语用学期末总结docx

一章，What is pragmatics?语用学

一，(名词解释15分)

1,Semantics and pragamatics are the two main areas of linguistic study that look at the knowledge we use both to extract meaning when hear or read,and to convey meaning when we speak or write.

2,Semantics(语义) concentrates on meaning that comes from purely linguistic knowledge.

Pragmatics（词汇）concentrates on those aspects of meaning that cannot be predicted by linguistic knowledge alone and takes into account knowledge about the physical and social world.

3,Lexical semantics（词汇语义学）

4,Paraphrase:同义转换When asked what a sentence means,people usually provide another sentence tha thas virtually the same meaning.

5,Sentence semantics:To provide a paraphrase you uesed your knowledge of the meaning of the individual words and the sentences structure.

6,Sentence Utterance:Linguistic often make the distinction between a Sentence and an Utterance.

二，,Summary(判断题15分):

1）L anguage meaning can be analysed at several levels.可以在几个层面分析语言意义。

2）Semantics concentrates on the meaning that comes from linguistic knowledge,while pragmantics on those aspects of meaning that cannot be predicted by linguistic knowledge alone and takes into account our knowledge about the physical and social world.语义学集中于语言知识带

来的意义，而语义学的那些方面的语用学不能仅靠语言知识来预测，并

且考虑到我们对物理和社会世界的认识。

3）The focus of pragmatics analysis is on the meaning of speakers’ utterances rather than on the meaning of words or sentences.语用分析的重点是说话

者的话语的意义，而不是单词或句子的意义。

4) Utterances need not consist of complete sentence. Each utterance is a unique physical

event created at a particular point in time for a particular communicative purpose.话语不必由完整的句子组成。每个话语都是在特定时间点为特定交际目的而创建的唯一物理事件。

三，问答题（20分）

1.2. （1）What does cat mean? (b)What does cream mean?(3)What does to drink mean?

My answer were: Cat a domestic feline(猫科动物).

Cream the liquid fat of milk.

Drink to consume(v,喝光) liquid.

1.3. （2）What does Cats drink cream mean?

1)individual words 2)the sentence structure 3) both the individual words ant the

sentence structure

Here are some possible paraphrase for our sentence:

Domestic felines consume the liquid fat of milk.

Cream is drunk by cats.

The liquid fat of milk is drunk by domestic felines.

1,4 (3) Mike,Annie and Mike’s cat,Felix, are in Mike’s kitchen.What did Annie mean?

Mike:What happened to that bowel of cream?

Annie:Cats drink cream.

1)semantic meaning: a semantic paraphrase or SP. 2)and the pragmantic meaning: a pragmantic paraphrase or PP

Cat drink cream

SP: Domestic felines consume the liquid fat of milk.

PP:Felix probably drank the cream.

1,5 （4）Provid a semantic meaning(SP) and a pragmantic meaning(PP) fot it’s cold in here in two different contexts,(a) and (b )below:

(a)Mike and Annie are in the living room. Mike asks Annie whether she’d like to eat

dinner in the living room or the kitchen.Annie replies: It’s cold in here.

(b)The queen and the butler,James, are in the drawing room.The window is open .The

Queen say’s:It’s cold in here.

Here are sample analyses:

(a)It’s cold in here

SP:The temperature in this place in frigid(寒冷的)

PP:Let’s eat in the kitchen

(b)It’s cold in here

SP: The temperature in this place in frigid.

PP:James,shut the window.

1.6. (5)Now provide a third context for It’s cold in here which would yield a third and different pragmantic meaning.

Here is one possibility:

Mike and Annie are in the greenhouse. Mike wonders why his orchids(兰花) haven’t bloomed.Annie replies: It’s cold in here.

It’s cold in here.

SP: The temperature in this place in frigid.

PP:The orchids aren’t blooming because the greenhouse is too cold.

二章，Entailment 衍推

一，(名词解释15分)

1，Analytic sentences分析句:the types of sentences

2，Contradictions: given that your interpret everything literally,you can easily answer “false”

3，Synthetic sentences:you cannot verify the truth or falsity of those statements by looking in your dictionary,you woukd need other,non-linguistic ,information about the words.

4，Synthetially true: Synthetially true, their truth is based on what is happening in the world ,not on what is happening in the language.

5,Synthetially false:

6, Entailment衍推;other sentences which are automatically true if the original sentence is

true.

7, Paraphrase:is a special entailment.

8, One-way entailment:the sentences are not true paraphrases of each other.

9, Two-way entailment: these sentences are paraphrases of each other.

10, Mutual entailment:

11, Foregrouding前台效应:is a particular rntailment, is by putting heavy stress one of the words in an utterance.

二，,Summary(判断题15分):

1)All sentences have a number of entailments-----other sentences which are automatically

true if the original sentence is true.所有句子都有许多蕴涵-其他句子如果原句是真的则自动为真。

2)Entailments are inferences推断that can be drawn solely from our knowledge about the

semantic relationships in a language.蕴涵是可以仅从我们关于语言中的语义关系的知识中得出的推论。

3)This knowledge allows us to communicate much more than we actually ‘say’.这种知识使

我们能够比实际“说”更多地进行交流。

三，问答题（20分）

2,1 1）Look at the following ‘slip’ from radio and television announcers. What’s wrong here?

(a)It’s been an amazing year foe Crystal radio Palace over the past 12 months.

(b)The robberywas commited by a pair of identical twins, both are said to be about age

20.

(c)Send in your competition answers with your name,age and how old you are.

(d)So you’re a housewife and a mother.Do you have any children.

If you know the meaning of year,twins,age and mother, then you also know that a year is

12 months long:twins are the same age;your age is how old you are;a mother has a least

one child.

2,2. 2) Pretend that you have just arrived from another planet. You have learned the vacabulary and grammerof English,but you have never virited Earth before,nor have you ever met or spoken to another Earthling.As in the custom on youer planet, you intepret everything you hear literally. Your job id to decide whether each of my following statements is true or false and why.

(a)My mother is a woman.

(b)My mother is a doctor.

(c)The tiger is unhappy.

(d)The tiger is an animal.

(e)My mother is a boy.

(f)The tiger is a reptile爬行动物.

(a)and (d) is true,because mother must be a woman, and tiger must be an animal in our knowledge of English.

(e)and (f) /?????????

2.3) 3)Assume that sentencach (a) in pair is synthetically true. Then look at sentence(b) and decide if you can assume tha tit is automatically true given the tryth of (a).

1(a)Annie caught s trout(鲑鱼)

1(b)Annie caught a fish.

2(a)Annie is thin.

2(b)Annie is not fat.

3(a) Annie baked a cake.

3(b)Annie baked something.

The answer is ‘yes’ in all three cases. Once we establish the truth of sentence (a),sentence(b) become automatically true because of the meaning relationships between trout/fish,thin/fat, and cake/something.In each case, we can say that sentence (b) is an entailment of sentence (a).

三章，Presupposition 预设

一，(名词解释15分)

1，Truth-value真值：based on what was happening in the language.

2，Doclarative sentences陈述句: the sentences have a particular kind of grammer structure.

3，Imparative sentences:it typically function as ‘commands’, there is no subject present although it is ‘understood’ as you.

4，Interrogative sentences: it typically function as ‘question’

5，Wh-words:s ome interrogatives begain with words like who,what, when, where, why ,how,erc.

Since the majority of these words begin with wh-,they are all usually called it.

6，Presuppositions

7，Negation

8，Possessives

9，Definite noun phrase

10, Existential presupposition存在预设:the basic type of presupposition

11,Subordinate clause

二，,Summary(判断题15分):

1)We have described presuppositions as inferences about what is assumed in an utterance

rather than directly asserted声称. 我们已经将预设描述为对话语中所假设的内容的推断，而不是直接断言。

2)Presuppositions are closely linked to the words and grammatical structures that are actually

used in the utterance and our knowledge about the way language users conventionally interpret them. 预设与话语中实际使用的单词和语法结构以及我们对语言使用者通常解释它们的方式的知识密切相关。

3)Presuppositions c an be drawn even when there is little or no surrounding context.即使在周

围环境很少或没有环境的情况下，也可以绘制预设。

三，问答题（20分）

四章，The co-operative principle and implicature合作原则和会话含义

一，(名词解释15分)

1，Conversational implicatures：

2，The co-operative principle

3，Maxims

4，Relevanc相关:Make sure that whatever you say is relevant to the conversation at hand.

5，Quality质量:Do not say what youo believe to be false.Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.

6，Quantity数量：Make your contribution sufficiently informative for the current purposes of the conversation.Do not make your contribution more informative than is necessary.

7，Clarity:Do not make your contribution obscure,ambiguous or difficult to understand.

8，Violating

9，Flouting

二，,Summary(判断题15分):

1)Unlike presuppositions and entailments, implicatures are inferences that cannot be made

from isolated utterances .They are dependent on the context of the utterance and shared knowledge between t he speaker and the hearer.与预设和蕴涵不同，暗示是不能从孤立的话语中得出的。它们取决于说话者的背景和说话者与听者之间的共享知识。

2)Grice has proposed a way of analysing implicatures based on the co-operative principle and

its maxims of relevance,quality,quantity and clarity.格莱斯提出了一种基于合作原则及其相关性，质量，数量和清晰度的格言来分析含义的方法。

3)In Grice’s analsis, the speaker’s flouting of a maxim combined with the hearer’s assumption

that the speaker has not really abandoned the co-operative principle leads to an implicature.

在格莱斯的分析中，说话者蔑视格言与听众的假设，即说话人并没有真正放弃合作原则导致了一个含义。

五章，More On Implicature 会话含义的进一步讨论

一，(名词解释15分)

1，Indefinite article:

2，Scalar implicatures

3，Generalized conversational implicatures

4，Particularized conversational implicatures:

二，,Summary(判断题15分):

1,We have distinguished two types of conversational implicatures: generalized and particularized.

2,Generalized implicatures can be drawn with very little ‘inside’ knowledge.If you heard a tape recording of the conversation but knew nothing about the participants or the physical characteristics of the context,you could still deaw this implicatures.They are closely connected to the degree of informativeness that we normally expect a speaker[s utterance to provide. 广义含义可以用很少的“内部”知识绘制。如果你听到了对话的磁带录音，但对参与者或上下文的物理特征一无所知，你仍然可以解释这个含义。它们与学位密切相关我们通常期望发言者提供的信息量。

3, Scalar implicatures are a special type of generalized implicature where the inference is made by regerence to a scale of values, one of which has been chosen by the speaker.The speaker's choice implicates 'not the higher values'.标量含义是一种特殊类型的广义含义，其中推理是通过对一个值的尺度进行推断，其中一个是由说话者选择的。说话者的选择暗示“不是更高的价值”。

4, Particularized implicatures require not only general knowledge but also knowledge which is particular or "local' to the speaker and the hearer, and often to the physical context of the

utterance as well. 特殊化的含义不仅需要一般知识，还需要对说话者和听者特别或“本地”的知识，并且通常也需要对话语的物理背景。

5,Both generalized and particularized implicatures differ from presuppositions in that they sound much less contradictory when they are cancelled by the speaker. 广义和特殊的含义都不同于预设，因为当他们被说话者取消时，他们听起来更不那么矛盾。

六章，Speech Acts言语行为

一，(名词解释15分)

1，Speech acts: The proverbs Actions speak louder than words and Easier said than done seem to make a clear distinction between speaking and acting. However, Austin pointed out that, contrary to popular belief there is often no clear distinction between the two. He was one of the first modern scholars to recognize that 'words' are in themselves actions and that these SPEECH ACTS can and should be systematically studied.

2，Descripitivefallacy:Austin wanted to counter a commonly held view by semanticists that the sole purpose of making assertions is to describe some state of affairs. That view is sometimes called the DESCRIPTIVE FALLACY.

3，Locution

4，Illocution

5，Illocutionary force

6，Perlocution

7，Performative

8，Performative verbs

9，Constative

10, P erformative verbs

二，,Summary(判断题15分):

1,Utterances can be analysed as speech acts, a framework originally proposed by J.L. Austin. 话语可以作为言语行为来分析，这是J.L.奥斯汀最初提出的框架。

2,Speech acts can be analysed on three levels:the locution(the words the speaker uses);the illocution,or illocutionary force(what the speaker is doing by using those words);the perlocution (the effect of those words on the hearer). 言语行为可以在三个层面进行分析：语言（说话者使用的词语）; 言语或言外之力（说话者用这些话做的事）; perlocution（这些话对听众的影响）。

3,Austin proposed that utterances can be classified as performative or constative. Performatives like I apologize simultaneously state and perform the illocution. Constatives can also used to perform an illocution but, unlike performatives, they do not explicitly name th intended illocutionary act. 奥斯汀提出，话语可以归类为执行或循环。像我这样的表演者同时道歉和执行言语。宪法也可以用来执行言语，但与表演不同，他们并没有明确地指出预期的言外行为。

七章，More about Speech Acts言语行为的进一步讨论

一，(名词解释15分)

1，Felicity conditions

2，General conditions

3，Preparatory conditions

4，Content conditions Sincerity condition

5，Representatives

6，Commissives

7，Directives

8，Expressives

9，Rogatives

10, Declarations

11,Direct speech acts

12,Indirect specch acts

二，,Summary(判断题15分):

1,Speech acts can be grouped into general categories which are based on the relationship between 'the words' and the world' and on who is responsible for bringing about the relationship. 言语行为可以分为一般类别，这些类别基于“词语”和“世界”之间的关系以及谁负责实现这种关系。

2,Speech acts can also be classified as direct or indirect. In a direct speech act there is a direct relationship between its linguistic structure and the work it is doing. I n indirect speech acts the speech act is performed indirectly through the performance of another speech act. 言语行为也可以分为直接或间接。在直接言语行为中，其语言结构与其正在进行的工作之间存在直接关系。在间接言语行为中，言语行为是通过执行另一种言语行为间接进行的。

3,Felicity conditions are sets of necessary conditions for as illocution to 'count'.

4,The true illocutionary force of an indirect speech act can be inferred from the fact that one or more of the felicity conditions of the 'surface' speech act have been obviously violated, while at the same time one or more of the felicit conditions for the indirect speech act have been mentioned or questioned. 间接言语行为的真正言外之意可以从“表面”言语行为的一个或多个幸福条件明显受到侵犯这一事实推断出来，同时间接言论中的一个或多个条件是间接的。言语行为已被提及或质疑。

八章，Politeness礼貌

一，(名词解释15分)

二，,Summary(判断题15分):

1，Leech analysed politeness by the use of maxims. The tact maxim: minimize cost to other; maximize benefit to other helps distinguish requests from offers and infiuences the way we structure directives. The approbationi maxim: minimize dispraise of other; maximize praise of other infuences the way we structure representatives.

2，Leech observed that the higher the cost for the hearer in a directive, or the greater the potential for dispraising the hearer in a representative, the more likely it is for the speaker to be

indirect. However, the social distance between the speaker and hearer can also influence the degree of directness used.

3，Brown and Levinson analyse politeness as showing awareness of the need to preserve face (public self-image).

4，Positive politeness orients to preserving a person's selfimage as an accepted, valued and liked member of a socia group. Negative politeness orients to a person's self-image as an free individual who should not be imposed upon.

九章，Making Sense理解意义

一，(名词解释15分)

二，,Summary(判断题15分):

1，The context of the discourse and our knowledge of the world help us to resolve potential ambiguity and vagueness in utterances, and to fill in missing information.

．

2，In order to make sense of a series of utterances, we have to draw implicatures about the way the utterances are relevant to each other. Again, we are helped to draw these implicatures by world knowledge and the discourse context.

3，The language itself can help set up a context which constrains our thinking, as we saw in the dihydrogen monoxide example. This is sometimes called 'atmosphere effect'.

4，Context can play a powerful role in the interpretation of metaphors and similes.

人名与理论

1，As a term, it was initially employed by Charles William Morris. In 1938, this American professor of philosophy published an article entitled The Foundations of the Theory of Signs. This is often referred to as the modern use of the word pragmatics.

3，Leech distinguishes between three possible ways of structuring this relationship: semanticism, pragmaticism and complementarism.

4，Pragmatics studies the factors that govern our choice of language in social interaction and the effects of our choice on others. (Crystal, 1987:120)

5，Pragmatics can be usefully defined as the study of how utterances have meanings in situations. (Leech, 1983:X)

6，Pragmatics is the study of how more gets communicated than is said. (Yule, 1996:3)

7，There is a distinction between a hearer’s knowledge of her language and her knowledge of the world. In this section, I shall argue that it is this distinction that underlies the distinction between semantics and pragmatics.(Blakemore, 1992:39)

8，To Diane Blakemore, both semantics and pragmatics are related with language and to each other

9，语用学是语言学的一个崭新的领域，它研究在特定情景中的特定话语，研究如何通过语境来理解和使用语言。语用学是理解语言、使用语言的学问；语用学是讲究语言合适、得体

的学问。（何自然，1997：1~8）

10, 语用学研究在不同语境中话语意义的恰当地表达和准确地理解，寻找并确立使话语意义得以恰当地表达和理解的基本原则和准则。（索振羽，2000：14）

11, 我们不能谈论句子本身是真是假，只能说我们用它们来作出真或假的断言，或者换句话说，用它们来表达一个真的或假的命题。(Rosenberg and Travis, 1971:180)

转引自何自然《语用学与英语学习》1997:80

12, 这一概念在句法和语法研究中时而被与“陈述”等同，时而又被解释为“句子的意义”，在定义上无从一致。（钱敏汝：篇章语用学，p23）

指形式为简单陈述句的一个陈叙，其主要内容构成一个意义单位。（现代语言学词典，沈家煊译P289）

13, Yule（1996）对前提和蕴涵的共性和差异作了十分简明扼要的归纳

14, Leech 曾把语用前提这个概念粗略地解释为“在说X时，说话人自认为Y理所当然是真实的”（1981:287）。

15, Chomsky proposed to call the information carried by words like JOHN, BILL focus, and the embedded clause “Someone writes poetry” presupposition.

16, 1938年美国哲学家莫里斯首先提出“语用学”这一专业术语和符号学三分说，这是语用学研究的开端。

17, 首先，美国哲学家奥斯汀在1955年提出了“言语行为理论”，向当时的逻辑实证主义(logical positivism)发起了挑战。

18, 美国语言学家塞尔提出了间接言语行为理论，继承、修正、发展了奥斯汀的言语行为理论

19, 美国语言哲学家格赖斯于1967年的哈佛大学的讲座演讲会上，提出了具有重要意义和深远影响的“会话含义理论”以及“合作原则”及其包含的四条准则：量准则、质准则、关系准则和方式准则

20, 1977年，《语用学杂志》的出版标志着语用学作为一门独立的新学科正式得到了承认。21, 格赖斯1967年提出“合作原则”和“会话含义”的理论，

22, 格赖斯在1957年的《意义》一文中正式提出了“非自然意义理论”

23, 格赖斯在1967年哈佛大学的威廉·詹姆士讲座上，提出了“合作原则”与“会话含义”两个重要概念。

2，John Austin’s William James Lectures at Harvard University in 1955. In 1962, his lectures sheets were collected and reprinted as a pamphlet entitled How to Do Things with Words,

3，John Searle, professor of philosophy at the University of California at Berkeley, continued Austin’s discussion and published Speech Acts (1969) and Indirect Speech Acts (1975)

4，Henry Paul Grice who gave a serial of speeches at the William James Lectures at Harvard University in 1967 about “Logic and Conversation”

5，Pragmatics was established as an independent discipline with the publishing of the Journal of Pragmatics co-edited by Hartmut Haberland and Jacob L. Mey in 1977。

6，Stephen Levinson’s Pragmatics (1983); Geoffrey Leech’s Principles of Pragmatics (1983)