paths for rodents and birds, with consequent risks of contamination from hairs, feathers or excreta. It is therefore essential to have a paneled ceiling fitted to any processing or store-oom, with careful attention when fitting them to ensure that there are no holes in the paneling. Care should also be taken to prevent birds, rodents and flying insects gaining access to the processing room through gaps in the roof structure or where the roof joins the walls.

Walls

As a minimum requirement, all internal walls should be rendered or plastered with a good quality plaster to prevent dust forming in the processing room. An experienced plasterer should be used to ensure that no cracks or ledges remain in the surface finish, which could accumulate dirt and insects. The lower area of walls, to at least 1.08 metres (four feet) above the floor, is most likely to get dirty from washing equipment, from product splashing etc. and special attention should be paid to ensure that this area is easily cleaned. Higher areas of walls should be painted with a good quality emulsion. The lower parts of walls should be either painted with a waterproof gloss paint, preferably white, to allow them to be thoroughly cleaned, or ideally they should be tiled with glazed tiles. If tiling a process room is too expensive, it is possible to select particular areas such as behind sinks or machinery and only tile these parts. In some countries there is a legal requirement for specified internal finishes and this should be checked with the Ministry of Health or other appropriate authority (see also Section 2.4.2)

Windows and doors

Window sills should be made to slope for two reasons: to prevent dust from accumulating and to prevent operators from leaving cloths or other items lying there, which in turn can attract insects. Windows allow staff to work in natural daylight, which is preferable to and cheaper than electric lighting. However, in tropical climates there is a natural inclination for workers to open windows to allow greater circulation of fresh air. This provides easy access for flying insects, which can readily contaminate the product. Windows should therefore be fitted with mosquito mesh to allow them to be left open.

Normally doors should be kept closed, but if they are used regularly there is again a tendency for them to be left open with similar consequences of animals and insects entering the plant. In this case, thin metal chains or strips of material that are hung vertically from the door lintel may deter insects and some animals, while allowing easy access for staff. Alternatively mesh door screens can be used. Doors should be fitted accurately so that there are no gaps beneath them and all storeroom doors should be kept closed to prevent insects and rodents from destroying stock or ingredients.

Floors

It is essential to ensure that the floors of processing rooms and storerooms are constructed of good quality concrete, smooth finished and without cracks. In some developing countries, it is possible to buy proprietary floor paints or vinyl based coatings, but these are usually very expensive. Generally, it is not adequate to use the red wax floor polishes that are commonly found in households, as these wear away easily and could contaminate either products or packages. Over time, spillages of acidic fruit products react with concrete and

cause it to erode. Attention should therefore be paid to cleaning up spillages as they occur and to regularly monitor the condition of the floor.

The comers where the floor and the walls join are places for dirt to collect. During construction of the floor, it should therefore be curved up to meet the wall. It is possible to place fillets of concrete (or 'coving') in the comers of an existing floor to fill up the right angle, but care is needed to ensure that new gaps are not created which would harbour dirt and insects.

The floor should slope at an angle of approximately 1 in 8 to a central drainage channel. At the end of a day's production, the floor can be thoroughly washed and drained. Proper drainage prevents pools of stagnant water forming, which would in turn risk contamination of equipment and foods. The drainage channel should be fitted with an easily removed steel grating so that the drain can be cleaned. Where the drain exits the building, there is a potential entry point for rodents and crawling insects unless wire mesh is fitted over the drain opening. This too should be easily removed for cleaning.

Lighting and power

General room lighting should be minimized wherever possible. Full use should be made of natural daylight, which is both free and better quality light, especially for intricate work. Where additional lighting is needed, florescent tubes are cheaper to operate than incandescent bulbs. However, if machinery is used that has fast moving exposed parts, these should be lit with incandescent bulbs and not tubes. This is because even though the parts should have guards fitted, a rotating machine can appear to stand still if its speed matches the number of cycles of the mains electricity that powers fluorescent tubes - with obvious dangers to operators.

All electric power points should be placed at a sufficiently high level above the floor that there is no risk of water entering them during washing the floor or equipment. Ideally, waterproof sockets should be used. It is important to use each power point for one application and not use multiple sockets which risk overloading a circuit and causing a fire. If there are insufficient power points for the needs of a process, additional points should be installed, even though this is more expensive. All plugs should be fitted with fuses that are appropriate for the power rating of the equipment and ideally the mains supply should have an earth leakage trip switch. If three-phase power is needed for larger machines or for heavy loads from electric heating, it is important that the wiring is installed by a qualified electrician to balance the supply across the three phases.

Water supply and sanitation

Water is essential in nearly all fruit and vegetable processing, both as a component of products and for cleaning. An adequate supply of potable water should therefore be available from taps around the processing area. In many countries, the mains supply is unreliable or periodically contaminated and it is therefore necessary for the entrepreneur to make arrangements to secure a regular supply of good quality water each day. This can be done by

installing two high level, covered storage tanks either in the roof-space or on pillars outside the building. They can be filled alternately when mains water is available and while one tank is being used, any sediment in water in the other tank is settling out. As sedimentation takes several hours, the capacity of each tank should be sufficient for one day's production. The tanks should have a sloping base and be fitted with drain valves above the slope and at the lowest point. In use, water is taken from the upper valve and when the tank is almost empty, the lower valve is opened to flush out any sediment that has accumulated.

Water that is included in a product should be carefully treated to remove all traces of sediment and if necessary, it should be sterilised. This is particularly important if the product is not heated after water has been mixed in as an ingredient.

There are four ways of treating water at a small scale: by filtration; by heating; by

ultra-violet light and by chemical sterilants, such as hypochlorite (also named 'chlorine solution' or 'bleach'). Other water treatment methods are generally too expensive at a small scale of operation.

Filtration through domestic water filters is slow, but having made the capital expenditure, it is relatively cheap. Larger industrial filters are available in some countries. Heating water to boiling and holding it at that temperature for 10-15 minutes is simple and has low capital costs, but it is expensive because of fuel costs and it is time consuming to do routinely. Heating sterilises the water but does not remove sediment and boiled water may therefore require filtering or standing to remove sediment.

Ultra-violet light destroys micro-organisms in water and commercial water treatment units that use this principle (Figure 38) are coming down in price to the point that they can be suitable for those small scale processors that use a lot of water. Again, this method does not remove sediment from the water.

Finally, chemical sterilisation using hypochlorite is fast, relatively cheap and effective against a wide range of micro-organisms. Cleaning water should contain about 200 ppm of chorine and water that is used as an ingredient should contain about 0.5 ppm to avoid giving a chlorine flavour to the product. A chlorine concentration of 200 ppm can be made by adding 1 litre of bleach to 250 litres of water and a 0.5 ppm solution is obtained by adding 2.5 ml of bleach to 250 litres of water. Although chlorine kills most micro-organisms, it also has a number of disadvantages: it can corrode aluminium equipment; it can taint foods; bleach must be handled with great care as it damages the necessary, the concentration of chlorine in water can be measured using a chemical dye that produces a colour when it reacts with chlorine. The intensity of the colour is compared to standard colours on glass discs in a 'comparator'.

Good sanitation is essential to reduce the risk of product contamination and to deter insects, rodent and birds. All wastes should be placed in bins and not piled on the floor. Processes should have a management system in place to remove wastes from the building as they are produced, rather than letting them accumulate during the day. Wastes should never be left in a processing room overnight. This aspect is described further in Section 2.7.2, and summarized in Appendix I.

Layout of equipment and facilities

The different areas required for fruit and vegetable processing are shown in Figure 39 for a drying unit and in Figure 40 for other types of production. The layouts of these processing rooms show how raw materials move through a process and through the room without paths crossing. Different stages in a process should be physically separated wherever possible. This helps prevent contamination of finished products by incoming, often dirty, raw materials and clearly identifies areas of the room where special attention to hygiene is necessary. This is particularly important to prevent contamination arising from activities such as bottle washing in which inevitable breakages produce glass splinters that could contaminate a product. This separation also reduces the likelihood of accidents or of operators bumping into each other.

Perishable raw materials should be stored separately from non-perishable ingredients

and packaging materials. A separate office allows records to be filed and kept clean and provides a quieter working environment for book-keeping. Toilets should either be housed in a separate building or two doors should exist between them and a processing area. All workers should have access to hand-washing facilities with soap and clean towels. Laboratory facilities are generally not needed in fruit and vegetable processing, although a separate table for conducting quality assurance checks or check-weighing packages of finished product (Section 2.7.2) could be located in the office or in a separate area of the processing room.

英文文献译文

2.5.

3.建筑物的设计和建造

屋顶和天花板

墙壁

窗户和门

地板

照明和能源

水供应和公共卫生

仪器和设备的布局

总的说来，一个厂房应该有足够的空间来进行产品的加工制造，避免拥堵和原料，包装材料和成品混杂储存的情况发生。当然，投资需要看企业的大小和预期的收益性，一般企业的计划应该是适当的减少启动资产，被取出的贷款和折旧费用和维护费用。

屋顶和天花板

在热带的地方,悬垂的屋顶可以保持直接照射的日光避开墙壁和建筑物外层。这样做非常重要，可以使工作环境更加舒适，特别是进行加热处理的时候。纤维水泥砖瓦能够得到比薄铁片更加好的绝热和绝缘的效果。屋顶的高标准的排气口能够使得热气和蒸汽都散出并且使得新鲜空气可以流经加工车间。排气口一定要装备网子以阻止昆虫，老鼠类动物和鸟进入屋子。如果散热是一个严重问题,

企业家可以考虑安装适宜的电风扇或鼓风机,即使这样会明显地增加资金和操作费用。

在加工车间和储存车间是不要椽或顶梁的。它们会积累灰尘,散落下一些块状物从而引起产品的污染。同样地，昆虫能从椽或顶梁落下进入产品里。它们也为老鼠和鸟提供了通道,从而造成来自毛发，羽毛或排泄物的污染而引起的危险。嵌镶板的屋顶可以应用在任何一间加工车间或是储存车间，前提是需要认真的检查以确定镶嵌板上没有洞。仔细检查也应该包括阻止鸟，老鼠和飞的昆虫从加工车间屋顶结构的缝隙处进入或屋顶和墙壁的连接处进入。

墙壁

对于墙壁最低的要求是，所有的内墙应该用高质量的水泥石膏来粉刷和垒砌以阻止灰尘在加工车间形成。一个富有经验的泥水匠应该习惯于确保完成后的表面没有可以累积污垢和昆虫裂缝或者突出物。墙壁的较低的地方应该至少高于地板1.08公尺(四英尺),否则很有可能在清洗仪器或是产品洒溅的时候弄脏，而且特别应该注意的是这一个区域应该很容易清理。墙壁较高的地方应该喷涂上高质量的乳液涂料。墙壁较低部份应该涂上防水的光彩油漆,白色的比较好,因为它们能够被彻底的清洗,或者说更为理想地是应该铺上光滑的瓷砖。如果用瓷砖来铺加工车间成本太高,也可以只将瓷砖铺在一些需要的地方，比如水槽和机器附近。在一些国家完成后进行详细说明是一个合法的需求，而且应该有健康检疫部门或其他的相关权威部门一起进行检查。(参考第2.4.2节)

窗户和门

窗台应该被做成斜面的二个理由:阻止灰尘积累和阻止操作员离开的时候在那里留下衣服或其他的可以吸引昆虫的东西。窗户的好处就是可以让职员在白天的时候在比电灯的光线更好更廉价的自然的光线下工作。无论怎么说,在热带的气候条件下，这种自然倾斜的窗台可以让工人在打开窗户后使得新鲜空气的循环更为通畅。当然这也为飞虫提供了容易的通路,能很容易地弄污产品。因此窗口应该配备有防蚊网来防止蚊子等飞虫。

通常情况下门应该是关闭的，但是如果他们总是有规则地开门关门，动物和昆虫的一样会进入到加工车间。在这情况，当职员进出门的时候，将细的金属链子或是其他材料的带子垂直地栓在门楣上可以阻止昆虫和一些动物。另一种较常使用的方法是在门上安装上网子。门应该制作得非常精确且没有缝隙，而且所有的储藏室的门都应该是关着的，以阻止昆虫和老鼠破坏产品和其他的东西。

地板

加工车间和储藏室的地板的基本要求是要用高质量的水泥建造，而且要光滑平整没有裂缝。在一些发展中国家，可能会有买专用的地板油漆或是用乙烯基涂料，但是通常这些是非常贵的。通常,在家庭里使用红色的腊地板被发现的光泽不好, 而且会很容易地污染产品或包装。在随着时间的推移，水果产品产生的酸会和地板起反应而且将它侵蚀。当出现这种情况的时候,注意应该及时清理溢出物并且有规则地监控地板的情况。

地板和墙壁的连接部分容易聚集灰尘。在地板的建造时候，这个部分应该被设计成曲面。一般可能的做法是在这个地方用混凝土(或“弧形饰”)做成直角,但是需要确定新的缝隙不会藏匿污垢和昆虫。

对一个中央排水通道，地板上应该有大约1-8个斜坡。在一天的制生产结束

后,地板应该被彻底地清洗并且排干污水。良好的排水系统可以阻止地板上形成容易造成设备和产品污染的水洼。排水沟应该建造得恰倒好处远离钢铁栅栏以便于排水沟的清理。在工厂排水沟的出口有可能成为老鼠和昆虫潜入工厂的入口,除非在排水沟的出口上面安装适合的金属丝网。这里也应该容易地的拆装清洁。

照明和能源

通常情况下的房间照明设备应该是尽量减少使用的。充分使用的是免费且更好的白天的自然光线，尤其是进行复杂的操作的时候。在需要使用额外的照明工作的时候,日光灯管要比白炽灯廉价。然而，如果机器在移动中已经有了暴露的部分,这时候就应该使用白炽灯泡和非管形的灯。这是因为即使这个部份有了应该有的安全措施,看起来似乎可以长时间使用，但如果它的速度周期和输电干线电的荧光管相匹配——这就很明显的对操作员有危险。

所有的电力点应该被放置在离地板很高的可以确定在清洗地板和设备的时候不会有水进入的危险的地方。理论上说来，应该使用防水材料制作的插座。很重要的是使用每个电力点只能供应一个设施并且不要使用插座过载一个线路，这样会使线路过载并且有引起火灾的危险。如果电力点不足以满足加工的需要,应该安装附加的点,即使这样更贵。所有的插头都应该配备有使用在相应仪器上的保险丝，而且理论上输电干线应该配有一个防漏电开关。如果大型的设备需要三相电路或是电暖设备需要更大负载，就需要让一个有资格的电工对线路进行配线以平衡电力供应，这是非常重要的。

水供应和公共卫生

在所有的水果和蔬菜加工中水几乎是必需的,是产品的一个成份和清洁使用。由于要保证可以饮用的水的供给，所以在加工地点周围应该有可利用的水。在许多国家里，水供给的主要通道是不可靠的或者定期地被污染，因此企业家必须要做好安排以保证每天都能有高质量的水供给。隐蔽着的储藏箱可以被安装在两个高的地方,屋顶空间中或在建筑物外部柱子上。当主要的水供给通道是可以利用的时候, 他们可以被交替充满，而且这样的好处是当一个桶正在被使用的时候,另一个桶的水中的沉淀物可以过滤掉。如果沉淀需要几个小时,那么每个桶的能力应该是足够满足加工一天所使用的量。桶应该有一个倾斜的底座并且在底座上最低的位置有一个排水沟阀门。在使用过程中，当桶几乎空的时候,拿走水上面的管子，最低位置的那个阀门打开排放桶内聚集的沉淀物。

如果有必要的话，应该小心除去产品中的水中的痕量沉淀物。这特别地重要对于水作为一种成分混入产品，而且产品不用加热。

有四种方法来处理小剂量的水:过滤;加热;紫外线消毒和化学消毒，像是次氯酸盐(也叫做“氯溶液”或“漂白粉”)。其他的净化水的方法在小型的加工中非常的昂贵。

使用家庭的水过滤器过滤比较慢, 但是根据政府的开支规划,还是相对廉价的。在一些国家使用比较大的工业过滤器。用较低的费用加热水到沸腾并且保持10-15分钟是很简单的,但是燃料很贵而且通常都是需要长时间的，所以并不低廉。加热水不除掉沉淀是不行的，因此需要过滤沉淀以除掉沉淀物。

紫外线能够破坏水中的微生物，商业用水单位使用这一项原理应用小型的可以处理大量水的水处理器(图38)，从而降低成本。同样的，这个方法不能将水中的沉淀物去除。

最后确定，使用次氯酸盐的化学消毒方法是快速的,相对地廉价的和有效的消灭微生物的方法。清洁过的水应该大约包含万分之二的氯，而且在水被当作成分的话，应该大约包含百万分之零点五，以避免产品中有氯的味道。万分之二的1升氯溶液可以漂白250升的水，百万分之零点五的氯溶液2.5毫升可以漂白250升的水。虽然氯可以杀死大多数的微生物，但是它也有许多的缺点:它能使腐蚀铝制设备；能污染食物;漂白的时候要小心把手等物品和氯反应从而造成伤害；氯在水里集中可能会使得被测量的一种化学的颜料生产一个颜色。颜色的亮度是和在一个“比较器”的玻璃圆盘上的标准颜色进行对比。

良好的公共卫生是减少产品污染的危险和制止昆虫，老鼠和鸟的必要措施。所有的废物应该被放在箱柜之内并且地板上没有细毛。对于垃圾废物的处理应该有管理系统，当加工过程中一产生就被清理出加工车间，而并非在此期间使它们累积。废物不应该在车间里隔夜。更进一步描述这一个方面请参照第2.7.2节,而且在第一附录中有概述。

仪器和设备的布局

在图39和图40中分别显示了对水果和蔬菜干制和其他的类型加工的不同地方。布局图展示了原料是如何运到加工车间和如何经过没有岔道的房间的。一个加工过程的不同阶段应该分而论之。这可以避免产品制造后的污染会时常弄脏原料而且要清楚地意识到对房间的卫生管理特别的注意是必需。特别重要的是阻止动态的污染，比如瓶子清洗过程中不可避免的生产玻璃碎片等都可能会污染产品。这样也减少意外事件和操作员的可能遇到的伤害。

容易腐败的原料应该与不容易腐败的原料和包装材料分开储存。如同一个隔开的办公室要保持经常性清理而且提供比较安静的工作环境。厕所也应该在厂房中被分开或应该在它和加工车间之间用两扇门隔开。所有的工人应该在洗手设备处用肥皂和干净的手巾。通常在水果和蔬菜的加工过程中不需要实验室,保证完成的产品(第2.7.2节)的质量检查或检查包裹的重量在一个位于办公室的分开的桌子或加工车间一个分开的地方就可以了。