跨文化交际unit4解析
Unit 4 词汇与意义
?教学内容：
?（1）词汇的概念意义、内涵意义、社会意义、情感意义和搭配意义。
?（2）中英词汇对比
?基本要求：
?了解词汇在语言的跨文化交际中的地位，掌握词汇的几种意义，中英语言在词汇方面存在的差别。重点是词汇的内涵意义及中英词汇的差别。
Importance
?If we want to study the difference between two languages, we have to begin with the study of the words in the two languages. Because the close relationship between language and culture is most readily seen in words.
Section 1 Types of meanings
?1. Conceptual meaning概念意义
?the basic meaning presented by a word. It refers to logical, cognitive(认知的), referential (指示的), or denotative（外延的）content.
?also known as surface meaning or denotative meaning外延意义, dictionary meaning or literal meaning字面意义of a word.
Features of Conceptual meaning概念意义
?1. It is the core of the meaning of a word. It is the basic meaning represented by meaningful linguistic units. It’s recorded in the dictionary.
?E.g. woman-an adult female human being.
?Dog-a four-legged animal which can make the sound of barking
?2. It can be divided into some semantic components(语义成
?分).
?Woman: +animate(有生命) +human(人) - male (男性) -adult(成年)I
?boy：
?3. It is relatively constant and stable, because it is the meaning agreed upon by all the members of the same speech community.But it may also vary.
?Manuscript =“手稿” now also including文稿printed from typewriter or computer Note: Many different words can have the same conceptual meaning
?walk
?to move forward by placing one foot in front of the other. The newlyweds新婚夫妇strolled down漫步the streets of Paris.
?The wealthy businessman swaggered大摇大摆地into the restaurant and demanded a table.
The overweight man lumbered笨重地行动along, breathing heavily and occasionally tripping.
?These synonyms, although with different connotative meanings内涵意义, have the same conceptual meaning.
The English Words unique in English culture
?A. words related with geography
?e.g. New England, Canberra, Northern Ireland, Sydney, London, Edinburgh, Greenwich, Quebec, Ottawa,
?The Thames River, St. Lawrence, British Isles, The Rocky Mountains（落基山脉）, The Mississippi River, The Niagara Falls,
?koala, kangaroo, tornado(龙卷风)
?The Great Barrier Reef, Silicon Valley, Yellowstone Park,
?Summary：All these have their own geographical features: places, plants and animals uniquely found in USA, Great Britain and Australia; They all represent meaning unique in their own cultures；Their Chinese equivalents are only used by the Chinese people as mere names, which have lost their distinctive geographical and cultural features.
The English Words unique in English culture
?A. words related with geography
?e.g.
?U.S.A: New England, The Rocky Mountains,The Mississippi River, The Niagara Falls,Yellowstone Park, Silicon Valley
?Britain: British Isles, Northern Ireland, London, Edinburgh, Greenwich, The Thames River, Rose
?Canada: Ottawa, Quebec, St. Lawrence,
?Australia: Canberra, Sydney, The Great Barrier Reef, koala, kangaroo
?B. words and history
?the May Flower
?(the ship in which a group of
?British Puritans who were also
?known as pilgrim fathers sailed to
?America in 1620.
?The revolutionary war
?( the struggle of the 13 colonies in North America for independence from the British rule between 1775-1783)
?Scalp(头皮)
?(to tear the skin on the top and back of head and the hair attached from an enemy by an North American Indian as a trophy战利品)
?
?Knight
?(a man given the rank of knighthood by the British Monarch in recognition of merits in public service)
?Hippy/Hippie
?(a young man and young woman who rejects authority, existing institutions and conventional attitudes towards morality, style of dress, etc.)
?C. word and politics
?USA: President, Secretary, Congress, Senate, the House of Representatives, The Democratic Party, The Republican Party, the Supreme Court
?Great Britain: Parliament议会:the supreme legislative body of the United Kingdom. It comprises the sovereign, the House of Lords and the House of Commons.议会两院尤指英国由上议院和下议院构成的国家立法机关; Prime Minister, The Conservative Party, The Labour Party, Supreme Court of Judicature司法
?Governor行政长官
?the official title of the representative of the British monarch in a British colony.
?Governor general总督
?the personal representative of the British crown in the independent nations of the commonwealth.
?e.g. The Canadian Governor General
?Constitutional monarchy君主立宪制
?a monarchy in which the powers of the rulers are restricted to those granted under the constitution and laws of the nation
D. words and religion
?Bible
?a collection of religious books comprising the Old Testament and New Testament
?reformation:宗教改革
?a 16th century religious movement against the abuses in the Roman Catholic Church, ending in the formation of Protestant Churches.
?Christmas box耶诞礼物或礼金
?money given at Christmas time to the dustmen and others who provide a service throughout the year.
?Boxing day节礼日
?the first week day after Christmas, a legal holiday in England
?Easter
?the chief Christian feast, which celebrates the Resurrection of Christ, on the first Sunday after the full moon that coincides with or comes after the spring equinox.
E. words and Holidays
Christmas cake/pudding/card/tree/carol/stocking
Father Christmas), Santa Claus(A)
?F. words and currency
?Pound, penny; the American dollar, cent, quarter, nickel
?G. Words and law
?Court, judge, jury, lawyer, attorney (A)
?H. Words and way of life
?Snack Bar, roast beef, hamburger, sandwich, barbecue, cocktail, champagne; pajamas, suite, dress; subway, Greyhound bus; drive-ins, diner,
?I. words and sports
?Football, soccer, rugby, hockey, cricket
?J. words and sex
?Striptease, sex store, sexual interference, prostitute, whorehouse
?K. words and personality
?GB: reserve, practical, insularism偏执
?USA：individualism, rapid pace of life, direct, promptness, informality, originality, materialism English works partly corresponding with Chinese words in conceptual meaning
?1. Intellectual--知识分子
?2. social sciences--社会科学
?3. drugstore--药店
?[美]杂货店(出售药物、糖果、饮料,化妆品，杂志及其他杂物的店铺)
?4. Morning=午夜+凌晨+黎明+早晨+上午
?5. Young(18-40), middle-aged(40-60), old (over 60)-------老中青
?Discussion: discuss the conceptual differences between the words in each pair
?yard--院子
?peasant--农民
?idealist-唯心主义者
?materialist--唯物主义者
"family" and jiating (家庭)
?An American (A) attended her Chinese friend's (B) wedding. Two years later, the two met again.
?A: Have you started a family'!
?B: Oh, yes. You attended my wedding, remember?
?A: I mean if you've had children.
?Here we see that ' family' means more than jiating (家庭) ，though they seem to be equivalents.
2. Connotative meaning内涵意义
?the implication（含义，暗示）of words, apart from its primary meaning.
It is the communicative value that an expression has in addition to the purely conceptual meaning. It varies from culture to culture and from individual to individual
?E.g. Woman
?Physical: biped(双足的), having a womb(子宫)
?Personality: gentle, compassionate, sensitive, hard-working, frail脆弱的, emotional, prone to tears, irrational, inconstant变化无常的,subject to maternal instinct, behavior: capable of speech, experienced in cookery, skirt or dress wearing,
?Dog
?loyal to owner, fierce凶猛的, violent
Features of Connotative meaning内涵意义
?1. Despite cultural background difference, some corresponding words in two languages may convey the same connotative meaning. e.g tiger, 老虎--cruelty
?E.g. Woman
?2. words with the same conceptual meaning yet different connotative meaning
?书, book
?老，old
?同志，comrade
?宣传，propaganda
?狗，dog
Connotative meanings vary according to different people, times, ages, societies etc.
?E.g. Home: warm, loving, comfortable, safe
?like a prison, cold, boring
?终身大事
?工作？事业？婚姻? 生死？
?Connotative meaning may change with the times going
?E.g. traditional: positive in the past
?“old, conservative” at present
?3. Social meaning社会意义
?Social meaning is what a piece of language conveys about the social circumstances of its use, such as the language users( who are using the language), settings (where is language used), topics (what are language users are talking or writing).
?E.g
?home (general) , residence (formal), domicile（law）, abode (literature),
?horse, steed（战马）, nag（老马）,
gee-gee（child）
?throw(general) , cast (literature and religious), chuck(slang)
?salt, sodium chloride
?disobedient, recalcitrant反抗的
?A good selection of words is important.
Exercise！
?Words which stand for what people do in order to make a living: job, vocation, profession, occupation, career, trade, work
?Profession (an occupation requiring special education, especially in the liberal arts or sciences)所指的职业是需要在文科或理科方面有一定的教育程度，具备一定理论水平的人才的职业。通常指脑力劳动。例如：the teaching profession(教书的职业)，the profession of journalism(新闻业)。
?以前profession专指三种职业：法律、医药、神学，称作the learned professions(学者的职业)。
?而随着技术的发展和职业的细化(occupational specialization)，渐渐越来越多的职业可以划归到“profession”中，如：engineers(工程师)，educationalists(教育家)，accountants(会计)。现在profession 覆盖的范围更大了。
?Vocation (the particular occupation for which you are trained)是指经过训练后从事的职业，需要一定职业技能。vocational education(职业教育)，vocational school(职业学校)。
?
?Occupation (the principal activity in your life that you do to earn money)指生活中为了赚钱而从事的主要活动。我们可以说By occupation she is a housewife.(她的职业就是做家务。)而occupational disease则是职业病。
?Trade (the skilled practice of a practical occupation)更侧重技巧、手艺而非高深的学问、理论等。如：carpenter(木匠)，barber(理发师)等。我们说“三十六行”这里的“行”就是trade。
?
?Career (long-term or lifelong job)指长期的，甚至终身从事的职业。a career soldier(职业军人)，
a career politician(职业政客)。
?
?work它是泛指一切长期从事的职业，不管专业、技巧，不管是否需要学问等等。“What's your work?”(你做什么工作?)是最常见的问别人工作的一句话。
?
?Job (a specific piece of work required to be done as a duty or for a specific fee)常指一件具体工作。You have done a good job．(你做的很好。)暑期工就可以是a summer job。His job is to sell newspapers.(他的活就是卖报纸。)
Social Meanings of Some English Words
?Table 1，2 Pairs of synonyms in English
?Table 3 Triples of synonyms in English
4. Affective (emotional) meaning情感意义
?Communicated when feelings or attitudes are expressed either directly or indirectly in language.
?Affective meaning can be expressed by conceptual meaning, connotative meaning and interjection(感叹词).
?E.g.(1) I am firm.
?You are obstinate.（固执己见，执迷不悟）
?He is a pig-headed fool.（愚蠢的固执）
?(2) stingy（吝啬的，小气的）vs frugal（节俭的，朴素的）
?(3) skinny, well-built, slender, thin,
?fat，plump
?(4) neutral: landlord, capitalist, boss, lover
?negative: 地主，资本家，工头，情人
?Examples
?周总理是一位杰出的政治家。
?Premier Zhou is an outstanding statesman.
The politician is concerned with successful elections, whereas the statesman is interested in the future of his people.
5. Reflected meaning反映意义
?It is communicated when one sense of a word forms part of our response to another sense of the word. 指听话人在听到一个词时所联想到的这个词的其他词义。
?E.g.(1) Comforter，Holy Ghost==上帝
?(2) Venus（金星）=the morning star, the evening star(定更星)
?(3) greenhouse, 温室
?(4) black tea，红茶
?(5) stop watch, desk watch; 挂钟，座钟
?(6) contact lenses; 隐形眼镜---cause and result
6. Collocative meaning搭配意义
?It is composed of associations a word gets from those words that are often used together with it. 指词汇在同一语境中共现。由一个词从经常与它连用的词语引起的联想构成。
?E.g.(1) pretty--handsome
?Pretty: girl, boy, woman, flower, garden, color, village…
?Handsome: boy, m an, car, overcoat, airliner, typewriter…
?
“副”
?Vice副，次，代理: vice-chairman, vice-president，Associate副，次: associate professor, associate director, associate editor，借自拉丁语
?Assistant: assistant manager, assistant secretary
?Deputy:deputy director, deputy chief-of-staff(参谋长）,deputy mayor, deputy head, deputy command-in-chief 在上级不在的时候代行职责，源于法语
?Lieutenant: lieutenant governor, lieutenant general
?Under: undersecretary (of state, US)，源于英语
?Connotative meanings, social meanings and affective meanings, reflected meanings and collocative meanings can be grouped together as associative meanings（联想意义）.
Section 2 Differences between
Chinese words and English Words
?1. Terms in one language that have equivalents (or near equivalents) in the other language. Comparatively there are fewer such words.
?Fox, for example, is one of them. In both languages its denotation is an animal, and its connotation cunning.
?Many terms for natural substances are of this kind: water, rain, snow, etc.
2. Terms in one language that don’t ha ve any counterparts in the other language.在一种语言里有些词在另一语言里没有对应词。
?For example, in Chinese there are sanfu (三伏) and sanjiu (三九) (夏炼三伏；冬炼三九：In summer keep exercise during the hottest day ; in winter do the same thing during the coldest weather) , for which you find no equivalents in English.
?一个中国青年到附近游泳池去游泳，一会儿就回来了。和他同住一室的中国人和一个外国朋友都感到奇怪。他解释说：“游泳池里人太多，水太脏，早该换了。简直象芝麻酱煮饺子。”
?It was packed like sardines.
?汉语中没有表达cowboy 和hippie（或hippy）的意思的对应词。往往蓄长发，身穿奇装异服，甚至行为颓废，染上吸毒恶习，不少人对待社会问题很严肃，对社会怀有某种不满情绪，
2. Terms in on e language that don’t have any counterparts in the other language.在一种语言里有些词在另一语言里没有对应词。
?“节气”把“节气”译成solar terms，大部分西方人仍然不懂。）
?如一部常用的现代《汉英词典》中，
?把“雨水”译成Rain Water（2nd Solar Term），
?把“惊蛰”译成Waking of Insects （3rd Solar Term），
?把“清明”译成，Pure and Brightness（5th Solar Term）。
?但有些“节气”的名称在英语中确实有对应词：
?春分=Spring Equinox；夏至=Summer Solstice；
?秋分=Autumnal Equinox；冬至=Winter Solstice。
?在表示自然力和宇宙方面，如“阴”“阳”，在英语里没有对应词，《朗曼现代英语词典》对“阴”和“阳”的解释是：“按道教的宇宙观，‘阴’和‘阳’是两种力量，这两种力量的本质产生了宇宙，保持宇宙和谐。‘阴’表示黑暗、雌性、消极的。‘阳’表示光明、雄性、积极的。”
?在《汉英词典》中“阴”、“阳”两词只好分别注释为：（in Chinese philosophy, medicine，etc．）yin, the feminine or negative principle in nature；yang ,the masculine or positive principle In nature. 与《朗曼现代英语词典》一致，但西方人还是不易明白。
3. Words whose conceptual meanings appear to be the same, but actually different有些概念在英语和汉语中都有，但它们又是不同义的.
?high school--高中
?service station--服务站
?rest room--休息室
?busboy--公共汽车上的男孩
?busybody--忙碌的身体
?political campaign--政治运动
?high school ≠高等学校high school 是美国的中学。英国的中学叫secondary school,
?service station≠服务站service station 是给汽车加油及进行简单维修的地方。
?Rest room ≠休息室在美国英语中，rest room 是剧院、大商店或大建筑物中的一间房子，里面设有厕所、盥洗设备等，供顾客、雇员等使用。这是浴室、厕所的委婉说法。汉语中的“休
息室”应译为英语中的lounge 或lobby。
?busboy ≠公共汽车上的售票员或司机busboy 与公共汽车没有任何关系，它指的是在餐馆中收拾的碗碟，擦桌子的杂工。（美国英语）
?goldbrick ≠金锭goldbrick 不是用以称赞人的词，它是美国英语中的俚语，指逃避工作的人，尤其是爱偷懒的士兵、懒汉。
?大忙人≠busybody 英语的busybody相当于汉语的“爱管闲事的人”。汉语中为“大忙人”可译为 a very busy person，也可以直接说：He／She is always busy．He／She is always busy with something．
?从词的组成看，人们会认为goldbrick和busybody是褒义词，其实都是贬义词。
?指“政治活动”、“社会活动”等的词语：political campaign≠政治运动political campaign指英美政府职务的候选人为了树立自己的形象，争取选票而组织的活动，即竞选活动。Discussion
?Discuss the meanings of the following phrases.
?Busman’s holiday cooker
?house warming police action
?Donkeywork free love
?lowboy lover
?wester
?busywork
?Busman’s holiday没有休息的节假日
?House warming祝迁喜宴，乔迁喜宴
?Donkeywork苦差事
?Lowboy短脚衣橱
?wester(带来暴风雨的)西风
?busywork无生产性工作，机关工作：占用时间但不必要获得生产结果的活动，如学校工作或机关工作
?Police action(资本主义国家借口维持国际秩序调动正式部队对其他国家采取的所谓)警察行动?Free love<美>自由性爱(不受婚姻或其他法律义务约束的两性关系)
?4.words having similar conceptual meaning but different associative meanings
?5. Things or concepts that are represented by one or perhaps two terms in one language, but by many more terms in the other language;同一个事物、生物或概念，在某些语言中可能只用一个词来表达，在另一种语言中可能有几个或更多的词来表达。
?“公”和“母”（或“雌”和“雄”）
?总称雄性名称雌性名称小动物名称
?chicken鸡cock, rooster hen chick
?duck鸭drake duck duckling
?goose鹅gander goose gosling
?pig猪boar sow shoat/piglet
?dog狗dog bitch puppy
?sheep羊ram ewe lamb
?uncle
?伯父father’s elder brother
叔父father’s younger brother
姑父Husband of father’s sister
舅父Mother’s brother
姨父Husba nd of mother’s sister
?湾
?bay (in the shape of a half circle),
gulf (deep and long) ,
bight (small and shallow), 尤指海岸线
cove (small with rocks on both sides of the entrance),
creek (narrow),
fiord (long and narrow with cliff on both sides)
Section 3 Names
?Names include given names, surnames, full names, with or without a title, and nickname or pet names. Surnames are inherited.
?A. English names :
?full name = given name + surname / family name
?ex. Linda Jones ( 名+ 姓, 琳达.琼斯)
?It has been said that there are more than 35,000 surnames adopted by English speakers , who currently have only 1000 or so given names available .
?B. Chinese names :
?王刚( 姓+ 名)
There are more than 100 surnames in Chinese . However , in theory at least , any Chinese character can be adopted as given names. So the Chinese people have a wider range of possibilities to select from when naming their children .
?Though there is no logical relationship between a person and the name assigned to him by his parents, names by not be clear to speaker of other languages. And the naming of their babies is a personal affair of the parents who can freely select any name of their children. However, parents select names for their children according to their mortal , aesthetic, political , philosophical concepts shaped by the culture they are in . Give names, are in fact, culture rich language items.
2. Four types of common English personal names
?★1. religious names
?The religious names are associated with Christianity which is foreign to most of the Chinese people. These names remind us of the close relationship of the western life-style to Christianity.
★2. plant of flower names
?Plant , especially flower, names are popular among female English speakers. And we know that many Chinese females bear flower names, too. Flowers are beauty embodied. And it is a human nature to love beauty. It is only natural for human beings, especially females, to love flowers and flower names.
★Plant of flower names
★Other natural things
★3. weapon names
?There are weapon names in English, which are borne by more males than females. Many English speakers were soldiers to whom weapons are indispensible.
?It seems that English speakers are particularly fond of pikes are personal names. In contr ast, “ 剑“ and “ 盾” are found more often than others in Chinese personal names.
★weapon names
★4. Name of knowledge, authority, virtue, fame
★Name of knowledge, authority, virtue, fame
3. Naming Children
?English
?(1) named after influential figures
?e.g. Ni xon’s mother had 5 sons, named Harold, Richard, Arthur, Edward.
?Byron, Jackson, Lincoln, Monroe
?(2) named after their grandparent or other relatives
?E.g. Queen Elizabeth I, Queen Elizabeth II
?Henry VIII, Franklin Roosevelt,
?Charles Robert Darwin (Robert Darwin, Charles Darwin)
?James Earl Carter, Junior (Jr.)(39th,USA)
George Colman the Elder (Britain)
Notes 1
?Note 1. English given names are always shortened among friends and colleagues
?e.g. Anthony--Tony
?Michael--Mike
?Williams—Bill, Will, Billy, Willie
?Robert—Bob
?Richard--Dick
?James– Jim, Jimmy
?Elizabeth—Bess，Betsy, Betty, Elise, Libby,
Liz, Liza…
?Ann—Nancy, Annetta
?Note 2
?People have to be careful of the initial letters of the names they give to their children.
?e.g. Andrew Simon Smith
?Nichola Ann Green
?Fiona Alice Tanner
?Michael Adam Davies
?Peter Ewan Steven Thompson
?Graham Adam Yiend
Chinese naming principles
?(1) elegant sound
?(2) looks harmoniously
?(3) has positive associations
?(4) novelty
?肖尧岳，吴岳一，尹晨菲，于泰之，浩歌，王法
The first ten popular names in the1980s
?Male: John, James, Charles, Henry, David,
William, Robert, Andrew, Richard,
George
?Female: Mary, Jane, Louise, Anna,
Elizabeth, Helen, Sarah, Margaret,
Lucy, Dorothy
4. Origin of English surnames
?1. Professional names职业姓氏(Britain countryside)
?John Barber, John Baker,
?Smith, Taylor, Carpenter, Cook, Shoemaker, Fisher, Hunter, Cooper, Clerk
?2. Address names地名姓氏(France)
?Edgar Well, William Wood, Griffith London, John East, Winston Churchill
?East伊斯特, West韦斯特，South索斯，North诺斯
?3. Personal characteristic names(个人姓氏)
?Brown, Grey, Strong, Longfellow, Little利特尔, Sharp, Smart, Wise(韦斯)
?4. Subordinate names隶属姓氏
?-son(儿子): Robinson, Johnson，Jackson，
?-ing（后代）: Willing, Wilding, Golding
?-s（儿子）：Evans, Peters, Williams
?Mac, Mc(苏格兰后裔)：MacArthur, MacMillian, McDonald,
?O’(爱尔兰后裔)：O’Neil, O’Connel, O’Brien
?Fitz-(诺尔曼后裔)：Fitzgerald, Fitzjohn, Fitzwilliam
?标新立异：William Yoguess
?Summary:
?英语姓氏—不同身世和文化背景—超越时空的cultural phenomenon—living fossil（研究英语民主社会历史文化）
The first ten popular surnames
?1. Smith,
?2. Jones,
?3. Williams,
?4. Brown,
?5. Davis,
?6. Johnson,
?7. Anderson,
?8. Taylor,
?9. Thomas,
?10. Evans
?(about one half of the population of English-speaking culture)
“约翰牛”和“山姆大叔”：最著名的绰号
5. 英、汉姓名的共同性和差异性
?1. 共同性
?1）英、汉姓名均具有一定的性别特征
?不论在英语还是汉语中，男性的名字多数与搏斗、武器、高尚及名声等有关；女性的名字多与花、鸟等弱小动物有关。
?英语中男性的名字多用Gilea (盾)，Oscar (人赐矛)，Alger (矛)，Walter (统帅)等。汉语中男性的名字多用袅、雄、义、勇、博、文等。
?英语中女性的名字多用Lily (百合花)，Flora (花朵)，laura (月桂)等。汉语中女性的名字则多用兰、花、丽、珠、莲、玉等。
?2）英、汉名字均具有一定的意愿特征
?英语男性名字的Alger, Giles, Oscar, Walter和汉语男性名字的袅、雄、勇等均表达了父母及长
辈对后辈的殷切期望，期望他们长大后能成为勇敢或才华横溢的人。女性名字用字的特征则体现了父母期望女儿能长的美丽及对她们的珍爱之意。
?3）英、汉名字均具有一定的时代特征
?在19世纪的英国，在公众场合女性多以男性名字作为笔名。如《简爱》、《呼啸山庄》的英国著名女作家勃郎特姊妹就采用英国贯用的男性名字为笔名。阿克逊?贝尔是安?勃郎特的笔名；埃利斯?贝尔为艾米莉的笔名。现代社会则不需要受此限制，笔名可用可不用，更不需要以男性姓名取代女性姓名了。
?在汉语名字中，建国之初，大多数父母为其子女取名为建国、国荣、国军、国新、国庆等这些与新中国成立这一事件及当时人们的喜悦心情有关文字。这些都体现了时代的特征。
?2. 英、汉姓名的差异性
?1）构成形式不同
?英语姓名：given name + family name
?given name + middle name + family name
?通常情况下，名要放在姓的前而，如约翰?肯尼迪和理查德德?尼克松两人的姓名中，约翰和理查德德分别为他们的名，肯尼迪和尼克松分别是姓。
?汉语名字：父姓或母姓+名
?2)汉语姓又分为两种：一种是单姓，如赵、钱、孙、李等。另一种是复姓，如欧阳、司马、诸葛等。
?名字又分为单字名、双字名。单字名即用一个字；双名则为两个字。其中双字中的第一个字在古代多为诅辈流传下来的家族所排的字。
?3）信仰来源不同。英文的名字与汉语的名字最大的区别在于姓名大多与宗教和上帝有关，如：Eliot (上帝的礼物)，John (上帝是仁慈的)，Abran (圣州), Angela (天使)，Olga (神圣的)，这与以英语为母语的人大多信仰人主教或基督教有关。
?在坚持辩证唯物主义、历史唯物主义的社会主义中国，人们的名字则更多的表达了坚信共产党、拥护社会主义中国的强烈愿望这些从建国时期的名字就可以看出。
?4）汉语的姓世代相传。妇女婚后保持本姓。英语国家妇女出嫁后一般改随夫姓。
?5）中国人对自己父母或其他长辈一般忌讳直呼其名。
?6）在中国称呼他人名字是一件很敏感的事。在西方称名是一件很普遍的事。
?章子怡Ziying Zhang
?成龙Jacky Chen
跨文化交际论文题目
1.英文原声电影赏析与跨文化交际能力的培养 2."跨文化非语言交际语用失误研究 3."公示语翻译中的语用失误探析 4.国内广告语言语用失误研究现状与分析 5."全球化语境下跨文化交际失误语用归因 6."跨文化交际中的语用失误类型及对策研究 7."基于礼貌原则的跨文化语用失误分析 8."跨文化言语交际中的语用负迁移 9."浅析化妆品广告中的语用预设 10."中西方饮食文化的比较研究 11."中美时间观之对比 1 2."浅析汉英问候语中的文化差异 13."英汉词汇的文化内涵差异探析 14."英语身体语的交际功能研究 1 5."浅谈英汉身势语的表意功能之差异 16."目标语文化的理解与跨文化交际 1 7."中西文化差异对中国学生英语学生的影响 18."跨文化交际中的文化误读
9."浅析文化差异对商务谈判的影响 20."英语禁忌语的文化内涵异同研究 21."英语学习中的文化习得 2 2."英汉思维模式的差异对跨文化交际的影响 23."外语学习者的思辨能力与跨文化交际之成效 24."培养英语学习者跨文化交际能力之策略 25."英汉道歉语差异及原因 26."中西跨文化礼貌语差异探析 27."英汉语言中礼貌表达法之比较 28."英汉习惯用语的文化内涵探源 29."英语称赞语及其回应的异同研究 3 0."中美（西）家庭教育理念的差异及其对孩子的影响 31."中国英语学习者跨文化交际中的主要障碍研究 32."试析跨文化交际中角色互动的作用 3 3."本土文化与异国文化的冲突对跨文化交际的影响 34."跨文化交际中的时间观差异 35."论跨文化交际中的中西餐桌礼仪
6."关于提升英语专业学生跨文化交际能力的培养 37."涉外婚姻中的中西文化冲突 38."论跨文化广告传播中食品商标的翻译439."多媒体教学与跨文化交际能力的培养40."中西方儿童文学的差异 4 1."中西体育文化的差异及其受全球化发展的影响 42."中西传统休闲文化及其价值观的对比分析 43."简爱与林黛玉不同命运的文化透析 44."国际商务活动中礼貌原则的应用 4 5."论文化背景知识在外语阅读教学中的作用 46."国际商务交际活动中的非语言交际 47."浅析英汉汽车商标的特点及其翻译 48."英汉隐喻差异的文化阐释 49."文化语境下的英汉植物词 50."文化语境下的英汉动物词 51."从体态语探析中西文化差异 52."浅析英汉颜色词的文化内涵 53."文化视野下英语谚语的比较
《跨文化交际》_名词解释
1.Globalization is considered as a process of increasing involvment in international business operations. 经济学视角中的全球化表现为不断增加的国际商务往来过程。 2.Macroculture:The term macroculture implies losing ethnic differences and forming one large society. 宏观文化意味着种族差异的消失和一个大社会的形成。 3.Melting pot means a sociocultural assimilation of people of different backgrounds and nationlities. 熔炉:不同背景和国籍的人们之间的社会文化的同化。 4.Microcultures:cultures within cultures 微观文化：文化中的文化 5.Intercultural communication refers to communication between people whose culture perceptions and symbol systems are distinct enough to alter the communication event. 跨文化交际:指拥有不同文化认知和符号体系的人文之间进行的交际。 Chapter 1 6.Culture is a learned set of shared interpretations about beliefs,values,and norms,which affect the behavior of a relatively large group of people. 文化是习得的一套关于信仰，价值观，规范的公认的解释，这些信仰，价值观，规范对相当大人类群体的行为产生影响。 7.Culture identity refers to one’s sense of belonging to a particular culture or ethnic group. 文化身份：指有意识地把自己归为某一特定文化或种族群体。 8.Subculture are formed by groups of people possessing characteristic traits that set apart and distinguish them from others within a larger society or dominant culture. 亚文化:具有能在更大的一个社会范围内或主流文化中使自己有别于他人的特点的人类群体所形成的文化。 9.Subgroup are groups with the dominant culture does not agree and with which it has communication problems. 亚群体:与主流文化不一致，并与主流文化有交际障碍的交际群体。 10.Rules may refers to socially agreed-on behavior or to individual guidelines for behavior. 规则:社会认同的行为或行为的个体原则。 11.Norms are culturally ingrained principles of correct and incorrect behaviors which, if broken carry a form of overt or covert penalty. 规范指的是正确和不正确行为根深蒂固的文化原则，这种不正确的行为一旦发生，就意味着一种显性或隐性的处罚。 Chapter 2 12.Enculturation is the socialization process you go through to adapt to your society. 社会文化适应：人们学习适应自己所在社会的文化的社会化过程。 13.Acculturation refers to an individual’s learning and adopting the norms and
跨文化交际-unit1-6-课后translation中英对照
跨文化交际-unit1-6-课后translation中英对照
Unit 1 Page 22 The growth of intercultural communication as a field of study is based on a view of hi story that clearly demonstrates people and cultures have been troubled by a persistent i nability to understand and get along with groups and societies removed by space, ideol ogy, appearance, and behavior from their own. What is intriguing about many of huma n civilization's failure is that they appear to be personal as well as global. The story of h umankind is punctuated with instances of face-to-face conflicts as well as international misunderstanding--major and minor quarrels that range from simple name-calling to i solationism or even armed conflict. It is obvious that increased contact with other cultures and subcultures makes it impe rative for us to make a concerted effort to get along with and to try to understand peop le whose beliefs and backgrounds may be vastly different from our own. The ability, thr ough increased awareness and understanding, to peacefully coexist with people who do not necessarily share our lifestyles or values could benefit us not only in our own neigh borhoods but could be the decisive factor in maintaining world peace. 纵观历史，我们可以清楚地看到，人们由于彼此所处地域、意识形态、容貌服饰 和行为举止上存在的差异，而长久无法互相理解、无法和睦相处。在这种情况下，跨文化交际作为一个特定的研究领域得以形成和发展。值得注意的是，人类文明在 发展过程中所遭受的许多挫折，既是个人的，又是全球性的；人类历史进程总是充 满了个人间的直接冲突和民族间的误解——从骂骂咧咧到孤立主义直至到武装冲突，大大小小争端不绝。 很显然，文化间以及亚文化间的交往比以前多了，这迫切要求我们共同努力，去 理解有着不同信仰和文化背景的人们，并与之和睦相处。通过加深认识和理解，我 们能够与生活方式、价值观念不同的人们和平共处；这不但有益于我们周遭环境的 安定，也是维护世界和平的决定性因素。 Unit 2 Page 60 Culture is sometimes referred to as our mental programming，our “software of the mind. ” But we can take that computer analogy further and say that culture is the operating environment that enables software programs to run. Culture is like DOS or Unix or Windows：it is what enables us to process information in various specific application. The metaphor of windows seems to be very appealing to describe culture: culture is a mental set of windows through which all of life is viewed. It various from individual to individual within a society, but it shares important characteristics with menbers of a society. Culture is like the water fish swim in┄a reality that is taken for granted and rarely examined. it is in the air we breath and is as necessary to our understanding of who we are as air is to our physical life. Culture is the property of a community of people, not simply a characteristic of individuals. Societies are programmed by culture, and that programming comes from similar life experiences and similar interpretations of what those experiences mean. If culture is mental programming, it is also a mental map of reality. It tells us from early childhood what matters, what to prefer, what to avoid, and what to do. Culture
跨文化交际中的文化障碍分析
An Analysis of Cultural Barriers in Intercultural Communication Abstract: This paper, from the perspective of intercultural communication, tries to analyze the cultural barriers caused by cultural differences in intercultural communication, generalizes the types of surface barriers and underlying barriers , and then puts forward a few suggestions on how to clear t he barriers by furthering learners’ understanding of the implicit culture. Key words: Intercultural communication; Cultural barriers; Teaching and learning 0 引言 对于文化,不同学科的学者针对各自的学科特性有不同的解说。至今,人们对文化的定义已达近200种。但仔细分析后,又可以发现这些定义之间存在着不少共同点。概括起来,可分为表层文化和深层文化两个层次。前者指的是一个社会群体在人际交往中的约定俗成的习惯性定势构成的生活方式和交往方式,如风俗习惯、道德风尚、语言风格、礼仪礼貌、言谈举止的行为规范等。后者指的是精神本质层面,如价值观念、思维方式、情感方式等。深层文化制约着人们的行为方式,并通过表层文化表现出来,因而,每个民族几乎都有自己独特的内容和方式。正是因为这种文化的民族性,在一定程度上限制了在一种文化中成长的人们对另一文化的接受,从而形成文化障碍,给语言学习和跨文化交际带来种种困难,甚至导致交际失败。笔者试图对英语学习中的表层文化障碍和深层文化障碍的几个主要方面进行分析,并提出一些对策,以期对英语学习有所帮助。 1 表层文化障碍的主要表现 1. 1 对具有文化内涵的词语的不同理解 词汇的文化内涵具有很强的民族性, 每一种语言的词汇随时间的变迁、社会的发展其意义或扩大或缩小,同时有些词由于经常使用逐渐积累了一些联想的意义,都可以称为词汇的文化内涵[1 ] 。在不同的语言中,词的文化内涵呈现出不同的情况。在英汉两种语言中实际上只有部分词汇完全对应,而另一部分词汇虽有局部对应的解释,但在词义或文化内涵上不完全相同。 在人类历史发展进程中,动物一直与人类保持着密切联系并对人类的生存和发展有着深刻的影响。这种依赖与亲密的关系使得人类对动物产生喜爱、同情、厌恶、恐惧等错综复杂的情感,人们也常常借助动物来寄托和表达人的感情,所以英汉两种文化中都有许许多多与动物相关的词汇。下面是一些例句,划线部分是动物名称,括号内是其在英语中所具有的文化内涵。 1) Just look at the way he treats his wife! He is a beast . (凶残的人) 2) Bill is taking his bird to t he pictures tonight. (女朋友) 3) Don’t listen to her gossip ; she is a cat . (心地恶毒的人) 4) I am not a chicken. I just don’t want to offend anybody. (懦夫、胆小鬼) 5) She likes to stay at home , but her husband is a bit of a gay dog. (爱玩的人) 6) Why did you put your finger in the fire , you silly donkey ! (傻瓜,固执的人) 7) In t he city I was nothing , but t here in the countryside I was considered a big fish. (大人物) 8) Don’t t rust him , he’s an old fox. (很狡猾的人) 9) The lions at her party included two famous authors and a musician. (大人物) 10) Come here, you little monkey. What have you done (调皮鬼) 11) Don’t be a pig , Jimmy ; leave some cake for your brother . (贪婪、肮脏或没礼貌的人) 12) She has face like an angle, but he is really a terrible wolf . (凶残的人)
跨文化交际的ppt总结
一、跨文化交际的重要性 跨文化交际的机会是由全球化引起的 交通和通讯系统的发展(缩短旅游时间，电视网络，互联网，国际电影业) 国家间的文化迁移(多元文化主义) 新经济领域(跨国公司) 不断增长的世界人口(有限的自然资源、污染、国际冲突) 二、文化是什么 （一）文化的定义 1、《简明牛津词典》:文化是“艺术和被集体视为人类智慧成就的其他表现形式”。 2、从人类学的角度定义文化:文化是“一个特定时代或民族的风俗、文明和成就”。 3、(霍尔,1983)我们将文化定义为“信仰、习俗、价值观、行为、制度和交流方式的总和，这些都是在 一个可识别的群体中被共享、学习和代代相传的。” 4、1871年爱德华·泰勒爵士的定义(第一次使用这个术语):"这个复杂的整体包括知识，信仰，艺术， 道德，法律，习俗以及人类作为社会成员所获得的其他能力和习惯" 5、Kroeber and Kluckhohn (1952) 克罗伯和克拉克洪。 文化由显性和隐性的模式组成，是通过符号获得和传递的行为，构成了人类群体的独特成就，包括在人工制品中的体现;文化的本质核心是由传统的(即历史的派生和选择的)思想，尤其是它们所依附的价值观所组成的;文化系统一方面可以被认为是行动的产物，另一方面可以被认为是进一步行动的制约因素。 6、Porter & Samovar 波特和萨莫瓦尔 “知识、经验、信仰、价值观、态度、意义、等级、宗教、时间观念、角色、空间关系、宇宙观念、物质对象和财产的积累，这些都是一群人通过个人和群体几代人的奋斗过程中获得的。”—《跨文化交际读本》 7、文化的内容“是文学、美术、音乐、哲学、科学这一类的事。”－陈独秀 8、“文化是生活的样法。”“文化，就是吾人生活所依靠的一切。”－梁漱溟 9、“人类在社会历史发展过程中所创造的物质和精神财富的总和，特指精神财富，如文学、艺术、教 育、科学等。”－《现代汉语词典》 （二）文化的基本功能 1、文化使一切都变得容易。为人、事、提供意义——减少生活的混乱；为我们提供结构——适应我们 的世界所必需的技能和规则。 2、亚伯拉罕·马斯洛--文化也可以理解为满足人类需求的一种特殊方式。 生理需求-安全-归宿感-尊重-自我实现 （三）文化的特征 1、文化适应：文化是后天有意或无地习得的。事实上，文化不是天生的感性，而是后天习得的。 2、文化的大部分是无意识的。文化是冰山。 （1）显性的-做事方式。行为、传统、人工制品-建筑物衣服艺术品等。 （2）隐性的-思维方式。信仰、态度、看法、价值观念。 3、文化是可以改变的。有必要认识到文化是动态的而不是静态的。它们在事件的影响下，通过与其他 文化的接触不断地变化和演变。文化通过三种最常见的机制发生变化:创新、传播和文化适应(灾难)。
跨文化交际语用错误举例
跨文化交际语用错误举例
跨文化交际语用错误举例 【篇一：跨文化交际语用错误举例】 周刊２００７年第３３期先，人们认为，任何语境中词汇单位的正确意义，一般应当是最符合该语境的那个意义。就某种意义而言，这也就是说，对词语的正确解释即是给整个语境贡献最少的那个解释。换言之，正确的理解最大限度地依赖于语境，而不是最大限度地依赖于孤立的词语。我们如果根据词语的运用范围，即根据词汇单位所处语境的种类来研究词汇意义，便能清楚看到上述原则的重要意义。”（谭载喜，ｐ１４８）我们如果脱离了词语的上下文语境，只根据只字片语而想当然地按照自己的主观臆念得出结论，恐怕往往会与原文作者本义相悖。 参考文献：〔１〕ＡｐｐｒｏａｃｈｅｓｔｏＴｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎ〔Ｍ〕．ＰｅｔｅｒＮｅｗｍａｒｋ，２００１ＳｈａｎｇｈａｉＦｏｒｅｉｇｎＬａｎｇｕａｇｅＥｄｕｃａｔｉｏｎＰｒｅｓｓ．〔２〕ＣａｍｂｒｉｄｇｅＩｎｔｅｒｎａｔｉｏｎａｌＤｉｃｔｉｏｎａｒｙｏｆＥｎｇｌｉｓｈＷｉｔｈＣｈｉ－ｎｅｓｅＴｒａｎｓｌａｔｉｏｎ〔Ｍ〕．英汉双解剑桥国际英语词典．ＳｈａｎｇｈａｉＦｏｒ－ｅｉｇｎＬａｎｇｕａｇｅＥｄｕｃａｔｉｏｎＰｒｅｓｓ．〔３〕ＣｏｌｌｉｎｓＤｉｃｔｉｏｎａｒｙｏｆＴｈｅＥｎｇｌｉｓｈＬａｎｇｕａｇｅ〔Ｍ〕，ＰａｔｒｉｃｋＨａｎｋｓＥｄｉｔｏｒ，ＣｏｌｌｉｎｓＬｏｎｄｏｎ＆Ｇｌａｓｇｏｗ．〔４〕ＬｏｎｇｍａｎＤｉｃｔｉｏｎａｒｙｏｆＣｏｎｔｅｍｐｏｒａｒｙＥｎｇｌｉｓｈＮｅｗＥｄｉｔｉｏｎ（Ｅｎｇｌｉｓｈ－Ｃｈｉｎｅｓｅ）〔Ｍ〕．ＴｈｅＣｏｍｍｅｒｃｉａｌＰｒｅｓｓ＆ＡｄｄｉｓｏｎＷｅｓｌｅｙＬｏｎｇｍａｎＣｈｉｎａＬｉｍｉｔｅｄ．１９９８．〔５〕ＴｈｅＮｅｗＯｘｆｏｒｄＤｉｃｔｉｏｎａｒｙｏｆＥｎｇｌｉｓｈ〔Ｍ〕．Ｅｄ
《跨文化交际》-名词解释
经济学视角中的全球化表现为不断增加的国际商务往来过程。 1.Macroculture:The term macroculture implies losing ethnic differences and forming one large society. 宏观文化意味着种族差异的消失和一个大社会的形成。 2.Melting pot means a sociocultural assimilation of people of different backgrounds and nationlities. 熔炉:不同背景和国籍的人们之间的社会文化的同化。 3.Microcultures:cultures within cultures 微观文化：文化中的文化 4.Intercultural communication refers to communication between people whose culture perceptions and symbol systems are distinct enough to alter the communication event. 跨文化交际:指拥有不同文化认知和符号体系的人文之间进行的交际。 Chapter 1 5.Culture is a learned set of shared interpretations about beliefs,values,and norms,which affect the behavior of a relatively large group of people. 文化是习得的一套关于信仰，价值观，规范的公认的解释，这些信仰，价值观，规范对相当大人类群体的行为产生影响。 6.Culture identity refers to one’s sense of belonging to a particular culture or ethnic group. 文化身份：指有意识地把自己归为某一特定文化或种族群体。 7.Subculture are formed by groups of people possessing characteristic traits that set apart and distinguish them from others within a larger society or dominant culture. 亚文化:具有能在更大的一个社会范围内或主流文化中使自己有别于他人的特点的人类群体所形成的文化。 8.Subgroup are groups with the dominant culture does not agree and with which it has communication problems. 亚群体:与主流文化不一致，并与主流文化有交际障碍的交际群体。 9.Rules may refers to socially agreed-on behavior or to individual guidelines for behavior. 规则:社会认同的行为或行为的个体原则。 10.Norms are culturally ingrained principles of correct and incorrect behaviors which, if broken carry a form of overt or covert penalty. 规范指的是正确和不正确行为根深蒂固的文化原则，这种不正确的行为一旦发生，就意味着一种显性或隐性的处罚。 Chapter 2 11.Enculturation is the socialization process you go through to adapt to your society. 社会文化适应：人们学习适应自己所在社会的文化的社会化过程。 12.Acculturation refers to an individual’s learning and adopting the norms and values of the new host culture. 文化适应：人们学习适应新文化的社会规范和价值观的过程。 13.分隔和隔离separation and segregation refer to maintaining one’s original
跨文化交际理论
跨文化交际理论 一.文化、交际、跨文化交际： 1.“文化”的含义： ①“文化”二字最初没有联系在一起，它的意思是统治者通过观察天象，可以了解时序的变化，通过观察人类社会的各种现象，可以用教育感化的手段来治理天下。 ②西方的“文化”引申出对人的性情的陶冶和品德的培养，泰勒认为，“文化”是包括知识、信仰、艺术、道德、法律、习俗和任何人作为一名社会成员而获得的能力和习惯在内的复杂整理。 ③马克思主义理论家认为文化分为两种：狭义的文化指的是历史上一定的物质资料生产方式的基础上产生和发展的社会精神生活形式的总和；广义的文化指的是人类在社会历史实践过程中所创造的物质财富和精神财富的总和。 2.文化的分类：按内容分包括：物质文化、行为文化、制度文化、观念文化四个方面。 3.文化的特性： （1）文化史人类独有的，是区别人类和动物的主要标志，文化史社会遗产，而不是生理遗传。 （2）文化不是先天就有的，而是后天习得的。 （3）文化中的大部分是不自觉的，人总是自然而然地表现其文化色彩的。 （4）文化是人们行动的指南。 （5）文化是动态的，文化的形态与一定的历史时期相联系。 4.隐性文化的基本内容：包括以下内容：时间观念，对空间的利用，成就感，交际模式，对环境的取向，家庭关系，上下级关系模式，对个人的看法，对竞争和合作的偏爱，谦虚的挂念，对规章制度的需要，对宇宙的看法，法律的观念，工作积极性，对领导的看法，社交频率，友谊的性质，控制感情的模式，依据年龄、性别、阶级、职业、亲属的关系，确定地位及相关角色。 5.语言和文化的关系： ①语言文化的重要组成部分，语言与文化是部分与整体的关系：一种文化不可能没有与之相应的语言；抽取文化内容，语言也不能独立存在。 ②语言是用于记录文化的符号体系，是文化的主要载体。 ③语言和文化相互依附、促进和制约。 6.人类交际的主要手段：符号是人们交际时使用的主要手段，任何符号都可以用来交际。 7.组成交际行为的八个重要因素： ①信息源/行为源 ②编码 ③信息
英语专业跨文化交际考试复习题名词解释
英语专业跨文化交际考试复习题名词解释 Culture：is a learned set of shared interpretations about beliefs,values,and norms,which affect the behavior of a relatively large group of people. culture ：what the behavior and customs mean to the people who are following them. high-context culture：a culture in which meaning is not necessarily contained in words. Information is provided through gestures, the use of space, and even silence. low-context culture ：a culture in which the majority of the information is vested in the explicit code. Linguistic determinist is that language structure controls thought and cultural norms. Linguistic relativity holds that culture is controlled by and controls language. verbal communication ：communication done both orally and in written language nonverbal communication ：involves all nonverbal stimuli in a communication setting that is generated by both the source and his or her use of the environment and that has potential message value for the source or receiver. Individual Culture：Individuals tend to define themselves by the extent to which they are different from, rather than similar to other. People are encouraged to display self-confidence and assertiveness, disclosure of personal thoughts and feelings. collectivist culture：Collectivist cultures place little value on individual identity and great value on group identity. They have been labeled as “we” cultures because basic unit is the in-group or collective. Paralanguage refers to the rate ,pitch and volume qualities of the voice,which interrupt or temporarily take the place of speech and affect the meaning of a message. monochronic time (M Time)：It schedules one event at a time. In these cultures time is perceived as a linear structure just like a ribbon stretching from the past into the future. polychronic time (P Time)：schedules several activities at the same time. In these culture people emphasize the involvement of people more than schedules. They do not see appointments as ironclad commitments and often break them. ethnocentrism ：the vie w of things in which one’s own group is the center of everything, and all others are scaled and rated with reference to it. Ethnocentrism is judging another culture solely by the values and standards of one's own culture. The ethnocentric individual will judge other groups relative to his or her own particular ethnic group or culture, especially with concern to language, behavior, customs, and religion. These ethnic distinctions and subdivisions serve to define each ethnicity's unique cultural identity. It refers to negatively judging aspects of another culture by the standards of one’s own culture. stereotypes ：a form of generalization about some group of people, or a means of organizing images into fixed and simple categories that are used to stand for the entire collection of people. stereotypes：refers to negative or positive judgment made about individuals based on any observable or believed group membership. prejudice ：It refers to negative attitudes towards other people that are based on faulty and inflexible stereotypes. It is an unfair, biased, or intolerant attitude towards
跨文化交际-unit1-6-课后translation中英对照
Unit 1 Page 22 The growth of intercultural communication as a field of study is based on a view o f history that clearly demonstrates people and cultures have been troubled by a pers istent inability to understand and get along with groups and societies removed by sp ace, ideology, appearance, and behavior from their own. What is intriguing about m any of human civilization's failure is that they appear to be personal as well as globa l. The story of humankind is punctuated with instances of face-to-face conflicts as w ell as international misunderstanding--major and minor quarrels that range from si mple name-calling to isolationism or even armed conflict. It is obvious that increased contact with other cultures and subcultures makes it i mperative for us to make a concerted effort to get along with and to try to understan d people whose beliefs and backgrounds may be vastly different from our own. The ability, through increased awareness and understanding, to peacefully coexist with p eople who do not necessarily share our lifestyles or values could benefit us not only i n our own neighborhoods but could be the decisive factor in maintaining world peac e. 纵观历史，我们可以清楚地看到，人们由于彼此所处地域、意识形态、容貌服饰和行为举止上存在的差异，而长久无法互相理解、无法和睦相处。在这种情况下，跨文化交际作为一个特定的研究领域得以形成和发展。值得注意的是，人类文明在发展过程中所遭受的许多挫折，既是个人的，又是全球性的；人类历史进程总是充满了个人间的直接冲突和民族间的误解——从骂骂咧咧到孤立主义直至到武装冲突，大大小小争端不绝。 很显然，文化间以及亚文化间的交往比以前多了，这迫切要求我们共同努力，去理解有着不同信仰和文化背景的人们，并与之和睦相处。通过加深认识和理解，我们能够与生活方式、价值观念不同的人们和平共处；这不但有益于我们周遭环境的安定，也是维护世界和平的决定性因素。 Unit 2 Page 60 Culture is sometimes referred to as our mental programming，our “software of the mind. ” But we can take that computer analogy further and say that culture is the operating environment that enables software programs to run. Culture is like DOS or Unix or Windows：it is what enables us to process information in various specific application. The metaphor of windows seems to be very appealing to describe culture: culture is a mental set of windows through which all of life is viewed. It various from individual to individual within a society, but it shares important characteristics with menbers of a society. Culture is like the water fish swim in┄a reality that is taken for granted and rarely examined. it is in the air we breath and is as necessary to our understanding of who we are as air is to our physical life. Culture is the property of a community of people, not simply a characteristic of individuals. Societies are programmed by culture, and that programming comes from similar life experiences and similar interpretations of what those experiences mean. If culture is mental programming, it is also a mental map of reality. It tells us from