语言学期末总结

第一章

1.语言的基本特征 Design features of language (p4-7)

Arbitrariness, Duality, Creativity and Displacement

2.Arbitrariness 的三层含义 What’s the three different levels of Arbitrariness

①the relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning is arbitrary

②language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level, in other words, syntax is

less arbitrary

than words

③conventionality is the other side of the coin of arbitrariness.

3.、

4.Duality 和Displacement的定义 (p5)

By DUALITY is meant the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organizations.

5.语言的功能 Functions of language（p9）

Informative, function, interpersonal function, performative function, emotive function, phatic communion, recreational function, metalingual function. 6. Performative的定义（p11）

The performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, the kind of language employed in performative verbal acts is usually quite formal and even ritualized. The performative function can extend to the control of reality as on some magical or religious occasions.

7. Main branches of linguistics (p15)

Phonetics, Phonology, Morphology, Syntax, Semantics, Pragmatics.

8.—

9. Psycholinguistics (p18)

PSYCHOLINGUISTICS investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition for example.

In the psycholinguistic study of grammar, the psycholinguistic constraints on the form of grammar are examined. It also studies language development in the child, such as the theories of language acquisition; biological foundations of language; and a profound aspect—the relationship between language and cognition.

10. Important Distinctions in Linguistics 中各分点的定义 (p19)

11. Langue& Parole (p21)

12. Saussure 现代语言学的开山鼻祖

13. Chomsky 美国语言学家，转换-生成语法的创始人

第二章

14.<

15.语音学研究的三个领域 the three main areas of the study of sounds( Phonetics)

（p24）

①Articulatory Phonetics is the study of the production of speech sounds.

②Acoustic Phonetics is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds.

③Perceptual or Auditory Phonetics is concerned with the percecption of speech

sounds.

16.元音与辅音的区别 The distinction between consonants and vowels （p29）

Consonants are produced” by a closure in the vocal tract,, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction”.

By contrast, a vowel is produced without such”stricture”so that”air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or nose”. The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream.

17.发音方式与发音位置 The manner and the place of articulation （p30\31 已

划出）

The manner of articulation: there are 8t manners of articulation. Stop( or Plosive),

}

Nasal, Fricative, Approximant, Lateral, Trill, Tap and Flap,

Affricate.

The place of articulation: there are 11 places of articulation. Bilabial, Labiodental, Dental,

Alveolar, Postalveolar, Retroflex, Palatal, Velar, Uvular,

Pharyngeal, Glottal

18.记忆所有元音、基础元音（CARDINAL VOWELS）（p33\36 坐标法）

19.记忆辅音（辅音表）（p35 Table ）

20.了解RP, GA （p36 Table ……）

21.【

22.元音的四个指标 The four basic requirements of the description of English

vowels （p37 已划出）

①the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low).

②the position of the highest part of the tongue (front, central, back).

③the length or tenseness of the vowel (tense vs. lax or long vs. short).

④lip-rounding (rounded vs. unrounded).

23.辅音的指标

24. Coarticulation 的两个分类（p38 已划出）

If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lanmb, it is known as Anticipatory Coarticulation. If the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is Perseverative Coarticulation, as is the case of map.

25.]

26.超音段的四个主要特征 The four principal suprasegmentals（p49 已划出）

Syllable Structure, Stress, Intonation, Tone.

27.一个音节由哪两个部分构成（p50 已划出）

We can divide a syllable into two parts, the Rhyme ( or Rime) and the Onset.

28.英语前面最多允许多少个辅音在结尾最多允许…… (p50 已划出)

第三章

29.$

30.词的三层含义 Three senses of“ word”（p55 的三个小标题）

①A physical definable unit

②Word both as a general term and as a specific term

③A grammatical unit

31. How to ideatify word （p57 三个标准，三个小标准）

Stability, Relative Uninterruptibility, A minimum free form

32.词的分类 Classification of words (p58)

①Variable and invariable words

@

②Grammatical words and lexical words

③Closed-class words and open-class words

④Word class

33. Variable/ invariable words 各自的概念（p58）

Variable words: variable words may have inflective changes. That is, the same word may

have different grammatical forms but part of the word remains relatively

constant.

Invariable words: invariable words refer to those words such as since, when, seldom,

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through, hello. They do not have inflective endings.

34. Grammatical words 和 lexical words 各自的概念 (p58)

Grammatical words: words which mainly work for constructing group, phrase, clause,

clause complex, or even text are grammatical words, such as,

conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns.

Lexical words: words which mainly work for referring to substance, action and quality, such

as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, are lexical words. Lexical words carry the main content of a language while grammatical ones serve to link

:

together different content parts, so lexical words are also known as CONTENT WORDS and

grammatical ones as FUNCTION WORDS.

35. Morpheme 的概念 (p61)

Morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of the relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.

36.最小的发音单位 phoneme（了解）

37. Types of Morphemes (p62)

Morphemes can be sub-classified into different types, depending on what criteria you attempt to follow.

①Free morpheme and bound morpheme: if the word may occur alone

）

②Root, affix and stem: poly-morphemic words other than compounds may be divided

into

roots and affixes

③Inflectional affix and derivational affix: concerned with affixes only

38. Root, affix, stem各自的概念 (p62\63)

Root: root is the base form of a word that cannot ba further be analyzed without destroying its meaning. That is to say, it is that part of the word that is left when all

the affixes are removed.

Affix: affix is a collective term for the type of morpheme that can be used only when added

\

to another morpheme (the root or stem), so it is naturally bound.

Stem: stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix

can be added. It may be the same as a root, whereas the latter indicates that a stem

may contain a root and one, or more than one, derivational affix.

39.理解前、中、后缀

40.区别inflectional affix 和derivational affix (p63\64 三点)

These two types of affix have three differences:

First, inflectional affixed are generally less productive that dericational affixes: they are

）

often only add a minute or delicate grammatical function to the stem.

Therefore,

they serve to produce different forms of a single lexeme. However, derivational

affixes are very productive in making new words.

Second, inflectional affixes do not change the word class of the word they

attach to,

whereas derivational affixes might or might not. Derivational affixes often change

the lexical meaning.

41.弄清什么是endocentric compound (p66)

42.*

43. Sememe, morpheme, phoneme各自的定义（p68）

Sememe: SEMEME is the smallest component of meaning.

Morpheme: MORPHEME is the smallest unit of language in terms of the relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further

smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether if

is lexical or grammatical.

Phoneme: PHONEME is the smallest meaningful unit of sound and morpheme is the smallest unit in grammar.

44.%

45.七种造词方式 Lexical Change Proper（p73 可能有单词与其构成法的连线，

搞清相关概念）

Invention, Blending, Abbreviation, Acronym, Back- formation, Analogical creation,

Borrowing.

第四章

46.句法的关系 Sentactic relations (p84 三种)

Positional relation: POSITIONAL RELATION, or WORD ORDER, refers to the sequential

arrangement of words in a language.

-

Relation of substitutability: RELATION OF SUBSTITUTABILITY refers to classes or sets of

words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the

same structure.

Relation of Co- occurrence: By the relation of CO- OCCURRENCE one means that words of

different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word

of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a

sentence.

47.句法分析中word level 的几个符号（p88 学会运用，记住表中的句子即可）

·

Word- level Phrasal

N = noun NP = noun phrase

A = adjective AP = adjective phrase

V = verb VP = verb phrase

P = preposition PP = preposition phrase Det = determiner S = sentence or clause Adv = adverb

Conj = conjunction

[

S

'

Det N V NP

Det N

The boy ate the apple

The boy ate the apple

，

48. Coordination 和Subordination的概念（p90）

Coordination: COORDINATION is a common syntactic pattern in English and other languages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same

type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but and or. This

phenomenon isknown as coordination.

Subordination: SUBORDINATION refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so

that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the

;

other, and usually a constituent of the other. Thus the subordinate

constituents are words which modify the Head, as shown in the underlined

parts of the constructions( page 91). Consequently, they can be called

modifiers.

49. Number (p96)

NUMBER is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes displaying such contrasts as singular, dual, plural, etc. in English, number is mainly observed in nouns, and there are only two forms: singular and plural, such as dog: dogs. Number is also reflected in the inflections of pronouns and verbs, such as He laughs: They laugh, this man: these men. In other languages, for example, French, the manifestation of number can also be found in adjectives and articles.

50.中英的Gender区别 (p97 你\你他\她)

51. Case的中英对比Agreement的中英对比（p97\98）

52.&

53.七大句子结构类型 seven sentence types according to grammatical functions of

the

constituents involved in a sentence（p101）

(a)Type SVC Mary is kind. (a nurse)

(b)Type SVA Mary is here. (in the house)

(c)Type SV The child is laughing.

(d)Type SVO Somebody caught the ball.

(e)Type SVOC We have proved him wrong. (a

fool)

(f)Type SVOA I put the plate on the table.

(g)'

(h)Type SVOO She gives me expensive presents.

54.从句的类型（p102）

The three basic types of subordinate clause are complement, adjunct (or adverbial) and relative clauses.

55. Cohesion的六种手段 Six cohesive devices（p103）

Conjunction, ellipsis, lexical collocation, lexical repetition, reference, substitution

第五章

57.用自己的话解释Referential Theory (p107)

58.(

59. Sense Relations (p109)

Synonymy: synonymy is the technical name for the sameness relation.

Antonymy: antonymy is the name for oppositeness relation.

Hyponymy: the term HYPONYMY is of recent creation, which has not found its way to some

small dictionaries yet. But the notion of meaning inclusiveness is not new. In

other words, hyponymy is amatter of class membership. The upper term in this

sense relation is called SUPERORDINATE, and the lower terms, the members,

HYPONYMYS.

60.,

61.重点是antonymy (p110)

There are three main sub- types of antonymy:

Gradable antonymy: this is the commonest type of antonymy. They are mainly adjectives.

And they have three characteristics. First, they are GRADABLE.

That is,

the members of a pair differ in terms of degree. The denial of one is not

necessarily the assertion of the other. They may have comparative and

superlative degrees. They may be expressed by separare words rather

than by adding modifiers. Second, antonymys of this kind are graded

&

against different norms. Third, one member of a pair, usually the term

for the higher degree, serves as the cover term.

Complementary antonymy: in contrast to the first type, the members of a pair in this type

are complementary to each other. That is, they divide up the whole of a

semantic field completely. Not only the assertion of one means

the

denial of the other, the denial of one also means the assertion of the

other.

To some extent, the difference between the gradable and the complementary can be compared to the traditional logical distinction between the contrary and the contradictory. Firstly, in logic, a proposition is the contrary of another if both cannot be true, though they may both be false; and a preposition is the contradictory of another if it is impossible for both to be true. In a diagram form this difference may be represented as follows:

Gradable/ contrary Complementary/ contradictory Secondly, the norm in this type is absolute. Thirdly, there is no cover term for the two members of a pair.

Converse antonymy: this is a special type of antonymy in that the members of a pair do not

constitute a positive- negative opposition. They show the reversal of a

relationship between two entities. It is in this sense that they are also

known as RELATIONAL OPPOSITES.

62.了解hyponymy (p113)

第八章

52. Two types of sentences: Performatives and Constatives (p 186)

Performatives: Sentences do not describe things. They cannot be said to be true or false.

The uttering of these sentences is, or is a part of , the doing of an action. So

they are called PERFORMATIVES. And verbs like name are called

performative verbs.

Constatives: In contrast, I pour some liquid into the tube said by a chemistry teacher in a

demonstration of an experiment is not a performative. It is a description of

what the speaker is doing at the time of speaking. The speaker cannot pour

any liquid into a tube by simply uttering these words. He must

accompany his

words with the actual pouring. Otherwise one can accuse him of making a

false statement. Sentences of this type are known as CONSTATIVES.

63. Locutionary and Illocutionary (p188