法律翻译第三次作业(期末考试题)
注意事项：
1. 务必在试卷纸上写清楚姓名、学号；
2. 无需抄写原文，将译文直接写在试卷纸上即可；
3. 试卷提交时间及地点：6月9日下午16:00-16：30，SD 104，可以代交。
I. 请将下面的协议范本翻译成中文。
AGREEMENT TO SELL BUSINESS
Agreement made this _________day of __________, 20__ by and between ________________ and _________________ (doing business as____________) of ______________ (hereinafter referred to as Seller) and _________ (hereinafter referred to as the "Buyer").
Whereas the Seller desires to sell and the Buyer desires to buy the business of a certain ________________ now being operated at ____________ and known as _________________ and all assets thereof as contained in Schedule "A" attached hereto, the parties hereto agree and covenant as follows:
1. The total purchase price for all fixtures, furnishings and equipment is $____dollars payable as follows:
(a) $__________ paid in cash; certified or bank checks, as a deposit upon execution of this Agreement, to be held by__________.
(b) $___________ additional to be paid in cash, certified or bank checks, at the time of passing papers.
(c) $___________ to be paid by a note of the Buyer to the Seller, bearing interest at the rate of __________ percent per annum with an option of the Buyer to prepay the entire outstanding obligation without penalty. Said note shall be secured by a chattel mortgage and financing statement covering the property to be sold hereunder, together with any and all other property acquired during the term of said note and placed in or within the premises known as ____________.
2. The property to be sold hereunder shall be conveyed by a standard form Bill of Sale, duly executed by the Seller.
3. The Seller promises and agrees to convey good, clear, and marketable title to all the property to be sold hereunder, the same to be free and clear of all liens and encumbrances. Full possession of said property will be delivered in the same condition that it is now, reasonable wear and tear expected.
4. Consummation of the sale, with payment by the Buyer of the balance of the down payment and the delivery by the Seller of a Bill of Sale, will take place on or before __________, 20__.
5. The Seller may use the purchase money, or any portion thereof, to clear any encumbrances on the property transferred and in the event that documents reflecting discharge of said encumbrances are not available at the time of sale, the money
needed to effectuate such discharges shall be held by the attorneys of the Buyer and Seller in escrow pending the discharges.
6. Until the delivery of the Bill of Sale, the Seller shall maintain insurance on said property in the amount that is presently insured.
7. Operating expenses of __________ including but not limited to rent, taxes, payroll and water shall be apportioned as of the date of the passing of papers and the net amount thereof shall be added to or deducted from, as the case may be, the proceeds due from the Buyer at the time of delivery o f the Bill of Sale.
8. If the Buyer fails to fulfill his obligations herein, all deposits made hereunder by the Buyer shall be retained by the Seller as liquidated damages
9. The Seller promises and agrees not to engage in the same type of business as the one being sold for_______ years from the time of passing, within a ________ radius of ____________.
10. A Broker's fee for professional services in the amount of _______ ($________) dollars is d ue from the Seller to_________, provided and on the conditions that papers pass.
11. The Seller agrees that this Agreement is contingent upon the following conditions:
(a) Buyer obtaining a Lease on the said premises or that the existing Lease be assigned in writing to the Buyer. (b) Buyer obtaining the approval from the proper authorities (Town and State) of the transfer of all necessary licenses to the Buyer. (c) The premises shall be in the same condition, reasonable wear and tear expected, on the date of passing as they are currently in.
12. All of the terms, representations and warranties shall survive the closing. This Agreement shall bind and inure to the benefit of the Seller and Buyer and their respective heirs, executors, administrators, successors and assigns.
13. If this Agreement shall contain any term or provision which shall be invalid or against public policy or if the application of same is invalid or against public policy, then, the remainder of this Agreement shall not be affected thereby and shall remain in full force and effect.
IN WITNESS WHEREOF, the parties hereto have caused this instrument to be executed in triplicate on the day and year first above written.
SELLER: _____________________________________________
BUYER: ______________________________________________
BROKER: _____________________________________________
法律英语典型句型的翻译
?法律英语典型句型的翻译 ?1. OTHERWISE ?2. SUBJECT TO ?3. WITHOUT PREJUDICE TO ?4. WHERE ?5. ANY PERSON WHO DOES... SHALL ... ?6. FOR THE PURPOSE(S) OF ... ?7. PROVIDED THAT ... ?8. NOTWITHSTANDING ... ?9. SA VE.../ EXCEPT (FOR)... ?10. IN RESPECT OF… 1.OTHERWISE ?Otherwise 在法律英语中的用法： ?跟unless引导的句子（让步状语从句）连用； ?置放在连词or之后使用； ?与than一起，通常用来否定句子的主语。 例1 OTHERWISE ?In this Ordinance, unless the context otherwise requires, "state" means a territory or group of territories having its own law of nationality. (Laws of Hong Kong, Cap.30, Wills Ordinance, Art. 2) ?在本条例中﹐除文意另有所指外, “国家”指拥有本身国籍法的领域或一组领域。 例2 OTHERWISE ? A notice under subjection (1) shall, unless it otherwise provides, apply to the income from any property specified therein as it applies to the property itself. ?根据第（1）款发出的通知书﹐除其中另有订定外﹐亦适用于通知书内指明的财产的收入﹐一如适用于该项财产本身。 例3 OTHERWISE Any person who by threats, persuasion or otherwise induces a witness or a party not to give evidence in any hearing before the Board commits an offence. ?任何人籍恐吓﹑怂恿或以其它手段诱使证人或一方当事人不在仲裁处聆讯中作证﹐即属犯罪。 例4 OTHERWISE ?If 2 or more persons are defendants to a claim, as partners or otherwise, a process may be served on any of them and an award may be obtained and execution issued against any person so served
法律英语翻译(2)
法律英语翻译技巧（二）法学语言与法学语言翻译 例1：The law holds that the individual is responsible for his acts. The law also indicates what is good and right, and what may and should be done. It also indicates what is evil and wrong, and should not and may not be done. The law further holds that what is evil and wrong is a crime and may not be done, and if done, renders the doer liable to punishment. The law also recognizes the principle that man has free will and that, with certain exceptions, he exercises free will in commission of any crime that he may commit. 译文1：法律认为公民应对自己的行为负责。法律还规定什么是美好的和正确的，规范了哪些事是允许做或应该做的。同样，法律规范了什么是邪恶的和错误的。法律还进一步明确规定哪些邪恶的错误的事是不能做的犯罪行为看，如果某人做了这样的事，那么该行为就要受到惩罚。同样，法律还承认这样一个原则，每个公民除犯罪自由外都具有自由意志，如果某人在各种违法活动中实施其自由意志，那么他就可能触犯法律。 译文2：法律规定人人应对自己的行为承担责任，分清善良和正义，规范了人们的行为准则；法律还认为，作孽枉法即是犯罪，法不可恕，
法律英语翻译
Legal English (revised version for the students) Ch.1 The Main Features of Legal English 一、法律英语的英译： David Mellinkoff（加州大学洛杉矶分校法学院教授）：《The Language of the Law》1963 1.legal English---Lawful English Legal parlance（说法、用语）/legal lingo（行话、隐语）/legal jargon（行话、黑话）/legalese( 法律八股文)/language of jurisprudence(法理语言) 2. the English Language of the Law or shortened as “the language of the law” 3. 法律英语与法学英语 二、法律英语的范围： 是否凡是涉及法律的英语（词汇、表达方法、句子结构……）都是法律英语？ 英美法学界所公认的法律英语主要是指普通法国家（common-law countries）的法律人所用的习惯语言（customary language），包括某些词汇、短语，或具有特色的一些表达方法(mode of expressions)。 三、法律英语的主要特点： I. precise or exact (准确) 正常情况下，起草法律文件时，用词造句务必十分精准（with great exactness），因为一旦笔者的思想、观点、企图落实成文字，即成为法庭判断是非的重要依据，因为按严格解释原则(principle of strict construction)或唯名论原则(principle of nominalism)，尽管实践中还存在推测意图原则(principle of presumed intent)，但其不占主导地位，书面文字仍然是法官解释法律文件的唯一依据。 实务中鉴于对法律文件中文字的理解不一，也是常有纠纷出现： e.g. The Charter required that directors “shall be elected on a vote of the stockholders representing not less than two-thirds of outstanding capital st ock of the corporation.” 甲方理解成：被选上董事的人需三分之二的股东投票赞成(a candidate to be elected needs the votes of two-thirds of the stockholders ) 乙方则认为：选董事时须有三分之二的股东出席(two-thirds of the stockholders must be present at the meeting at which the election is held) What’s the judge’s opinion? e.g. 一个阿肯色州的美国人临终前写了一个遗嘱，遗嘱写道： The remainder of the testator’s property should be “divided equally between all of our nephews and nieces on my wife’s side and my niece.” 问题出在对“between”一词的理解上。立遗嘱人妻子一边的外甥和外甥女加在一起共有22个。这句话是指立遗嘱人的遗产的一半归其妻子方的22个外甥和外甥女，另一半归其本人一方的外甥女？还是指将遗产在双方的外甥外甥女中平均分配呢？ 为达准确之目的，常使用下列招法： 1. 使用专门术语（下文有述） 2. 重复使用具有绝对含义的词汇，如all , none, perpetuity, never, unavoidable; 3. 使用具有绝对限制含义的短语：
翻译presentation
翻译： Some of the most successful people in the world are the ones who have had the most failures. J.K. Rowling's -- who wrote Harry Potter -- her first Harry Potter book was rejected 12 times before it was finally published. Michael Jordan was cut from his high school basketball team. He lost hundreds of games and missed thousands of shots during his career. But he once said, "I have failed over and over and over again in my life. And that's why I succeed." 世界上大部分的成功人士都曾经经历过失败。比如哈利波特的作者，J.K罗琳，她的第一本哈利波特在出版前就曾经被拒绝了十二次。乔丹曾经被他高中的篮球队开除。在他的职业生涯当中，他错过了无数场比赛以及投篮的机会。但是他曾经说过，在我的一生中我经历了无数次的失败，但是这才是为什么我能成功的原因。 no matter what you want to do with your life, I guarantee that you’ll need an education to do it. You want to be a doctor, or a teacher, or a police officer? You want to be a nurse or an architect, a lawyer or a member of our military? You’re going to need a good education for every single one of those careers. You cannot drop out of school and just drop into a good job. You’ve got to train for it and work for it and learn for it.
法律英语翻译练习与答案-0609
练习1：外国合营者如果有意以落后的技术和设备进行欺骗，造成损失的，应赔偿损失。If the foreign joint venturer causes any losses by deception through the intentional use of backward technology and equipment, it shall pay compensation for the losses. 修改提示：单复数考虑不周；用语不够简洁。 答案（修改要点）：causes any losses →causes any loss(es) 造成一项或多项损失时都应当赔偿，不能仅用复数形式。 pay compensation for the losses →pay compensation therefor (therefor=for that/them) 练习2：人民法院、人民检察院和公安机关办理刑事案件，应当分工负责，互相配合，互相制约，以保证准确有效地执行法律。 原译文：The people’s courts, people’s procuratorates and public s ecurity organs shall, in handling criminal cases, divide their functions, each taking responsibility for its own work, and they shall co-ordinate their efforts and check each other to ensure correct and effective enforcement of law. 修改提示：“分工负责”，应理解为：侧重点在“负责”，而非“分工”，即分工过程中各负其责；respective 比own 更为妥当、准确；原来的译文中，and they shall …比较啰嗦，更严重的问题是，使to ensure …割断了与divide their functions 的联系。 答案（修改要点）：in handling criminal cases, divide their functions, each taking responsibility for its own work, and they shall co-ordinate their efforts and check each other to ensure correct and effective enforcement of law.→… in handling criminal cases, take responsibility for their respective work while dividing functions, co-ordinate, and check each other, to ensure correct and effective enforcement of law. 练习3：商标注册人享有商标专用权，受法律保护。 原译文：Trademark registrants shall enjoy the right to exclusive use of their trademarks and shall be protected by law. 修改提示：商标专用权的译文“貌合神离”，立法原意是“商标专有权”；受法律保护的主语有些歧义，可加括号处理；原文shall滥用，因为并未刻意强调“必须，一定要”。 答案（修改为）：Trademark registrants have the exclusive trademark right, (and are) protected by law. 练习4：被告人的犯罪情节极其严重、社会影响极其恶劣、社会危害极其严重。 原译文：The extremely serious circumstances of the offense committed by the accused have brought abominable influence and severe hazard to the whole society. 修改提示：bring的用法有些生硬，动宾搭配不太适当。 答案（修改为）：have brought abominable influence and severe hazard to the whole society. → have exerted an abominable influence and posed a severe hazard to society. (exert, vt. 施加，产生，如exert pressure on, exert an influence on; abominable, adj. 可恶的，极坏的；pose v. 提出，形成，成为；使摆好姿势pose a problem; pose an obstacle/a threat to …) 练习5：买卖双方同意按下列条款由卖方出售，买方购进下列货物：货号; 品名及规格；数量；单价；总值(数量及总值均有_____%的增减, 由卖方决定)；生产国和制造厂家；包装；唛头；装运期限；装运口岸；目的口岸；保险；
第三次英语作业答案
精读二作业(3) 翻译题： I.Translate the following phrases into English: 1．面临诱惑be faced with the temptation 2. 对学生们过分严厉be hard on the students 3. 认为某事当然Take something for granted 4. 编智力测试题make up the intelligence tests 5. 表扬的温暖阳光The sunlight of praise 6. 靠吃野菜生活live on wild plants 7. 对老师的话不予理睬shrug off the teacher’s words 8. 转达一句赞美的话pass on a compliment II.Translate the following sentences into English: 1.据说，他们为新建一所山村小学开展筹款运动。 It is said that they launched a campaign to raise money for a mountain village primary school. 2. 如果你总是偷东西，肯定不会有好下场的。 If you keep stealing you will surely come to a bad end. 3不要想当然地认为大学毕业生就什么都能做。 Don’t take it for granted that college graduates can do everything in all aspects
当代法律英语翻译全
《当代法律英语》翻译 第四章公法 在所有的民法法系(civil law) 中所做的基础分辨便是公法(public law) 与私法(private law) 的区分。这种分类方法，对于普通法系(common law)而言 仅仅是潜在的或者默示性质的，但对于民法法系而言却是一种基础性的理解方式。一方面，正如我们所了解的一样，这种分类为民法法系国家提供了法庭组织系统的分辨模板。随着公法领域的争端于19世纪可受法院裁判(justiciable) 开始，独立的特别法庭(tribunal) 被建立起来并约束起公法行为。在今天，除了 刑事案件(criminal matters)这一主要例外，普通法院的管辖权(jurisdiction) 依旧限于私法领域的争端。除了这些司法管辖权的推论以外，公法和私法的分别还产生了一种存在于法律专业中的工作(labor)性质的差别。大量的法学教师倾向于证明他们是“公法专家”(publicist) 或者是“私法专家” (privatist)。课 程和论文(treatise) 倾向于公法或私法的其中一个领域，尽管事实上如今已经考虑到的案由(subject matter) 至少更倾向于许多公法方面。 即使在民法法系世界中公法与私法的分别被广泛承认，但这类法系的法学家(lawyer)对其法系划分的理论基础或者法理正当性仍未达成一致，各国对于这种划分方法的范围和效果也未达成一致。然而，一般来说，公法所关注的是国家机 关之间的关系或者国家与公民之间的关系。公法至少包括宪法(con stitutio nal law)，行政法(administrative law)和刑法(criminal law)。而私法是处理公民 或私人团体之间的关系，它至少包括民法(civil law)和商法(commercial law)。这种分类方法的其他几个领域是争论的主题所在。举个例子，民法程序是包含于 一些主体的私人组织的些许法系之中，并且被其他主体认为包含于公法领域。劳动法(labor law)，农业法(agricultural law) ，社会保障(social security) ， 同时也包括大量的现代规则领域，这些法律有些时候被解释为公法与私法领域的混合，有时又被说成自成一类(拉丁文：sui generis)。 即使公法与私法的划分已经扎根于罗马法系(Roman law)中，然而直到当代 与公法相关的领域仍有一种未开发的因素。这便是对于主权(sovereign)的保护， 法理学家(jurist) 总是谨慎的将其放在一边。正如我们注意到的对于民法法系传 统的历史介绍，几乎所有流传下来并被我们所掌握的罗马法律文献都是关注于私法领域，并且大陆法系(continental legal) 科学的传统也是关注于私法领域。 我们观察到的也是如此：在地方主义(localism)和法律多样化的中世纪，公法的研究余地是很小的。但是当集权化(ce ntralize) 的国家以及它的行政机构(administrative organ)开始出现于欧洲大陆的时候 (与逐步产生影响的法律训 练专业化吻合)，这对行政法的发展产生了有利的条件。在19世纪，由于行政法 开始繁荣昌盛，似乎一般的话用于私人个体或者组织的私法规则并不能简单的维持各主体之间的关系，这是因为国家已被政党所垄断。在法国它似乎也是这样的，普通法院(ordinary court) 不能被委托(entrust)从事牵扯到解决国家争端的任 务。正如我们已经了解到的一样：法国对权利分立学说(separation of powers led)的理解，导致其在行政机构中建立起了一系列独立的公法法院。 在德国就是另外一回事了，该国关心被行政权力压迫的普遍性胜过对于司法裁判的不信任。因此，为了避免当公民与行政机构发生争端时是由后者裁决(adjudicate)，德国建立了存在于司法机构中并独立于行政法院的裁判体系。
翻译第三次作业
翻译第三次作业：请大家翻译下文中黑体划线部分。祝大家学习愉快啊！ Most Americans have great vigor and enthusiasm. They prefer to discipline themselves rather than be disciplined by others. They pride themselves on their independence, their right to make up their own minds. They are prepared to take the initiative, even when there is a risk in doing so. They have courage and do not give in easily. They will take any sort of job anywhere rather than be unemployed. They do not care to be looked after by the government. The average American changes his or her job nine or ten times during his or her working life. Americans have a warmth and friendliness which is less superficial than many foreigners think. They are considered sentimental. When on ceremonial occasions they see a flag, or attend parades celebrating American's past, tears may come to their eyes. Reunions with family and friends tend to be emotional, too. They like to dress correctly, even if “correctly”means flamboyantly. They love to boast, though often with tongue in cheek. They can laugh at themselves and their country, and they can be very self-critical, while remaining always intensely patriotic. They have a wide knowledge of everyday things, and a keen interest in their particular city and states. Foreigners sometimes complain, however, that they have little interest in or knowledge of the outside world. The Americans have a passion for grandeur. Their skyscrapers, bridges and dams often have a splendor which matches in beauty and scale the country's natural wonders. Is the sole aim of most Americans to make money and possess luxuries which could be called excessive? The majority of Americans would certainly deny this, though most feel proud to amass wealth and possessions through hard work. In the USA, about 90% of the population is well enough off to expect a brighter future. The USA still has one of the highest standards of living in the world, although, at the present time, 10% are below what the Government considers to be the “poverty line.”While these underprivileged people receive help from the Government, they have no high hopes for their future. It is from this “underclass,”and those who take advantage of it, that most of the violence springs the violence which is one of the least pleasant aspects of American society. Americans are beginning to realize that this terrible problem of poverty is their problem and not just the Government’s. It has been said that the individual American is generous, but that the American nation is hard. The USA is reputed to be a classless society. There is certainly not much social snobbery or job snobbery. The manual worker is usually quite at ease in any company. This is partly explained by the fact that people of all income groups go together to the same schools. Americans are far more race-conscious than they are class-conscious.
法律英语翻译
世界贸易组织 在国际贸易法当中，有两大永恒的主题，这便是保护本国产业免受外国竞争者的伤害和鼓励国际贸易。近年来，由于对进口贸易的限制逐渐减少，国际贸易变得更加自由。但是，随着扰乱和阻止国际贸易的限制政策层出不穷，贸易问题和国家间货物流通问题仍然不断增加。 一般的限制政策包括关税壁垒（比如进出口关税）和一些非关税贸易壁垒，诸如进口配额、进口许可证程序、安全、环境或其他最低生产标准、进口检测标准、包括评估在内的负责习惯程序、政府采购政策，以及政府的补贴和反补贴措施。 在两国的友好条约，商业和航海条约（FCN）当中，各国都为了限制破坏世界贸易的行为作出了很多限制，这使得签字国之间能实现其领土上的进出口自由。这种双边的FCN条款经常与特惠贸易协议相关，在这种双边协议当中，这种联系往往是通过互相承认“最惠国”条款来实现的。在最惠国条款当中，缔约国双方同意不给予任何第三国高于本双边条约协定的贸易优惠，除非此优惠立即适用于本双边条约缔约国。 在1944年的布雷顿森林会议当中，参与国一致认为，减少贸易障碍，并以此促进贸易自由化已成为战后世界的必然要求而且他们构想出了一个国际贸易组织（ITO）来达到预期目标。1948年35个国家在哈瓦那集会，完成了ITO宪章的起草，他们希望ITO成为一把保护伞，他们可以在其之下定期的商讨减免关税的相关事宜。1947年在日内瓦，“关税与贸易总协定”（GATT）的出台标志着这种商讨的框架已经基本成形。在GATT的第一阶段，有二十三国家加入到其中。那些严厉的贸易规则只在主要成员无意改变之处才能得到适用。发展中国家反对其中很对严厉的贸易规则，他们想寻求一些特别待遇来满足发展目标，但在起草GATT 当中，发展中国家倒没有取得多少成功。 GATT1947和其随后的的多边谈判回合在减轻货物贸易关税上取得了很大成功。这一点也是GATT1947初衷,而且其机制很好的服务了GATT的目的。但是，它的效用仅限于货物贸易以及如何减轻其关税额度。它的设计没有涉及到服务贸易，知识产权贸易和贸易相关投资措施，随着关税的递减，影响贸易的消极因素却在上述GATT没有涉及的领域愈发突出。 即便在货物贸易中GATT也有其局限性，他包括了一个适用条款协议，其中允许了很多GA TT下会员义务的“祖父条款例外”，只要对该协议加以适用，会员国就将获得其应当履行的G ATT义务的免除。另外，GATT1947没有一个制度上的宪章，本身也没打算成为一个国际贸易组织。虽然其随后成立了组织机构，并取得了准组织的地位，但是它始终被认为缺少一种规范的组织结构。这种缺陷使得GATT无法解决很多递交上来的争端，争端解决程序也依赖于独立会员国的默许。 在GATT的主持下，缔约国进行了定期的多面贸易协商（MTN或回合），WTO便是GATT 乌拉圭1994年成功谈判的产物。在1986年，乌拉圭回合当中出现了很多协定，其中就有“关于成立世界贸易组织的协定”及其附录（包括关税和贸易总协定1994——GATT1994），还有其他一系列多边贸易协定（如内括协定）。 WTO协议附录包含了一些多边贸易协定。在货物贸易方面，有农业协定，纺织品协定，反倾销协定，补贴和反补贴措施协定，安全保障协定，技术贸易壁垒协定，卫生与动植物检疫措施协定，装运前检验措施协定，原产地规则协定，进口许可证程序协定；除此之外，它还制定了服务贸易，贸易相关的知识产权和贸易相关投资措施的多边规则框架。值得一提的是，
翻译作业3
The Meaning of the 21st Century At the start of the 21st century, humankind finds itself on a non-sustainable course-the course that, unless it is changed, could lead to grand scale catastrophes. At the same time, we are unlocking formidable new capabilities that lead to more exciting lives and glorious civilizations. This could be either humanity’s last century or the century that sets the world on a course toward a spectacular future. We live on a small, beautiful and totally isolate planet, but its population is becoming too large; enormous new consumer societies are growing, of which China is the largest; and technology becoming powerful enough to wreck the planet. We are travelling at breakneck speed into an age of the extremes --- extremes in wealth and poverty, extremes in technology and the experiments that scientists want to perform, extreme forces the globalism, weapons of mass destruction and terrorists acting in the name of religious. If we are to survive, we have to learn how to manage this situation. Formidable problems confront us, but this is a book about solutions --- many solutions. With these solutions
法律英语_何家弘编_第四版课文翻译(1-20课)
第一课美国法律制度介绍 第一部分特征与特点 美国既是一个非常新的国家也是一个非常老的国家。与许多别的国家相比它是一个新的国家。同时，它还因新人口成分和新州的加入而持续更新，在此意义上，它也是新国家。但是在其它的意义上它是老国家。它是最老的“新”国家——第一个由旧大陆殖民地脱胎而出的国家。它拥有最古老的成文宪法、最古老的持续的联邦体制以及最古老的民族自治实践。 美国的年轻（性）有一个很有意思的特点就是它的历史肇始于印刷机发明之后。因此它的整个历史都得以记录下来：确实可以很有把握地说，任何其它国家都没有像美国这样全面的历史记录，因为像在意大利、法国或者英国过去的传说中湮没的那样的事件在美国都成了有文字记载的历史之一部分。而且其记录不仅全面，还非常浩繁。不仅包括这个国家自1776年以来的殖民时期的记录，还有当前五十个州以及各州和联邦（nation）之间错综复杂的关系网络的历史记录。因此，据一个非常简单的例子，美国最高法院判例汇编有大约350卷，而一些州的判例汇编也几乎有同样多的卷数：想研究美国法律史的读者要面对的是超过5000巨卷的司法案例。 我们不能说一个文件或几个文件就能揭示出一国人民或其政府的特性。但如果横跨一百多年的千百万个文件敲出始终如一的音调，我们就有理由说这就是其主调。当千百万个文件都以同样的方式去解决同样的中心问题，我们就有理由从中得出可以被称为国民特定的确定结论。 第二部分普通法和衡平法 同英国一样，美国法律制度从方法论上来说主要是一种判例法制度。许多私法领域仍然主要是由判例法构成，广泛而不断增长的制定法一直受制于有约束力的（解释制定法的）判例法。因此，判例法方法的知识以及使用判例法的技巧对于理解美国法律和法律方法是极其重要的。 从历史的角度来看，普通法就是由英国皇家法院的巡回法官的判决所得出的普通的一般法——优于地方法。采纳或执行某项诉讼请求是以存在法院令状这种特殊形式的诉为前提的，而这就使最初的普通法表现为由类似于古罗马法的“诉”所构成的体系。如果存在令状（于1227年），诉讼请求就可以被采纳或执行；没有法院令状（为前提）的诉讼请求就没有追索权，因而该诉讼请求也不存在。“牛津条例”（1285年）禁止创设除了“个案令状”之外的新令状，这种“个案令状”使该制度变得较为灵活了，而且导致了后来合同和侵权法的发展。 对于诉的形式的严格限制及由此产生的对追索权的限制导致了衡平法和衡平判例法的发展。“衡平”的一般意义就是寻求“公平”，即公平且善良地裁决，它最初是由国王，后来由作为“国王良知守护人”的大法官颁行，以便在艰难的案件中提供救济。但是到了十四世纪，衡平法和衡平判例法发展成了一个独立的法律制度和与一般的普通法法院一争高下的司法系统（衡平法院）。其规则和格言变得非常固定而且在某种程度上不像在其它法律制度中一样灵活。衡平法的特点有：以特定履行（或实际履行）的方式提供救济（与普通法提供补偿性损害赔偿金的救济方式形成对照）；强制令（为或者不为某项具体行为的临时或者最终法令）；渗透了整个法律制度并且能在许多场合下揭示现代法律概念的起源的所谓的衡平法格言的发展。不过，一般都是只有在普通法救济不充分时，才会出现衡平法救济。比如，优于普通法损害赔偿金被认为是不充分的，这是因为考虑到不动产所具有的唯一性，这些赔偿金无法补偿不动产购买人（的损失），就可能判以特定履行购买不动产。 与普通法一样，衡平法通过司法接纳或通过明确的制定法条款，成了美国法律的一部分。目前，这两个法律制度在许多美国司法管辖区中得以融合（始于1848年的纽约），因而，在这些司法管辖区以及联邦的实践中只存在一种形式的民事诉讼。只有为数很少的州还保留着单独的衡平法院。尽管如此，提及这一历史演变仍然是很重要的，因为它一方面解释了许多当代法律概念（如财产法中的所有权分割）的起源和意义，另一方面，它仍然与做出某些裁决有一定的关联，比如是否有权获得陪审团的审理（这仅发生与普通法的讼案中，在其它案件中仅由法官审理）。另外，这种区别将决定“通常的”普通法赔偿金救济是否适用或者是否可以使用“特别的”衡平法特定履行救济。 “判例法”代表了整个的法官造法体系，而且在现代还包括了普通法和衡平法先例。在不准确的和令人迷惑的用法中，“普通法”和“判例法”这两个术语通常被当作同义词来使用，在这里，“普通法”这个术语一般代表着法官制定的法，以示区别制定法。“判例法”总是代表着法官制定的法律，而“普通法”则相对来说，根据想表达的意思不同，要么代表普通法主题事项（即具体问题）上法官制定的法律，要么在更广范围内指所有法官制定的法律。 第二课法律职业 第一部分律师协会 法律职业的规范主要是各州的事务，每一各州对于执业许可都有其自己的要求。大多数州都要求三年的学业和法律学位。各州自行管理本州申请律师资格的书面考试。不过，几乎所有的州都利用“多州律师资格考试”，这是一种长达一天的多项选择测试，在这项考试之外，各州还会再增加一次主要是关于其本州法律的时长一天的论文考试。大多数申请人都可以通过第一次考试，而且许多失败者都会在下一次考试中通过。每年有四万多人通过这些考试，在经过人品调查之后，他们便可获准在相应的州执业许可。在获得许可之前或之后都不要求实习。到各联邦法院执业的许可规则互不相同，但一般来讲，那些获准在州最高法院执业的律师在办理一些无关紧要的手续之后即可获准在联邦法院执业。 律师执业范围通常仅限于一个地区，因为尽管律师可以代表当事人到其它地区办理事务，但是一个人只能在其获得许可的州内执业。人们习惯雇用本州的律师办理其它洲的事务。但是，只要一个人已经在其获得职业资格的州执业达一定时间（通常是五年），那么他移居到另外一个州时通常无需考试便可获得执业许可。 律师不仅可以从事法律事务，还允许从事任何其他公民能从事的事务。执业律师在企业客户的董事会中工作、从事商业或者积极参与公共事务都是很平常的事情。律师即使在成为法官、政府或者私人企业集团的雇员或者法律教师之后仍然是律师协会的会员，他们可以辞掉这些其它事务，回头开始私人执业。为了在工商业中担任重要的执行职务而放弃执业的律师人数相对较少。这一职业中的流动性和公共责任感的一个例证是哈兰·菲斯克的职业生涯，他曾多次成为一名纽约州律师、一名教授和哥伦比亚法学院院长、美国总检察长和美国最高法院首席大法官。 律师并不按照职责进行正式的划分。在英国对诉讼律师和非诉律师的区分并没有移植到美国，既不存在拥有特别或者专有出庭权的职业群体，也没有专门制作法律文书的职业群体。美国律师的业务范围包括出庭辩护、咨询和起草文书。另外，在被广泛地成为“法律执业”的范围之内，律师的业务范围是专有性的，不对其他人开放。在出庭辩护领域，这种规则非常清楚：任何个人都可以代表其自己出庭，但除了一些基层法院之外，只有律师可以代表他人出庭。不过，律师不得代表他人参与一些行政机关设立的具有司法性质的正式程序当中。在咨询和起草法律文书领域的界限并不是太清晰，比如在在联邦所得税领域的法律执业和会计执业之间就是如此。但是，纽约最高法院的一个裁决表明了大多数美国法院的严格标准，该裁决认为，一个获准在外国执业单位获准在纽约执业的律师不得在纽约对客户提供法律咨询，即使该意见仅限于该律师获准执业的该外国的法律。但是，一个外国律师可能获准在一个州执业，而且无需获得许可便可以以一个外国法律顾问的身份向美国律师提供法律咨询。 1
Presentation开场白及结束语
Presentation开场白及结束语 1. 张刚 开场白： -I am delighted to stand here and have this opportunity to share something with you. Today I will focus on... -It's my pleasant duty to report my research. Today I'd like to say something about... -I'd like to thank you for giving me the chance to stand here. Well, the topic I'm going to deal with is... 结束语： -That's all. Thanks for your attention. -I am afraid that the clock is against us, so we had better stop here. 2. 王一越 开场白: -Mr. Chairman, teachers and classmates, my name is Wang Yiyue. I come from the school of management. The title of my presentation is… -Good morning, everyone, my name is Wang Yiyue. I come from the school of management. I am so glad to have the opportunity to give to a speech to you on such an occasion. My speech is about… -Good morning, everyone! My name is Wang Yiyue. Thank you for giving me this opportunity to stand here. My subject is … 结束语： -That’s all. Thank you for listening. -That’s all for my talk. If there are any questions, I would like to give further explanations. 3. 李慧颖 开场白： -Good morning, everyone. I am B from C. I appreciate the opportunity to be here to attend this mini-symposium [session]. The topic of my paper is (about) D. My presentation will be divided into the following three parts. -Mr. Chairman, distinguished colleagues, Ladies and Gentlemen, Thank you, Mr. Chairman, for your gracious introduction. I am honored to have the chance to address you on this special occasion. I would like to divide my talk into three parts: 1) background of …; 2) recent results in my group; 3) conclusions. -Prof. A, Ladies and Gentlemen, Thank you very much, Professor A, for your kind introduction. I am delighted to be here (with you this morning). I am going to give this talk in four parts. First…. Second…. Third…. Finally…. 结束语： -Once again I would like to thank you for the opportunity of talking to you on the subject. I hope you will give me your comments and suggestions. That will help me improve my work. -Thank you for your attention. If there are any points that I didn’t make clearly, please point them out and I would like to give further explanations.