传播学经典理论英文版 打印1

传播学经典理论英文版[中文批注]

目录

一、 Opinion Leaders 意见领袖 _____________________________________________ 2

二、 5W Box 5w 理论 _____________________________________________________ 2

三、 The Bias of Communication 传媒偏向论 __________________________________ 2

四、 The Spiral of Silence 沉默的螺旋 ________________________________________ 3

五、 Gatekeeper 把关人理论 _______________________________________________ 4

六、 Selective exposure hypothesis 选择性接触假说 _____________________________ 4

七、 Knowledge Gap Theory 知识沟假说______________________________________ 5

八、 Agenda Setting Theory 议程设置理论 ____________________________________ 5

九、 Magic bullet theory 魔弹论 _____________________________________________ 5

十、 Information （Innovation）Diffusion Theory 信息（创新）扩散论 ____________ 6

十一、 Uses and gratifications theory (UGT) 使用与满足理论 ______________________ 7

十二、 Cultivation theory 教养理论 ____________________________________________ 8

十三、 Limited-Effects Theory 有限效果论 ______________________________________ 8

十四、 Marshall Mcluhan Media Theory 麦克卢汉的媒介理论 _______________________ 9

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一、 Opinion Leaders 意见领袖

Active in information networks, have many information channels ,so they can often provide information and advice for others and can influence others.

意见领袖是指在人际传播网络中经常为他人提供信息，同时对他人施加影响的“活跃分子”，他们在大众传播效果的形成过程中起着重要的中介或过滤的作用，由他们将信息扩散给受众，形成信息传递的两级传播。

二、 5W Box 5w 理论

1. Who communicates to whom?(sources and receivers)

2. Why communicate?(function an

d purposes)

3. How does communication take place?(channels,languages,codes)

4. What about?(conten t,references,types of information)

5. What are the outcomes of communication (intend or unintended ), for information, understandings, action the Rise of Mass Mdia

美国学者H·拉斯维尔于1948年在《传播在社会中的结构与功能》一篇论文中，首次提出了构成传播过程的五种基本要素，并按照一定结构顺序将它们排列，形成了后来人们称之“五W模式”或“拉斯维尔程式”的过程模式。这五个W分别是英语中五个疑问代词的第一个字母，即： Who （谁） Says What （说了什么） In Which Channel （通过什么渠道） To Whom （向谁说） With What Effect （有什么效果）。

三、 The Bias of Communication 传媒偏向论

Innis’ central focus is the social history of communication media; he believed that the rela tive stability of cultures depends on the balance and proportion of their media. To begin our inquiry into this area, he suggests we ask three basic questions: How do specific communic ation technologies operate? What assumptions do they take from and contribute to society ? What forms of power do they encourage?

For Innis, a key to social change is found in the development of communication media. He cl aims that each medium embodies a bias in terms of the organization and control of informa tion. Any empire or society is generally concerned with duration over time and extension in space.

Time-biased media, such as stone and clay, are durable and heavy. Since they are difficult to move, they do not encourage territorial expansion; however, since they have a long life, the y do encourage the extension of empire over time. Innis associated these media with the cu

stomary, thesacred, and the moral. Time-biased media facilitate the development of social h ierarchies, as archetypally exemplified by ancient Egypt. For Innis, speech is a time-biased m edium.

Space-biased media are light and portable; they can be transported over large distances. Th ey are associated with secular and territorial societies; they facilitate the expansion of empir e over space. Paper is such a medium; it is readily transported, but has a relatively short life span.

伊尼斯发现，媒介可以分为两大类，两者有一个基本的区别：有利于空间上延伸的媒介和有利于时间上延续的媒介。比如，石版文字和泥版文字耐久，它们承载的文字具有永恒的性质，容易传承。但是，它们不容易运输，不容易生产，不容易使用，因而不利于空间上的传播。相反，莎草纸和纸张轻巧，容易运输，使用方便，能够远距离传播迅息，然而它们传播的迅息却限于当下，就比较短暂。

他认为，传播和传播媒介都有偏向，大体上分为：口头传播的偏向与书面传播的偏向，时间的偏向与空间的偏向。下面这段话，痛快淋漓地阐明伊尼斯“传播偏向论”的意旨、要害，说明媒介的性质和偏向，并且说明媒介为何有这些偏向。他说：

“倚重时间的媒介，其性质耐久，羊皮纸、黏土和石头即为其例……倚重空间的媒介，耐久性比较逊色，质地比较轻。后者适合广袤地区的治理和贸易……倚重空间的材料，有利于集中化……我们考虑大规模的政治组织，比如帝国时，必须立足在空间和时间两个方面。我们要克服媒介的偏向，既不过分倚重时间，也不过分倚重空间。”强调媒介偏向、时间偏向和空间偏向的关系，并指出媒介与国家僚体制和宗教的关系。他说：

“一个成功的帝国必须充分认识到空间问题，空间问题既是军事问题，也是政治问题；它还要认识到时间问题，时间问题既是朝代问题和人生寿限问题，也是宗教问题。又说：“国家的官僚体制倚重空间，忽略时间。相反，宗教却倚重时间，忽略空间。”

四、 The Spiral of Silence 沉默的螺旋

T he spiral of silence is a political science and mass communication theory propounded by th e German political scientist Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann. Spiral of silence theory describes th e process by which one opinion becomes dominant as those who perceive their opinion to b e in the minority do not speak up because society threatens individuals with fear of isolatio n. The assessment of one's social environment may not always correlate with reality.

For a controversial issue, people will watch the "climate of opinion" before they make com ments . judging their opinion whether the "majority opinion", when people feel that their vi ews are "majority" or in the "advantage" , it will tend to boldly express this opinion; when fo und his views are "a few" or in a "disadvantage" they often remain "silent." The more peopl e remain silent, the more feel that their views are not well accepted, thus a result, the more they tend to remain silent.

Repeated several times, they form representing "dominant" status views and more powerfu l, while holding "inferior" opinions of people sound more and more weak, such a cycle, form ing a "one more loudly, and the other more and more silent spiral down the process. "

沉默的螺旋理论提供了一种考虑问题的视角：团队意见的形成不一定是团队成员“理性讨论”的结果，而可能是对团队中“强势”意见的趋同后的结果。需要注意的是：“强势”意见所强调的东西，不一定就是正确的。当团队中的少数意见与“多数”意见不同的时候，少数有可能屈于“优势意见”的压力，表面上采取认同，但实际上内心仍然坚持自己的观点，这就可能出现某些团队成员公开“表达的意见”与团队成员“自己的意见”不一致。要跳出沉默的螺旋，唯一的出路就是尊重少数派，聆听反对者的声音。

五、 Gatekeeper 把关人理论

Lewin was first proposed this idea.

A gatekeeper is a human who controls access to something, for example via a city gate. In th e late 20th century the term came into metaphorical use, referring to individuals who decid e whether a given message will be distributed by a mass medium.The information was scree ned and filtered by communicator. Communicators decide what we can see and how we can

see .

传播者不可避免地会站在自己的立场和视角上，对信息进行筛选和过滤，这种对信息进行筛选和过滤的传播行为就叫做把关（即守门），凡有这种传播行为的人就叫做把关人（守门人）。

六、 Selective exposure hypothesis 选择性接触假说

Audience in the contact information of the mass media is not indiscriminate, but more willi ng to choose the contents that are the same or similar to their opinion, and for the contents of this confrontation or conflict, there is a tendency to avoid.

受众的群体背景可以分成两个方面，一是人口统计学意义的群体，包括性别、年龄、籍贯、民族、职业、学历等等；二是社会关系意义上的群体，如家庭、单位、团体、政治、经济和文化的归属阶层，宗教信仰群体等等。受众个人的群体属性不同，意味着他们所处的时代、社会环境、社会化的条件、社会地位、价值和信念、对事物的立场观点和看法、心理特点和文化背景都有很大差异，对大众传媒信息的需求、接触和反应方式也是千差万别。

七、 Knowledge Gap Theory 知识沟假说

Because the people who have higher economic status is usually much faster to get informati on than those of low socioeconomic status, therefore, the more information is transmitted by the mass media , the knowledge gap between the two types of people is more tend to ex pand.

基本观点：

（1）随着大众传播媒介向社会传播信息的增多，社会经济状况好的人将比差的人以更快的速度获取信息，因此两类人之间的知识沟扩大，而不是缩小。

（2）一段时间内媒介大量宣传某话题，文化程度较高的人比低的人以更快的速度吸取该话题的知识。

（3）在特定的时间里，较之未大量宣传的话题，在媒介大量宣传的话题上，所获知识与教育程度有更高的相关性。

八、 Agenda Setting Theory 议程设置理论

Mass media report an issue or not directly affect people's perception on the subject. Mass media highlights an issue will cause people to pay more attention to the issue.

Mass media on a range of topics give different levels of coverage according to a certain orde r of priority, it will affect people’s judgment about importance of these issues .

1968年，麦克姆斯和肖对总统大选进行了调查，看媒介议程对公众议程有多大的影响。1972年提出了议程设置理论，该理论认为大众传播往往不能决定人们对某一事件或意见的具体看法，但可以通过提供给信息和安排相关的议题来有效地左右人们关注哪些事实和意见及他们谈论的先后顺序。大众传播可能无法影响人们怎么想，却可以影响人们去想什么。

九、 Magic bullet theory 魔弹论

The message sent by the mass media is like a magic bullet, but the audience as the target wi thout protection ,so the audience can easily be knocked down by the message sent by the mass media. The theory is that mass media have powerful force which can directly affect au dience.

“魔弹论”：又称“皮下注射理论”，这是一种有关媒介具有强大效果的观点。它的核心内容是：传播媒介拥有不可抵抗的强大力量，它们所传递的信息在受传者身上就像子弹击中身体，药剂注入皮肤一样，可以引起直接速效的反应；它们能够左右人们的态度和意见，甚至直接支配他们的行动。这种理论流行于第一次世界大战至20世纪30 年代，到40 年代这一理论便

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为宣传的实践所打破。

十、 Information （Innovation）Diffusion Theory 信息（创新）扩散论

Information （Innovation）Diffusion Theory is a theory that seeks to explain how, why, and at what rate new ideas and technology spread through cultures. Everett Rogers, a professor of communication studies,

popularized the theory in his book Diffusion of Innovations; Rogers argues that diffusion is t he process by which an innovation is communicated through certain channels over time am ong the participants in a social system. The origins of the diffusion of innovations theory are varied and span multiple disciplines. Rogers proposes that four main elements influence th e spread of a new idea: the innovation itself, communication channels, time, and a social sys tem. This process relies heavily on human capital. The innovation must be widely adopted in order to self-sustain. Within the rate of adoption, there is a point at which an innovation re aches critical mass. The categories of adopters are: innovators, early adopters, early majorit y, late majority, and laggards. Diffusion manifests itself in different ways in various cultures a nd fields and is highly subject to the type of adopters and innovation-decision process.

创新推广理论（Innovation Diffusion Theory）又译成创新传播理论、创新散布理论、创新扩散理论、革新传播理论等。“创新推广”最早出现于 20 世纪初法国社会学家、哲学家 Gabriel Tarde的《模仿定律》（the Law of Imitation）一书。

最早将现代创新推广理论运用于实践研究中的是美国爱荷华州立大学的 Ryan 和 Gross 于 1943 年进行的一个农业研究项目。Ryan 和 Gross 从农业社会学的角度出发，对创新技术的一些采用者进行访谈，以此来考察与采用技术相关的一系列因素。这种基于访谈形式的研究方法从此成为创新推广研究的一种主要研究法。

而最早将扩散推广理论作为传播学内容进行研究的，同时在这方面的研究中最负盛名的当首推传播学家罗杰斯(Everett M. Rogers)及其著作《创新推广》(Diffusion of Innovation)。《创新推广》初版发行于1960年，现在最新的版本为1995年修订版。罗杰斯在书中认为，创新推广是指一项新事物通过特定的传播通道，逐渐为某些特定社群成员所了解与采用的过程，也是推广作用的应用。书中所论述到的创新推广理论中，其中有几点受到广泛关注：（一）创新的推广决策过程，包括五个阶段 1、获知(Knowledge)——接触创新并略知其如何运作 2、说服(Persuasion)——有关创新的态度形成 3、决策(Decision)——确定采用或拒绝一项创新活动 4、实施(Implementation)——投入创新的运用

5、确认(Confirmation)——强化或撤回关于创新的决定（二）受采用的创新的特征

1、相对优越性——一项创新优越于它所取代的旧观念的程度；

2、兼容性——一项创新与现有价值观、以往经验预期采用者的需求同存的程度；

3、复杂性——一项创新理解和运用的难度；

4、可实验性——一项创新在有限基础上可被试验的程度；

十一、 Uses and gratifications theory (UGT) 使用与满足理论

Uses and gratifications theory (UGT) is an approach to understanding why and how people a ctively seek out specific media to satisfy specific needs. UGT is an audience-centered approa ch to understanding mass communication. Diverging from other media effect theories that question "what does media do to people?", UGT focuses on "what do people do with media ?" This communication theory is positivistic in its approach, based in the socio-psychologica l communication tradition, and focuses on communication at the mass media scale. The driv ing question of UGT is: Why do people use media and what do they use them for? UGT disc usses how users deliberately choose media that will satisfy given needs and allow one to en hance knowledge, relaxation, social interactions/companionship, diversion, or escape.

It assumes that audience members are not passive consumers of media. Rather, the audienc e has power over their media consumption and assumes an active role in interpreting and in tegrating media into their own lives. Unlike other theoretical perspectives, UGT holds that a udiences are responsible for choosing media to meet their desires and needs to achieve grat ification. This theory would then imply that the media compete against other information so urces for viewers' gratification.

UGT has a heuristic value today because it gives communication scholars a "perspective thro ugh which a number of ideas and theories about media choice, consumption, and even imp

act can be viewed

使用与满足理论（Uses and Gratifications theory ）是认为阅听人（media audience）可以主动使用媒体来寻找可满足自身需求的信息。认为阅听人并非各类媒体下的无助者，而是可利用媒体来满足各类不同的需求，这些需求即阅听人使用媒介的动机。

使用与满足理论是由Elihu Katz、Jay Blumler、Mickael Gurevitch等学者于1974年出版的《大众传播媒体的使用》（The uses of Mass Communication）一书中所提出。此理论强调以「主动的阅听人」为中心，反对媒体万能论以来被动接收者的概念，认为阅听人绝非被动的接收者，强调阅听人和媒体之间的自愿性和选择性。此一理论开启了新的研究方向，开始了阅听人如何运用传媒的研究，并持续发展出许多的相关研究。

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十二、 Cultivation theory 教养理论

Cultivation theory is a social theory which examines the long-term effects of television. "The primary proposition of cultivation theory states that the more time people spend "living" in the television world, the more likely they are to believe social reality portrayed on televisio n. Cultivation leaves people with a misperception of what is true in our world. Developed by George Gerbner and Larry Gross of the University of Pennsylvania, cultivation theory derived from several large-scale research projects as part of an overall research proje ct entitled 'Cultural Indicators'. The purpose of the Cultural Indicators project was to identify and track the 'cultivated' effects of television on viewers. They were "concerned with the ef fects of television programming (particularly violent programming) on the attitudes and beh aviors of the American public." Gerbner asserts that the overall concern about the effects of television on audiences stemmed from the unprecedented centrality of television in Americ an culture. "The theory clearly posits that the cultivation effect occurs only after long-term, cumulative exposure to television. " He claimed that because TV contains so much violence, "people who spend the most time in front of the tube develop an exaggerated belief in a m ean and scary world. "He posited that television as a mass medium of communication had f ormed into a common symbolic environment that bound diverse communities together, soci alizing people into standardized roles and behaviors. "Today, the TV set is a key member of t he household, with virtually unlimited access to every person in the family." He compared t he power of television to the power of religion, saying that television was to modern society what religion once was in earlier times.

Cultivation Analysis is a positivistic theory, meaning it assumes the existence of objective re ality and value-neutral research. A study conducted by Jennings Bryant and Dorina Miron (2 004), which surveyed almost 2,000 articles published in the three top mass communication j ournals since 1956, found that Cultivation Analysis was the third most frequently utilized th eory, showing that it continues to be one of the most popular theories in mass communicati on research.

教养理论（Cultivation Theory），又称培养理论、涵化理论、涵化假设、涵化分析，格伯纳等人认为，在现代社会传播媒介提示的“象征性现实”对人们认识和理解现实世界发挥着巨大的影响。由于传播媒介的某些倾向性、人们在心目中描绘的“主观现实”与实际存在的客观现实之间发生着很大的偏离。同时，这种影响不是短期的，而是一个长期的、潜移默化的、培养的过程，它在不知不觉当中制约着人们的现实观。在这个意义上，格伯纳等人将这一研究称为“教养理论”。

十三、 Limited-Effects Theory 有限效果论

1. Media rarely directly influence individuals.

2. There is a two-step flow of media influence.

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3. By the time most people become adults, they have developed strongly held group commitments such as political party and religious affiliations. These affiliations provide an e ffective barrier against media influence.

4. When media effects do occur, they are modest and isolated.

有限效果论主要观点是：大众传播没有力量直接改变受传者对事物的态度，在人们作出某种决定之际，许多其他因素起着重要的作用，其中包括个人的政治、经济、文化、心理的既有倾向受传者对信息的需求和选择性接触机制，群体归属关系和群体规范，大众传播过程中的人际影响等等。

十四、 Marshall Mcluhan Media Theory 麦克卢汉的媒介理论

1. The extensions of man

Mcluhan’s idea that media literally extend sight,hearing,and touch through time and space. 2. The M edium Is the Massage

Mcluhan’s idea the new forms of media transform our experience of ourselves and our society and th is influence is ultimately more important than the content of specific messages. 3. The Glob al Village

Mcluhan’s conception of a new form of social organization emerging as instantaneous electronic med ia tie the entire world into one great social, political and cultural system 4. "Hot" and "cool" media

In the first part of Understanding Media, McLuhan also stated that different media invite dif ferent degrees of participation on the part of a person who chooses to consume a medium. Some media, such as film, were "hot" - that is, they enhance one single sense, in this case vi sion, in such a manner that a person does not need to exert much effort in filling in the deta ils of a movie image. McLuhan contrasted this with "cool" TV, which he claimed requires mo re effort on the part of viewer to determine meaning, and comics, which due to their minim al presentation of visual detail require a high degree of effort to fill in details that the cartoo nist may have intended to portray. A movie is thus said by McLuhan to be "hot", intensifying one single sense "high definition", demanding a viewer's attention, and a comic book to be "cool" and "low definition", requiring much more conscious participation by the reader to e xtract value.

麦克卢汉的媒介理论：

（一）媒介是人体的延伸（二）媒介即讯息（三）热媒介与冷媒介

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（四）地球村

（五）对麦克卢汉媒介理论的总体评价

（一）媒介是人体的延伸

1、内容

媒介是人体感官能力的延伸和扩展:文字印刷媒介是视觉能力的延伸，广播是听觉能力的延伸，电视是视觉、听觉和触觉能力的延伸。 2、评价

（1）这个观点的提出是为了说明传播媒介对人类感觉中枢的影响，他认为媒介和社会的发展史同时也是人的感官能力由"统合——分化——再统合"的历史。

（2）麦克卢汉的"媒介即人的延伸"的观点具有重要的启发意义，但是它并不是严密的科学考察的结论，而是建立在"洞察"基础上的一种思辨性的推论。（二）媒介即讯息 1、内容

媒介本身才是真正的讯息，也就是说，人类有了某种媒介才可能从事与之相应的传播或其他社会活动，因此真正有意义的讯息不是各个时代的传播内容，而是这个时代所使用的传播工具的性质，以及它所带来的可能性和造成的社会后果。 2、评价意义:

（1）这是麦克卢汉对传播媒介技术在人类社会发展中的地位和作用的高度概括。（2）强调媒体是社会发展的动力，也是区分不同社会形态的标志缺陷:

（1）把媒介技术看作社会发展的唯一动力——极端性

（2）忽略了人的主观能动性，社会制度对它的制约——片面性，因为媒介是人创造的，人如何利用和控制媒介，媒介的社会占有结构，所有制关系如何，也反过来规定媒介活动的特点和作用性质。

（三）热媒介与冷媒介 1、含义

（1）热媒介:传递的信息明确清晰，接受者无须动员更多的感官和思维活动就能理解，它本身就是"热的"，如照片、广播、电影等。需要受众参与其中的程度低

（2）冷媒介:提供给受众的讯息模糊、不充分，需要受众予以补充、联想，受众参与其中的程度高，如漫画、电视、电话等。 2、评价

麦克卢汉主张将媒介这样划分，是为说明正确运用它的重要，给人以启示。各种媒介作用于人的方式不同，引起的心理行为反应也各具特点，对媒介的研究应把这些因素考虑在内，但是这种分类的确有些牵强而且似是而非。四）地球村 1、内容:

在自然社会，口语是主要以传播媒介，人的交往受距离的限制，文学印刷媒介产生后，人类由"耳朵的社会"进入"眼睛的社会"人与人之间联系变得疏远。电子媒介的出现与普及改变了这种状况，它们以接近于实时的传播速度和强烈的现场感、目击感把遥远的世界拉得很近，，人与人之间的距离感觉上大大缩短，于是整个世界变成一个"地球村"，任何国家和社会都是村庄的一部分。 2、影响

地球村的出现和发展给人类社会带来极大影响，人与人，社会与社会，国家与国家的相互依赖性及关系的密切程度大大增强，经社交等社会结构要素的形态发生了前所未有的变化。

（五）对麦克卢汉媒介理论的总体评价

1、意义

（1）他的理论有独到的见解，他将媒介的概念扩大，不仅指大众传播和人际传播的媒介，而且包括人际互动的所有介质。

（2）他将媒介置于一个广阔的社会，历史情境中研究。因此其媒介分析有了高度和纵深的品质。开拓了从媒介技术出发观察人类社会发展的视角，并强调了媒介技术的社会历史作用。

（3）他的这些认识角度和方式开拓了媒介研究的眼界与范围，也使人们真正看到媒介作为客观存在自身的价值和作用。

（4）关于地球村的预言也符合当前世界的发展趋势。 2、局限

（1）只强调媒介工具和技术的巨大能动性，把媒介技术视为社会发展和变革的唯一决定因素，忽略了其他复杂社会因素的作用。

（2）忽略了人的主体性和主观能动性，人仿佛成为媒介主宰的对象。（3）忽视媒介具体内容，对冷热媒介划分过于牵强

（4）全部依据都集中在媒介工具对中枢感觉系统的影响上，由此解释的人类行为也是片面的。

1、冷媒介和热媒介

A hot medium is one that extend one single sense in “high definition “High definition is the state of being well filled with date.And ,hot media do not leave so much to be filled or in completed by the audience,namly,low in participation,such as radia,moive.By contrast ,a

cold mediun is low dedinition and it gives a amount of information,there,cool media are high in participation or completion by audience.for example,a photo ,there is too little information to understand.

2两级传播.two-step flow of communication

In simple words,it can be drawn”media source—opinion leaders ---general population.”when the opinion leaders adopted that from media ,thus,changes had happened on the pupulace.this suggests that ideas ofen flow from to the opinion leaders and from them the less active section of the population.To illustrate it ,I’ll give an example:A man is going to vote A for predisent,but his friend strongly recommended B,what’s more,his friend lists many reasons that from media ,at last,the man choosed B.The voting course is the two-step flow of communication.

3. 意见领袖opinion leadership

The opinion leadership playd a special role in the network of personal relationgships, they engaged in political dission much more than the rest of the respondents. o illustrate it ,I’ll give an example:A man is going to vote A for predisent,but his friend strongly recommended B,what’s more,his friend lists many reasons that from media ,at last,the man choosed B.In this course ,the friend is the opinion leadership.

3.Three hypothetial positions

①．The first hypothetial position is the dominant-hegemonic position,state in another way,when the viewer takes the connoted meaning from a medium ,the decodes the message in terms of the reference code in which it has been ecoded,we might say the viewer is operating inside the dominant code.

②.The second is negotiated code.simply,corporate decodings,decoding within the negotiated version contains a mixture of adaptive and oppositional elements.what’s more, negotiated codes operate through particular or situated logics.

③.The third is oppositional code.As we all know,it is possible for a viwer perfectly to understand the meaning given by a discourse but to decode the message in a globally contrary way.Viwers detotalized the message in the preferred code in order to retotalize the message.

4. Ecoding and decoding编码和译码

Ecoding is that the media express their ideas through constructing some of the limits and parameters.It can attempt to”pre-let”but can’t prescibe or guarantee.Dedoding has its own conditions of existence.The audience understands the message in their own way.Thus,there is no necessary correspondence between encoding and decoding,and, the two hardly be “a perfectly equivalent circuit”.

5.MINERVA’s Owl begins its flight only in the gathe ring dusk.

Literally,the MINERVA is the wisdom goddness of Roman,and the “owl”refers to intelligence.The whole senstence means that the crystallization(结晶) of culture achieved in the period that saw the decline the fall of civilization. In history,the illustration (例子)are abundant，such as classical Greece,Rome,the rupublican cities of Itanly,and so forth.

6.According to Innis,what’s follow after the flowering of the culture?(这道题答案不是很确定哦!)

After the flowering of the culture,here comes its collapse.As the sa ying puts it , MINERVA’s Owl begins its flight only in the gathering dusk.Taking Byzantine Empire (拜占庭帝国) as an example:When it achieved great culture in forteen centuries and fifteen centuries,howerve ,it was falling into ingredent(崩溃) communication and that marked changes in communication.

传播学四大奠基人（the four funders of comminicatiology）

https://www.360docs.net/doc/ca12447437.html,zarsfeld :opinion leadship; two-step flow of communication

https://www.360docs.net/doc/ca12447437.html,sswell:5W

3.Lewin: gate-keeper;(把关人)

4.Cart horland :research of persuasion(说服效果研究)

PS：美国学者多为经验学派（emprical shool）,欧洲尤其是以Frankfort学派为代表主要为批判学派（critical school）