IPC REFORM Objectives and principal Features
信息系统管理中的工作(英文)
Our Work In Management Information SystemsINTRODUCTION TO MISWhat is "Management Information Systems (MIS)"?Field Began in Early 80s MIS bridges the gap between end-users and technical staffs (e.g. programmers) Consider the three key words (management, information, & systems) that have significant implications:Management:Managing resources that include people, machinery (technology and computers),money, and time, etc. You have to consider three managerial factors together in MIS: effectiveness, efficiency and profitability.Effectiveness – how well a firm is pursuing a goal or objective of its business; for instance, providing quality product/service can be a business goal that is usually stated in a firm's mission statement; Management by objective (MBO), etc. Efficiency – best use of resources, a synonym is productivity = output divided by input. Productivity is measured in general by a ratio of OUTPUT to INPUT. Here, output indicates revenue, market share, etc., while input indicates labor, raw materials, administrative costs, operations costs, and IT related costs.Profitability - The empirical studies in the IS literature have reported that on the contrary to the management's belief, there exists no significant difference in the profitability between before and after the new IS implementation. In other words, the new IS does not make significant profitability increase whatsoever. In general, the bottom line in any business is the profitability. If it does not enhance the profitability, then what is a point to go through all the trouble to develop/implement a new IS? Using IT is not the perfect solution for every business situation. Whenever a new ITor information systems (IS) are implemented, additional costs incur. They can be costs related to hardware, software, training, maintenance, etc. Therefore, thecost-benefit analysis should be conducted prior to a new systems implementation. InformationRelates to the computer; refers to knowledge. Data are a source for the information. If the data are processed in a meaningful way, they become "information." Here, IT can contribute. Information can be extracted easily through IT (e.g. computer) if data are properly processed.Therefore, the second word in M.I.S. indicates IT or computer. Of course, information can be obtained by a primitive way such as manual sorting, etc. by a clerk. Using ITdefinitely outperform any other means in history, in terms of processing data.SystemsIf a nice system is made, it is self-running which leads to reducing the people necessary to the business process. Systems Theory, Systems approach Systematically doing business Systems comes from systems theory that stresses the importance of systems approach to problem solving and a structured way to control and adjust automatically. Computer programmers and software engineers/developers realized it was only way to reduce a possibility of encountering errors later in the systems development process. When you construct a new/better system for the current business operations/decision-making process, you don't want to make a computer program based on the current business way. Instead, you develop a new model after serious analysis of the current system, so later can save resource in terms of time and money by avoiding a possible mistake/error. Therefore, business process reengineering (BPR) is unthinkable without a sound understanding of systemstheory/concepts.MIS is a field of science that studies on (1) how better we can manage technologies (2) how better we can design information systems, in order to enhance a firm's effectiveness, efficiency and profitability.MIS is a new subject in the last ten to fifteen years. The idea is still being researched since the concept is being evolved. A teacher's bias has a large impact on this type of subject.Classification of Specialties in MIS∙Systems Planning∙Systems Development∙Systems Review and Enhancement∙Special Computer ApplicationsSystems Planning - facilities planning, distributed processing systems, systems organization, management and staff development and training, and application of new technologies.Systems Development - feasibility study and cost benefit analysis, development of detailed system specifications, equipment selection and configuration, softwareprocurement / technical supervision of programming, implementation assistance, documentation and user training.Systems Review and Enhancement - re-evaluation of information processing requirements, complete information system productivity audits, hard-ware/software performance evaluation and fine tuning, assessment and improvement of application program efficiency, staff productivity, data processing operations, studies of system development and testing procedures, environment, security and reliability.Special Computer Applications - production planning and scheduling, inventory control, re-source allocation, transportation and distribution logistics, least-cost formulation, personnel planning and administration, project management/control, system simulation, corporate models, information retrieval and analysis, process control, scientific and engineering applications.Our Approach to MIS DesignAll modern organizations are characterized by the need for management information. However this need is met, from the simplest verbal reporting system to the most sophisticated computerized system, certain basic principles must be observed if the information provided is to contribute to effective management, at a reasonable cost. Management information must be timely, accurate and in a format that lends itself to decision making. The cost of obtaining it must not exceed its value in the decision making process.RMC believes that an information system must be designed to take account of the nature of the client's business, the structure of the organization and the managerial styles of the system users. Data to be processed should be captured once only - and preferably by those who originate it and are most familiar with it. This means that the information system must be geared for simple yet efficient use by operators with minimal system training, and must facilitate input error detection and correction. Our goals in information system design are to provide maximum flexibility and growth capacity for the system while minimizing operating costs and implementation disruptions.System Performance AuditOnce established, an information system must be audited periodically to ensure that it is performing all the tasks required of it as efficiently and effectively as possible.Growth of the organization, increased volume of business, changes in the business environment, technological changes and newly conceived information requirements all place increased demands on existing information systems and often cause them to be modified or extended on an ad hoc basis.Our staff has the specialized skills and experience to perform a thorough audit on existing information systems and to recommend changes in design, equipment, software and procedures, to bring them up-to-date and to peak performance.An information system audit should be performed every three years, or when processing capacity appears to be strained and upgrading of facilities is being considered.Typical AssignmentsAs part of the Guyana Health Sector Policy and Institutional Development Program funded by IADB, RMC designed a financial MIS/accounting system for health care delivery at the national/regional level and for the principal acute care facility in Georgetown.IS/IT Strategic Planning Review for the Trinidad & Tobago Ministry of Health. Assessment of the IS/IT requirements of the Directorate of Quality Management, and a recommended course of action with respect to the multi-year $135 million IADB funded Health Sector Reform Program leading to the establishment of a National Health Information Centre and the coordination of IS/IT upgrades for the principal medical sciences centre in the country.Secondment of a Senior Principal for a one year period to be the Director of the Project Management Office (PMO) of a Smart Systems for Health project of the Ontario Ministry of Health. The objectives for the PMO was to design infrastructure to deliver Smart System products and services; establish standards and policy for the future use of the technology; recommend governance, financing and security policies; coordinate efforts of health sector and technology partners; and raise health policy issues for determination by the Ministry of Health. About 80 professionals, including three from RMC were involved during the course of the project.In RMC's capacity as Advisors to the Estonia / World Bank Health Project, several information systems were developed and implemented for the Project Coordination Unit (PCU) at the Estonian Ministry of Social Affairs. These included:a comprehensive project accounting system to address all of the financial reporting requirements.a project management system to facilitate the planning, scheduling and progress monitoring of project tasks. This system schedules and monitors project procurement activities for performance, scheduling and cost control.Corporate Subject Database Profiles to serve as the initial guide for developing a comprehensive information system to support the broad information requirements associated with Estonia's future health financing system.Similar to the Estonia project, an assignment was conducted for the Republic of Georgia World Band Health Project; and for the Albania World Bank Health Project.As part of RMC's work advising Poland on restructuring its health services, our professional staff assisted the Ministry of Health and Social Welfare to develop an information systems strategy and determine appropriate computer hardware and software requirements. At the national and regional levels, the scope of our work included establishing MIS for planning and monitoring the delivery of health services. At the institutional level, our work covered the development of a comprehensive program for the acquisition of computer systems.RMC designed a comprehensive portfolio of computerized health management information systems for the Ugandan Ministry of Health to support national and district health information needs. This included systems to gather and manage data resources; analyze the public's health status; plan the program, service and resource requirements; monitor the effectiveness, cost and efficiency of the health care delivery systems; and support research and development initiatives. Conceptual design of an integrated health care planning system and related planning models was also developed as a by-product of this project.RMC analyzed the existing accounting and management information system for the delivery of health care services in the Bahama s, then designed and initiated an implementation program of an improved, integrated, computerized accounting and management information system for the Ministry of Health and the two hospitals. RMC also developed productivity standards for the MIS based on the Canadian Health Association's MIS guidelines, modified to reflect the Bahamian environment.RMC worked jointly with the provinces of British Columbia, Ontario and Nova Scotia on computer assisted planning for Alberta Hospitals and Medical Care. The Phase 1 feasibility study assessed extent, costs and implications of developing a computer-based tool to facilitate all pre-design and functional planning. Phase 2 included development of software and hardware requirements.。
《我最喜欢的作家叶圣陶》英语作文开头
《我最喜欢的作家叶圣陶》英语作文开头Ye Shengtao is a renowned Chinese writer who has made significant contributions to modern Chinese literature. His works are renowned for their profound insights into the human condition and their ability to captivate readers with their vivid depictions of Chinese culture and society. As a passionate reader and admirer of Ye Shengtao's writings I have found his works to be a constant source of inspiration and intellectual stimulation.One of the aspects of Ye Shengtao's writings that I find most compelling is his keen observation of the complexities of human nature. His characters are richly drawn and multidimensional, often grappling with the universal struggles and dilemmas that we all face in our lives. Whether it is the internal turmoil of a young scholar torn between his sense of duty and his desire for personal fulfillment or the moral quandaries faced by a community in the face of social upheaval Ye Shengtao's writings never fail to engage the reader on a deep and profound level.Furthermore Ye Shengtao's works are distinguished by theirmasterful use of language and narrative technique. His prose is both elegant and accessible, conveying complex ideas and emotions with a rare clarity and precision. The narrative structure of his stories is often highly sophisticated, with multiple perspectives and timelines woven together to create a rich tapestry of meaning. Yet despite this complexity the reader is never left feeling overwhelmed or disoriented rather they are drawn deeper and deeper into the world of the story.One of the works by Ye Shengtao that I find particularly captivating is his short story "The Kite". In this story Ye Shengtao masterfully explores the themes of childhood innocence loss of innocence and the enduring power of memory. The protagonist a young boy named Xiao Shuan is fascinated by the act of flying kites and finds in it a sense of freedom and joy that stands in stark contrast to the rigid and stifling social norms of his family and community. As the story progresses we witness Xiao Shuan's gradual disillusionment as he is forced to confront the harsh realities of the adult world including the hypocrisy and cruelty that lurk beneath the surface of his seemingly idyllic community.Yet despite the melancholy and bittersweet tone of the story Ye Shengtao never loses sight of the inherent beauty and wonder of childhood. The vivid descriptions of the kites soaring against the backdrop of the vast sky and the infectious sense of exhilaration thatXiao Shuan experiences when he is flying his own kite serve as a poignant counterpoint to the darker themes of the narrative. In the end the story leaves the reader with a profound sense of nostalgia and a deep appreciation for the fleeting nature of innocence.Another work by Ye Shengtao that I find deeply moving is his novel "The Wilderness". This sprawling and ambitious work tells the story of a group of intellectuals and activists who are forced to flee the city and take refuge in a remote mountain village during a period of political turmoil. The novel is a masterful exploration of the tension between individual and collective identity as the characters struggle to reconcile their personal desires and beliefs with the demands of the larger social and political context in which they find themselves.What I find most compelling about "The Wilderness" is the way in which Ye Shengtao weaves together the personal and the political to create a rich and multi-layered narrative. The characters are not merely pawns in a larger ideological struggle but fully realized individuals with their own hopes fears and moral dilemmas. The reader is drawn into their inner lives and experiences a profound sense of empathy and identification with their struggles.Moreover the novel is a powerful meditation on the nature of human society and the forces that shape it. Ye Shengtao's depiction of the remote mountain village is both a vivid and evocative portrait of aunique cultural and social milieu and a metaphor for the broader human condition. The characters' experiences of isolation alienation and the search for meaning in the face of adversity resonate with universal themes that transcend the specific historical and political context of the novel.In addition to his literary achievements Ye Shengtao was also a renowned educator and intellectual who made significant contributions to the development of modern Chinese education and cultural thought. As the principal of the prestigious Hangzhou Normal University he played a crucial role in shaping the educational philosophy and curriculum of the institution which became a hub of progressive thought and intellectual ferment during the early 20th century.Ye Shengtao's educational philosophy was rooted in a deep respect for the inherent dignity and worth of the individual. He believed that education should be a transformative process that empowers students to think critically to develop their own unique talents and perspectives and to engage actively with the world around them. This emphasis on individual agency and self-expression was a marked departure from the more authoritarian and rote-based educational models that had long dominated Chinese society.Moreover Ye Shengtao was a tireless advocate for the role of the artsand humanities in education. He believed that the study of literature history and philosophy was essential for cultivating the kind of holistic and nuanced understanding of the human condition that was necessary for meaningful personal and social transformation. Under his leadership Hangzhou Normal University became a center for the study of classical Chinese literature as well as the exploration of contemporary literary and artistic movements.Ye Shengtao's influence extended far beyond the walls of the university as well. As a public intellectual he was a vocal proponent of social and political reform and played a crucial role in the May Fourth Movement a pivotal moment in modern Chinese history that saw the rise of a new generation of intellectuals and activists committed to modernizing and democratizing Chinese society.Through his writings his educational work and his public advocacy Ye Shengtao left an indelible mark on the cultural and intellectual landscape of 20th century China. His legacy as a writer and thinker continues to inspire and influence new generations of readers and scholars who are drawn to the depth and complexity of his vision. For me personally Ye Shengtao's works have been a constant source of inspiration and intellectual nourishment and I am deeply grateful for the profound insights and perspectives that he has shared with the world.。
structural monetary policy
structural monetary policyStructural monetary policy refers to the implementation of measures to address structural issues in the economy through monetary policy tools. It aims to address long-term problems and promote sustainable economic growth. In this article, we will discuss the key components and examples of structural monetary policy.1. Assessing structural issues: The first step in implementing structural monetary policy is to identify and assess the structural issues affecting the economy. These issues can vary but are often related to labor market inefficiencies, technological advancements, demographic changes, and education and skill gaps. Central banks and policymakers use various data sources and indicators to identify these structural issues.2. Targeting economic sectors: Once the structural issues are identified, central banks can adopt a sector-specific approach to monetary policy. This involves designing policies tailored to specific sectors of the economy that are affected by structural issues. For example, if the labor market is experiencing a skills gap, monetary policy can be used to support education and training programs to address this issue.3. Promoting innovation and productivity: Structural monetary policy can also focus on promoting innovation and productivity in the economy. This can be achieved through measures such as providing easier access to financing for research and development activities, supporting start-ups and entrepreneurs, and creating incentives for businesses to adopt new technologies. These policiesaim to enhance long-term growth potential and competitiveness.4. Improving labor market efficiency: Another important component of structural monetary policy is improving labor market efficiency. This can involve measures such as facilitating labor market mobility, reducing regulatory barriers to employment, incentivizing job creation, and supporting training programs to enhance workers' skills. By addressing labor market inefficiencies, structural monetary policy can enhance employment prospects and economic growth.5. Addressing demographic challenges: Many economies face demographic challenges, such as aging populations and declining workforce participation rates. Structural monetary policy can address these challenges by implementing measures to increase labor force participation, incentivize immigration, and reform pension systems to ensure long-term sustainability. These policies aim to maintain productivity levels and support economic growth in the face of changing demographics.6. Enhancing financial sector stability: Structural monetary policy can also focus on enhancing financial sector stability. This involves implementing regulations and measures to address systemic risks and vulnerabilities in the financial system. By ensuring the stability of the financial sector, structural monetary policy contributes to overall macroeconomic stability and sustainable economic growth.7. Coordinating fiscal and monetary policies: In order to effectively address structural issues, coordination between fiscaland monetary policies is crucial. This involves aligning fiscal policies, such as government spending and taxation, with monetary policy objectives. Coordinated policies can enhance the effectiveness of structural measures and promote sustainable economic growth.Examples of structural monetary policy measures:- Targeted credit programs: Central banks can implement targeted credit programs to support specific sectors or industries facing structural challenges. For example, providing low-interest loans to small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) to promote innovation and technological adoption.- Education and training initiatives: Central banks can collaborate with governments to support education and training initiatives to address skill gaps in the labor market. This can involve funding vocational training programs, scholarships, or apprenticeships.- Incentives for research and development (R&D): Central banks can offer tax incentives or grants for businesses engaged in R&D activities to enhance innovation and productivity.- Regulatory reforms: Central banks can advocate for structural reforms, such as reducing barriers to entry, streamlining regulations, or improving labor market flexibility.- Support for entrepreneurship: Central banks can support entrepreneurship through initiatives like start-up incubators, venture capital funds, or mentorship programs.In conclusion, structural monetary policy aims to address long-term structural issues in the economy through targeted measures. By focusing on sectors, innovation, labor market efficiency, demographics, financial stability, and coordination with fiscal policy, structural monetary policy can promote sustainable economic growth and address fundamental challenges in the economy.。
江苏省第三届“学府杯”科技翻译竞赛原文
江苏省第三届“学府杯”科技翻译竞赛原文1.（英译汉原文）The application of the science of genetics to plant breeding作物育种occupies a strategic place in the enhancement 增产(increase) of crop productivity. Upon its success depends the effectiveness of many other efforts to provide adequate food supplies for direct consumption by man, feed for his animals and agricultural raw materials for his industries. Bringing more water to the land, improving the soil, providing plant nutrients, teaching the farmer better cultural practices, giving him more efficient tools, etc., cannot yield maximum results unless the plants under cultivation are able to respond fully to the improved environment and practices.将遗传科学应用到作物育种中在提高农作物生产力方面位居战略性的地位。
它的成功与否决定着很多其他方面努力的成效，比如为人类直接消费提供足够的食物供给，为牲畜提供饲料，为工业生产提供农业原材料。
除非培育中的植物能够充分适应改良后的环境和培育方法，否则，即使给土地灌溉更多的水、改进土壤、施肥、教授农民更先进的培育技术或者给他们更高效的生产工具等，也不能够达到农作物增产的最大收效。
CHINA IN THE WORLD ECONOMY
CHINA IN THE WORLD ECONOMYChina is a rapidly emerging economic superpower. Yet China is still far from a high-income country. What does this novel combination mean for China itself and for its place in the world?In setting out to address that question, we must start with the obvious point.A country with such a huge and growing impact on the world cannot ignore its effect on others. The defining characteristic of such a superpower is that it cannot expect to remain a free rider. What it does and does not do has consequences for the entire global system. As William Shakespeare might have said, China has achieved greatness and now has responsibility thrust upon it.Defining China’s interestsChina needs to develop a policy not just for its interaction with the global economic system, but also for the development of that system. In doing so, it will have to start from a definition of its national interests, values and objectives.I would argue that China’s overwhelming national interest lies in maintaining a stable, peaceful and co-operative global political and economic environment. It is only in such an environment that China can be confident of maintaining rapid economic development.How should China, as one of the world’s leading powers, seek to achieve that objective? Broadly, I would argue that this interest would be best secured via development of a rules-governed, institutionally-based global system. With this general objective in mind, I want to discuss four principal areas of policy: finance; money; trade and direct investment; and natural resources. This is not an exhaustive list, by any means. But these are some of the principal issues now facing China.Global financeIn the long run, China is likely to emerge as the most important player in the global financial system. Its objectives must be, first, to create a domestic financial system that is capable of supporting its own economic development; second, to help promote a global financial system that supports a rapidly growing and reasonably stable world economy; and, third, to protect the former – the domestic financial system – from the excesses of the latter – the global financial system. This is, in fact, a huge challenge, because of the complex interaction between global and domestic finance.I would argue that in achieving this complex reconciliation China’s policies should be guided by the following four broad principles.First, the Chinese authorities should assume that in the long run, possibly as long as a generation, China’s financial system will not only be fully integrated into global finance, but is likely to emerge as one of its hubs.Second, the transition to full integration will be not just lengthy, but complex and fraught. For this reason, it will take some time and needs to be carefully orchestrated. An important step along the way will be to free the outflow of private capital from China, particularly foreign direct investment and portfolios capital. Full integration of banking systems is particularly dangerous and needs to be handled with much care.Finally, it is strongly in China’s interests to support efforts to make the global financial system less unstable. China has been a full participant in the Group of 20’s discussion of financial sector reform, which have gone largely in the direction supported by China’s authorities: tighter regulation and higher capital requirements. China feels, with some reason, that its relatively cautious approach to the regulation of the banking system has been vindicated by recent events. As a result, a degree of convergence of regulatory philosophy has occurred between China and the western powers, though full convergence has certainly not yet been achieved - and may never be.Global moneyClosely related to reform of global finance is reform of the global monetary system. Here, as I have noted, China is already an enormously important player. Again, China’s challenge is to reconcile its interests in domestic stability with those of a parallel global stability. Again, I would suggest a number of broad principles.In the first place, China needs to recognise that its own policies towards the global monetary system have proved to be domestically destabilising. This is particularly true of exchange-rate intervention and reserve accumulation.In the second place, China needs time to extricate itself from its distorted initial position. That is going to be quite difficult. The central elements will need to be a combination of accelerated appreciation of the nominal exchange rate, with faster liberalisation of the capital outflow, a shift of disposable incomes towards households and better safety nets for the latter, to lower the enormous level of precautionary savings.In the third place, China needs to develop a strategy for reform of the global monetary system that fits with its interests in managing the interface between its domestic development and global stability. In doing so, it needs to recognise the reality that the accumulation of large claims on supposedly safe foreign liabilities must be matched by a corresponding supply. Unfortunately, the global system seems able to generate such a supply only via the ultimately self-defeating means of huge fiscal and external deficits in the US.In the fourth place, China may wish to develop its own views of how the global monetary system should operate in the long run. It appears, however, that those views are likely to be in conflict with the dominant (though not universal) western consensus that the least bad system is one of freely floating exchange rates among large economies that possess domestic monetary autonomy, with monetary policymanaged by independent inflation-targeting central banks. China and its partners may need to recognise a fundamental and enduring tension between their views.Finally, given this impasse, it is in China’s interests to find a pragmatic accommodation via the discussions now occurring within the G20. Such an accommodation would focus on indicators of disequilibrium, the methods and timetable of adjustment, generous and effective liquidity provision for countries in difficulties and governance reforms in the International Monetary Fund, to make it a more legitimate and effective interlocutor for China and other emerging countries.Global Trade and InvestmentTrade has been China’s great success. It is on its way to becoming the world’s most important trading entity. This makes China the natural successor of the US and, before that, the UK, as guardian of the open rules-based trading system. It is important, for this reason, that China abides by all the rules and principles of the system and play an important part in developing it further. This raises severalimportant issues.First, China can try to play a role in bringing the interminable Doha round to some sort of conclusion, however limited.Second, China has a rising interest in protecting its own intellectual property and, for this reason, a matching interest in ensuring its own adherence to these rules.Third, China will also have a growing interest in protecting its direct investment abroad. For this reason, it should promote stronger rules on protection of foreign investment. This is one of the most important direction for the World Trade Organisation.Finally, as a global trader, China has a strong interest in ensuring that any regional trade arrangements it joins are compatible with the global rules.Access to Natural ResourcesThe last and, quite probably most important issue is access to natural resources. China is, for the first time in history, dependent on access to imports of industrial raw materials and food. Indeed, it is already the world’s largest importer of most raw materials. Moreover, this dependence seems certain to increase. In the process, China has played the dominant role in raising the prices of these materials, shifting global relative prices against itself and other countries dependent on commodity imports, while benefiting commodity exporters.For China, as a resource-user and nascent superpower, policy in this area is of potentially the highest importance. It has a strong interest in generating global agreement on how best to access and manage the world’s resources. China’s immediate interest, however, is narrower: it is to gain access to the world’s resources on the most favourable terms. It has decided, quite reasonably, to use its cheap capitaland labour to secure this end. That is, in itself, not only in China’s own interests, but in those of other consumers. Since resources have global prices created in global markets, any increase in supply is to the benefit of all.Need any difficulties then arise? I can see three dangers.First, the potential shift in relative prices might prove to be very difficult to handle. The most important commodity is oil, the world’s principal transport fuel. A technological revolution will be required. Nothing being discussed now is likely to prove sufficient.Second, it would be helpful if a consensus could be reached about the terms of investment and trade in natural resources, comparable to the rules on other aspects of trade in the World Trade Organisation. The aim should be to ensure that commodity exporting countries – particularly poor ones, with limited governance capacity – benefit from foreign investment and exports of their natural resources. It will be immensely important for China to play a big role in reaching any such global agreements.Finally, the core of any such agreement should be free trade. The great powers should agree to let prices be set in world markets, with, of course, the possibility of longer term contracts, where desirable.ConclusionBeing huge is not altogether an advantage. China cannot develop unnoticed and without effect on the world around it. As it grows, its impact expands commensurately. The next two decades will, in this respect, be far more challenging than the last three. Already a great economic power, China is likely to be the world’s largest economy, even at market prices, in not much more than a decade. Its influence on the world economy will be pervasive. Somehow, it must reconcile the imperatives of rapid development with the need to take full account of its massive and growing impact on the world as a whole. Here I have discussed four crucial aspects – finance, the monetary system, trade and natural resources. In each China will have to develop its own agenda, one that secures its principal objectives of rapid development at home and stability abroad. It will not be easy to achieve this combination. But China has not alternative.。
Governance Indicators Where Are We_where should we be going
Governance Indicators:Where Are We, Where Should We Be Going?Daniel Kaufmann†Aart KraayProgress in measuring governance is assessed using a simple framework that distinguishes between indicators that measure formal rules and indicators that measure the practical application or outcomes of these rules.The analysis calls attention to the strengths and weaknesses of both types of indicators as well as the complementarities between them.It distinguishes between the views of experts and the results of surveys and assesses the merits of aggregate as opposed to individual governance indicators. Some simple principles are identified to guide the use and refinement of existing govern-ance indicators and the development of future indicators.These include transparently dis-closing and accounting for the margins of error in all indicators,drawing from a diversity of indicators and exploiting complementarities among them,submitting all indicators to rigorous public and academic scrutiny,and being realistic in expectations of future indicators.JEL codes:H1,O17Not everything that can be counted counts,and not everything thatcounts can be counted.—Albert Einstein Most scholars,policymakers,aid donors,and aid recipients recognize that good governance is a fundamental ingredient of sustained economic development.This growing understanding,initially informed by a very limited set of empirical measures of governance,has spurred intense interest in developing more refined, nuanced,and policy-relevant indicators of governance.This article reviews progress in measuring governance,emphasizing empirical measures explicitly designed to be comparable across countries and in most cases over time.The goal is to provide a structure for thinking about the strengths and weaknesses of different types of governance indicators that can inform both the use of existing indicators and ongoing efforts to improve them and develop new ones.1 Thefirst section of this article reviews definitions of governance.Although there are many broad definitions of governance,the degree of definitional disagreement#The Author2008.Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/THE WORLD BANK.All rights reserved.For permissions,please e-mail:journals.permissions@ doi;10.1093/wbro/lkm012Advance Access publication January31,200823:1–30can easily be overstated.Most definitions appropriately emphasize the importance of a capable state that is accountable to citizens and operating under the rule of law.Broad principles of governance along these lines are naturally not amenable to direct observation and thus to direct measurement.As Albert Einstein noted,“Not everything that counts can be counted.”Many different types of data provide infor-mation on the extent to which these principles of governance are observed across countries.An important corollary is that any particular indicator of governance can usefully be interpreted as an imperfect proxy for some unobserved broad dimension of governance.This interpretation emphasizes throughout this review a recurrent theme that there is measurement error in all governance indicators, which should be explicitly considered when using these kinds of data to draw conclusions about cross-country differences or trends in governance over time.The second section addresses what is measured.The discussion highlights the distinction between indicators that measure specific rules“on the books”and indi-cators that measure particular governance outcomes“on the ground.”Rules on the books codify details of the constitutional,legal,or regulatory environment; the existence or absence of specific agencies,such as anticorruption commissions or independent auditors;and so forth—components intended to provide the key de jure foundations of governance.On-the-ground measures assess de facto govern-ance outcomes that result from the application of these rules(Dofirmsfind the regulatory environment cumbersome?Do households believe the police are corrupt?).An important message in this section concerns the shared limitations of indicators of both rules and outcomes:Outcome-based indicators of governance can be difficult to link back to specific policy interventions,and the links from easy-to-measure de jure indicators of rules to governance outcomes of interest are not yet well understood and in some cases appear tenuous at best.They remind us of the need to respect Einstein’s dictum that“not everything that can be counted counts.”The third section examines whose views should be relied on.Indicators based on the views of various types of experts are distinguished from survey-based indi-cators that capture the views of large samples offirms and individuals.A category of aggregate indicators that combine,organize,provide structure,and summarize information from these different types of respondents is examined.The fourth section examines the rationale for such aggregate indicators,and their strengths and weaknesses.The set of indicators discussed in this survey is intended to provide leading examples of major governance indicators rather than an exhaustive stocktaking of existing indicators in this taxonomy.2A feature of efforts to measure governance is the preponderance of indicators focused on measuring de facto governance out-comes and the paucity of measures of de jure rules.Almost by necessity,de jure rules-based indicators of governance reflect the views or judgments of experts.In 2The W orld Bank Research Observer,vol.23,no.1(Spring2008)contrast,the much larger body of de facto indicators captures the views of both experts and survey respondents.The article concludes with a discussion of the way forward in measuring govern-ance in a manner that can be useful to policymakers.The emphasis is on the importance of consumers and producers of governance indicators clearly recogniz-ing and disclosing the pervasive measurement error in any type of governance indi-cators.This section also notes the importance of moving away from oft-heard false dichotomies,such as“subjective”or“objective”indicators or aggregate or disaggre-gated ones.For good reason,virtually all measures of governance involve a degree of subjective judgment,and different levels of aggregation are appropriate for differ-ent types of analysis.In any case,the choice is not either one or the other,as most aggregate indicators can readily be unbundled into their constituent components. What Does Governance Mean?The concept of governance is not a new one.Early discussions go back to at least 400BCE,to the Arthashastra,a treatise on governance attributed to Kautilya, thought to be the chief minister to the king of India.Kautilya presents key pillars of the“art of governance,”emphasizing justice,ethics,and anti-autocratic ten-dencies.He identifies the duty of the king to protect the wealth of the state and its subjects and to enhance,maintain,and safeguard this wealth as well as the inter-ests of the kingdom’s subjects.Despite the long provenance of the concept,no strong consensus has formed around a single definition of governance or institutional quality.For this reason, throughout this article the terms governance,institutions,and institutional quality are used interchangeably,if somewhat imprecisely.Researchers and organizations have produced a wide array of definitions.Some definitions are so broad that they cover almost anything(such as the definition“rules,enforcement mechanisms, and organizations”offered in the World Bank’s W orld Development Report2002: Building Institutions for Markets).Others,like the definition suggested by North (2000),are not only broad but risk making the links from good governance to development almost tautological:“How do we account for poverty in the midst of plenty?...We must create incentives for people to invest in more efficient tech-nology,increase their skills,and organize efficient markets....Such incentives are embodied in institutions.”Some of the governance indicators surveyed capture a wide range of develop-ment outcomes.While it is difficult to draw a line between governance and the ultimate development outcomes of interest,it is useful at both the definitional and measurement stages to emphasize concepts of governance that are at least some-what removed from development outcomes themselves.An early and narrower Kaufmann and Kraay3definition of public sector governance proposed by the World Bank is that “governance is the manner in which power is exercised in the management of a country’s economic and social resources for development”(World Bank1992, p.1).This definition remains almost unchanged in the Bank’s2007governance and anticorruption strategy,with governance defined as“the manner in which public officials and institutions acquire and exercise the authority to shape public policy and provide public goods and services”(World Bank2007,p.1).Kaufmann,Kraay,and Zoido-Lobato´n(1999a,p.1)define governance as“the traditions and institutions by which authority in a country is exercised.This includes the process by which governments are selected,monitored and replaced; the capacity of the government to effectively formulate and implement sound policies;and the respect of citizens and the state for the institutions that govern economic and social interactions among them.”Although the number of definitions of governance is large,there is some con-sensus.Most definitions agree on the importance of a capable state operating under the rule of law.Interestingly,comparing the last three definitions cited above,the one substantive difference has to do with the explicit degree of empha-sis on the role of democratic accountability of governments to their citizens.Even these narrower definitions remain sufficiently broad that there is scope for a wide diversity of empirical measures of various dimensions of good governance.The gravity of the issues dealt with in these definitions of governance suggests that measurement is important.In recent years there has been debate over whether such broad notions of governance can be usefully measured.Many indicators can shed light on various dimensions of governance.However,given the breadth of the concepts,and in many cases their inherent unobservability,no single indicator or combination of indicators can provide a completely reliable measure of any of these dimensions of governance.Rather,it is useful to think of the various specific indi-cators discussed below as all providing imperfect signals of fundamentally unobser-vable concepts of governance.This interpretation emphasizes the importance of taking into account as explicitly as possible the inevitable resulting measurement error in all indicators of governance when analyzing and interpreting any such measure.As shown below,however,the fact that such margins of error arefinite and still allow for meaningful country comparisons across space and time suggests that measuring governance is both feasible and informative.Governance Rules or Governance Outcomes?This section examines both the rules-based and outcome-based indicators of gov-ernance.A rules-based indicator of corruption might measure whether countries have legislation prohibiting corruption or have an anticorruption agency. 4The W orld Bank Research Observer,vol.23,no.1(Spring2008)An outcome-based measure could assess whether the laws are enforced or the anticorruption agency is undermined by political interference.The views offirms, individuals,nongovernmental organizations(NGOs),or commercial risk-rating agencies could also be solicited regarding the prevalence of corruption in the public sector.To measure public sector accountability,one could observe the rules regarding the presence of formal elections,financial disclosure requirements for public servants,and the like.One could also assess the extent to which these rules operate in practice by surveying respondents regarding the functioning of the institutions of democratic accountability.Because a clear line does not always distinguish the two types of indicators,it is more useful to think of ordering different indicators along a continuum,with one end corresponding to rules and the other to ultimate governance outcomes of interest.Because both types of indicators have their own strengths and weak-nesses,all indicators should be thought of as imperfect,but complementary proxies for the aspects of governance they purport to measure.Rules-Based Indicators of GovernanceSeveral rules-based indicators are used to assess governance(tables1and2). They include the Doing Business project of the World Bank,which reports detailed information on the legal and regulatory environment in a large set of countries;the Database of Political Institutions,constructed by World Bank researchers,and the POLITY-IV database of the University of Maryland,both of which report detailed factual information on features of countries’political systems;and the Global Integrity Index(GII),which provides detailed information on the legal framework governing public sector accountability and transparency in a sample of41countries,most of them developing economies.Atfirst glance,one of the main virtues of indicators of rules is their clarity.It is straightforward to ascertain whether a country has a presidential or a parliamen-tary system of government or whether a country has a legally independent anti-corruption commission.In principle,it is also straightforward to document details of the legal and regulatory environment,such as how many legal steps are required to register a business orfire a worker.This clarity also implies that it is straightforward to measure progress on such indicators.Has an anticorruption commission been established?Have business entry regulations been streamlined? Has a legal requirement for disclosure of budget documents been passed?This clarity has made such indicators very appealing to aid donors interested in linking aid with performance indicators and in monitoring progress on such indicators.Set against these advantages are three main drawbacks.They are less“objective”than they appear.It is easy to overstate the clarity and objectivity of rules-based measures of governance.In practice,a good deal of Kaufmann and Kraay5subjective judgment is involved in codifying all but the most basic and obvious features of a country’s constitutional,legal,and regulatory environments.(It is no accident that the views of lawyers,on which many of these indicators are based,are commonly referred to as opinions .)In Kenya in 2007,for example,a consti-tutional right to access to information faced being undermined or offset entirely by an official secrecy act and by pending approval and implementation of the Freedom of Information Act.In this case,codifying even the legal right to access to infor-mation requires careful judgment as to the net effect of potentially conflicting laws.Of course,this drawback of ambiguity is not unique to rules-based measures of gov-ernance:interpreting outcome-based indicators of governance can also involve ambiguity ,as discussed below .There has been less recognition,however,of the extent to which rules-based indicators also reflect subjective judgment.The links between indicators and outcomes are complex,possibly subject to long lags,and often not well understood .These problems complicate the interpretation of rules-based indicators.In the case of rules-based measures,some of the most basic features of countries’constitutional arrangements have little normative content on their own;such indicators are for the most part descriptive.It makes Table 1.Sources and Types of Information Used in Governance IndicatorsType of indicatorSource of information Rules-basedOutcomes-based Broad Specific Broad Specific ExpertsLawyers DBCommercial risk-rating agenciesDRI,EIU,PRS Nongovernmental organizations GIIHER,RSF ,CIR,FRH GII,OBI Governments and multilateralsCPIA PEF A Academics DPI,PIVDPI,PIV Survey respondentsFirmsICA,GCS,WCY IndividualsAFR,LBO,GWP Aggregate indicators combining experts and survey respondents TI,WGI,MOINote :AFR is Afrobarometer,CIR is Cingranelli-Richards Human Rights Dataset,CPIA is Country Policy and Institutional Assessment,DB is Doing Business,DPI is Database of Political Institutions,DRI is Global Insight DRI,EIU is Economist Intelligence Unit,FRH is Freedom House,GCS is Global Competitiveness Survey ,GII is Global Integrity Index,GWP is Gallup World Poll,HER is Heritage Foundation,ICA is Investment ClimateAssessment,LBO is Latinobaro´metro,MOI is Ibrahim Index of African Governance,OBI is Open Budget Index,PEF A is Public Expenditure and Financial Accountability ,PIV is Polity IV ,PRS is Political Risk Services,RSF is Reporters Without Borders,TI is Transparency International,WCY is World Competitiveness Yearbook,and WGI is Worldwide Governance Indicators.Source :Authors’compilation based on data from sources listed in table 2.6The W orld Bank Research Observer ,vol.23,no.1(Spring 2008)little sense,for example,to presuppose that presidential (as opposed to parliamentary)systems or majoritarian (as opposed to proportional)representation in voting arrangements are intrinsically good or bad.Interest in such variables as indi-cators of governance rests on the case that they may matter for outcomes,often in complex ways.In their influential book,Persson,Torsten,and Tabellini (2005)document how these features of constitutional rules influence the political process and ultimately outcomes such as the level,composition,and cyclicality of public spending (Acemoglu 2006)challenges the robustness of these findings).In such cases,the usefulness of rules-based indicators as measures of governance depends crucially on how strong the empirical links are between such rules and the ultimate outcomes of interest.Perhaps the more common is the less extreme case in which rules-based indi-cators of governance have normative content on their own,but the relative Table 2.Country Coverage and Frequency of Governance SurveysName Number of countries covered Frequency of survey W eb site Afrobarometer18Triennial www Cingranelli-Richards Human RightsDataset192Annual www Country Policy and InstitutionalAssessment136Annual www Doing Business175Annual www Database of Political Institutions178Annual Global Insight DRI117Quarterly www Economist Intelligence Unit120Quarterly www Freedom House192Annual www Global Competitiveness Survey117Annual www Global Integrity Index41Triennial www .globalintegrity .org Gallup World Poll131Annual www Heritage Foundation161Annual www Investment Climate Assessment94Irregular www Latinobaro´metro 17Annual www Ibrahim Index of African Governance48Triennial www Open Budget Index59Annual www Polity IV161Annual www /polity/Political Risk Services140Monthly www Public Expenditure and FinancialAccountability42Irregular www Reporters without Borders165Annual www World Competitiveness Yearbook47Annual www .imd.chSource :Authors’compilation.Kaufmann and Kraay 7importance of different rules for outcomes of interest is unclear.The GII,for example,provides information on the existence of dozens of rules,ranging from the legal right to freedom of speech to the existence of an independent ombuds-man to the presence of legislation prohibiting the offering or acceptance of bribes. The Open Budget Index(OBI)provides detailed information on the budget processes,including the types of information provided in budget documents, public access to budget documents,and the interaction between executive and legislative branches in the budget process.Many of these indicators arguably have normative value on their own:having public access to budget documents is desir-able and having streamlined business registration procedures is better than not having them.This profusion of detail in rules-based indicators leads to two related difficulties in using them to design and monitor governance reforms.Thefirst is that as a result of absence of good information on the links between changes in specific rules or procedures and outcomes of interest,it is difficult to know which rules should be reformed and in what order.Will establishing an anticorruption com-mission or passing legislation outlawing bribery have any impact on reducing cor-ruption?If so,which is more important?Should,instead,more efforts be put into ensuring that existing laws and regulations are implemented or that there is greater transparency,access to information,or media freedom?How soon should one expect to see the impacts of these interventions?Given that governments typi-cally operate with limited political capital to implement reforms,these trade-offs and lags are important.The second difficulty in designing or monitoring reforms arises when aid donors or governments set performance indicators for governance reforms.Performance indicators based on changing specific rules,such as the passage of a particular piece of legislation or a reform of a specific budget procedure,can be very attractive because of their clarity:it is straightforward to verify whether the specified policy action has been taken.3Yet“actionable”indicators are not necessarily also“action worthy,”in the sense of having a significant impact on the outcomes of interest. Moreover,excessive emphasis on registering improvements on rules-based indi-cators of governance leads to risks of“teaching to the test”or,worse“reform illu-sion,”in which specific rules or procedures are changed in isolation with the sole purpose of showing progress on the specific indicators used by aid donors.Major gaps exist between statutory rules on the books and their implementation on the ground.To take an extreme example,in all41countries covered by the2006GII, accepting a bribe is codified as illegal,and all but three countries(Brazil, Lebanon,and Liberia)have anticorruption commissions or similar agencies.Yet there is enormous variation in perceptions-based measures of corruption across these countries.The41countries covered by the GII include the Democratic 8The W orld Bank Research Observer,vol.23,no.1(Spring2008)Republic of Congo,which ranks200out of207countries on the2006 Worldwide Governance Indicators(WGI)control of corruption indicator,and the United States,which ranks23.Another example of the gap between rules and implementation(documented in more detail in Kaufmann,Kraay,and Mastruzzi2005)compares the statutory ease of establishing a business with a survey-based measure offirms’perceptions of the ease of starting a business across a large sample of countries.In industrial countries,where de jure rules are often implemented as intended,the two measures correspond quite closely.In contrast,in developing economies,where there are often gaps between de jure rules and their de facto implementation,the correlation between the two is very weak;the de jure codification of the rules and regulations required to start a business is not a good predictor of the actual con-straints reported byfirms.Unsurprisingly,much of the difference between the de jure and de facto measures could be statistically explained by de facto measures of corruption,which subverts the fair application of rules on the books.The three drawbacks—the inevitable role of judgment even in“objective”indi-cators,the complexity and lack of knowledge regarding the links from rules to outcomes of interest,and the gap between rules on the books and their implementation on the ground—suggest that although rules-based governance indicators provide valuable information,they are insufficient on their own for measuring governance.Rules-based measures need to be complemented by and used in conjunction with outcome-based indicators of governance.Outcome-Based Governance IndicatorsMost indicators of governance are outcome based,and several rules-based indi-cators of governance also provide complementary outcome-based measures.The GII,for example,pairs indicators of the existence of various rules and procedures with indicators of their effectiveness in practice.The Database of Political Institutions measures not only such constitutional rules as the presence of a par-liamentary system,but also outcomes of the electoral process,such as the extent to which one party controls different branches of government and the fraction of votes received by the president.The Polity-IV database records a number of out-comes,including the effective constraints on the power of the executive.The remaining outcome-based indicators range from the highly specific to the quite general.The OBI reports data on more than100indicators of the budget process,ranging from whether budget documentation contains details of assump-tions underlying macroeconomic forecasts to documentation of budget outcomes relative to budget plans.Other less specific sources include the Public Expenditure and Financial Accountability indicators,constructed by aid donors with inputs of recipient countries,and several large cross-country surveys offirms—including Kaufmann and Kraay9the Investment Climate Assessments of the World Bank,the Executive Opinion Survey of the World Economic Forum,and the World Competitiveness Yearbook of the Institute for Management Development—that askfirms detailed questions about their interactions with the state.Examples of more general assessments of broad areas of governance include ratings provided by several commercial sources,including Political Risk Services, the Economist Intelligence Unit,and Global Insight–DRI.Political Risk Services rates10areas that can be identified with governance,such as“democratic accountability,”“government stability,”“law and order,”and“corruption.”Large cross-country surveys of individuals such as the Afrobarometer and Latinobaro´metro surveys and the Gallup World Poll ask general questions,such as“Is corruption widespread throughout the government in this country?”The main advantage of outcome-based indicators is that they capture the views of relevant stakeholders,who take actions based on these ernments, analysts,researchers,and decisionmakers should,and often do,care about public views on the prevalence of corruption,the fairness of elections,the quality of service delivery,and many other governance outcomes.Outcome-based govern-ance indicators provide direct information on the de facto outcome of how de jure rules are implemented.Outcome-based measures also have some significant limitations.Such measures,particularly where they are general,can be difficult to link back to specific policy interventions that might influence governance outcomes.This is the mirror image of the problem discussed above:Rules-based indicators of gov-ernance can also be difficult to relate to outcomes of interest.A related difficulty is that outcome-based governance indicators may be too close to ultimate develop-ment outcomes of interest.To take an extreme example,the Ibrahim Index of African Governance includes a number of ultimate development outcomes,such as per capita GDP(gross domestic product),growth of GDP,inflation,infant mor-tality,and inequality.While such development outcomes are surely worth moni-toring,including them in an index of governance risks making the links from governance to development tautological.Another difficulty has to do with interpreting the units in which outcomes are measured.Rules-based indicators have the virtue of clarity:either a particular rule exists or it does not.Outcome-based indicators by contrast are often measured on somewhat arbitrary scales.For example,a survey question might ask respondents to rate the quality of public services on afive-point scale,with the distinction between different scores left unclear and up to the respondent.4In contrast,the usefulness of outcome-based indicators is greatly enhanced by the extent to which the criteria for differing scores are clearly documented.The World Bank’s Country Performance and Institutional Assessment(CPIA)and the Freedom House indicators are good examples of outcome-based indicators based 10The W orld Bank Research Observer,vol.23,no.1(Spring2008)。
凯恩斯Keynes1936在《通...
山东农业大学博士学位论文中国城乡劳动力市场非均衡问题研究姓名：张务伟申请学位级别：博士专业：农业经济管理指导教师：杨学成2011-06-11山东农业大学博士学位论文中文摘要中国是世界上劳动力资源最为丰富的国家。
如何优化配置劳动力资源始终是经济建设的基本问题。
改革开放以来，中国城乡劳动力市场一直是非均衡的。
这种非均衡的资源配置，不但影响了劳动力资源配置绩效，而且影响了城乡统筹发展、社会和谐稳定。
因此，如何实现城乡劳动力市场均衡，提高城乡劳动力资源配置绩效，实现城乡协调发展，促进社会和谐、稳定、公平和正义，成为当前迫切解决的现实问题。
本研究依据非均衡理论，结合中国具体国情，综合运用历史分析、比较分析、博弈论、计量模型分析等方法，分阶段研究了城乡劳动力市场非均衡的特征、原因、机制、绩效，并预测了城乡劳动力市场非均衡的演进趋势，最后，提出促进中国城乡劳动力市场均衡发展的相关政策。
中国城乡劳动力市场非均衡形成的特征主要包括：国家对城乡劳动力资源采取不同的配置方式；城乡劳动力供给和需求不匹配；城乡劳动力工资存在差距；实行城乡不同的社会保障制度；城乡劳动力市场非均衡是不稳定的。
中国城乡劳动力市场非均衡形成的原因：重工业优先发展战略的遗存和后续影响，在一定程度上造成了中国城乡劳动力市场非均衡；城镇对农村劳动力进入城镇就业的排斥，在一定程度上影响了农村劳动力进入城镇就业；劳动力结构的转变与产业结构的转换不同步，也是造成城乡劳动力市场非均衡的原因。
通过两人对称博弈分析农村富余劳动力的就业状况，可以发现，劳动力转移成功的示范作用，带回来的信息及他们的介绍对没有转移的劳动力作出转移决策会产生重要影响。
家庭劳动力供给行为是基于家庭利益最大化作出的理性选择。
非国有单位的资源配置行为主要是通过非国有单位与基层政府的博弈过程，使非国有单位遵守劳动力市场制度。
国有单位资源配置行为主要是通过国家（包括地方政府）与国有单位的“委托—代理”来实现的。
解放战争 英文教案
Lesson 17 War of Liberation●Educational objectivesKnowledge and abilityEnable students to understand the Chongqing negotiations, full-scale civil war, three major campaigns, peace talks of Peking and the Yangtze crossing campaign and other basic knowledge. Training their competences of analyzing problems and thinking historically. Improving their reading and the skills of solving practical historical problems. Process and methodInstead of interact with students, the teacher will talk mostly to explain the details to students by using pictures, maps , poetries and other resource information to make it easier for students to understand. During the process of the lesson , attention should be paid to mobilize the enthusiasm of the students and cultivate their competence of thinking and analyzing problems on their own. Also , let students grasp some learning strategies, so that they can make conclusions through historical materials, and combine theory with history . What’s more , the lesson should emphasize on inquiry learning and the ability of summarize and interpret objectively.AffectBy teaching the Anti-Japanese War,War of Liberation make students realize that Chinese nation is indomitable and the Chinese Communist Party is a strong core of leadership in order to carry out the people's war of resistance. And strengthen revolutionary traditional education teaching to arouse students’love for Chinese people, motherland and Chinese Communist Party.●Focal pointsSignificance of The Chongqing negotiations, three big battles, the victory of the new democratic revolution.●Difficult pointsThe Chinese Communist Party how to react to Chongqing negotiation of the Kuomintang’s conspiracy “The false peace,real civil war”●Teaching methodsInstead of interact with students, the teacher will talk mostly to explain the details to students by using pictures, maps , poetries and other resource information to make it easier for students to understand.●Procedures【Introduction】After the victory of the Anti Japanese War,great changes have taken place in Chinese domestic form. There are two choices:one is the Kuomintang dictatorship,the other is the path of democracy. As we know that now we are in democracy,so what contributed to this situation,you will find out yourself after lesson 17.I The outbreak of the civil war1 The domestic situation after the victory of the war（1）The change of the domestic principal contradiction：the contradiction between China and Japan has transformed to the contradiction between the Chinese people and Kuomintang reactionaries which supported byAmerican imperialism.( 2 ) The attitudes of the main domestic political forces :The Communist Party--try to strive for peace and democracy Kuomintang--The false peace, real civil war（the pressure from home and abroad; they still need time to get ready for the civil war ）2 The strive for peace from 8,1945 to the summer of 1946( 1 ) Chongqing Negotiation【cooperative inquiry 1】Chiang Kai-shek is only take peace as a pretext to extend time for his preparing for war, but why Mao Zedong still come to Chongqing after Chiang’s telegraph even though he know his true intention--For if Mao Zedong will not show up, it will give Chiang Kai-shek a perfect pretext to start the civil war, however, if Mao come, it gives him sufficient time for him to prepare for the war and force the Communist Party to hand over the the people's army and the Communist regime in Liberation District to achieve unification.①Time: 8,1945②Outcome : the sign of Double Tenth Agreement③Significance :A The Communist Party gain a initiative and win the support of peopleB The Communist Party expands its influence on the Kuomintang areas and inthe democratic partiesC It compels Kuomintang to acknowledge the basic rules of peacefullyfounding China, if Kuomintang breach the agreement and start the civil war itwill in a passive position in politics【cooperative inquiry 2】Since Mao Zedong has seen through Chiang Kai-shek plot , why he risks his life going to Chongqing to negotiate?To expose the Chiang Kai - Shek reactionaries false peace conspiracy, for the early realization of peace and democracy in china.(2) The Political Consultative Conference①Time :1946②Outcome : It reaches some agreement good to people.3 The outbreak of the full-scale war(1) Time: 6,1946(2) The failure of the Kuomintang general attack.(3) The failure of the main attack in Shangdong and Shanxi province in the spring of1947.In 6,1946 the Kuomintang troops attack the central plains embodies theoutbreak of the full-scale war and the beginning og the Liberation War. After eight month the people’s army killed over 7,0000,00 enemies and smashed theintention of Chang kai shek. From 3, 1947 the Kuomintang troops have to alter their plans to focus on Shangxi and Shangdong liberation area.rhetoric question:Why focus on attacking the liberated areas?It means to attack the Communist Party troops from east and west . 【cooperative inquiry 3】why Chinese Communist Party conducts the agrarian reform in theliberation areas ? What is the relationship between the Agrarian Reformand the Liberation War?the Agrarian Reform gives the peasants some land and it promotes their motivation. In return, the peasants join the army and increase the armies fighting ability.II Strategic Counter-Offensive and the Three Campaigns1 strategic counteroffensive【cooperative inquiry 4】Think about the following questions according to what we have learned in this lesson: what’s the mission for our soldiers this year ? What’s the meaning of war inside and outside?Our armies begin fighting back, fighting against the enemies in central plains and retaking the lost land.Outside line -the main force of the the People's Liberation Army attack the Kuomintang Area, it means that the Communist Party begin fighting back.Inside line -the the People's Liberation Army have smashed the attack of the enemies, in this area our troop are in defensive stance.(1) Time: 6,1947(2) Place: central plains(3) Symbol events: In 6,1947 under the leadership of Liu Po-ch'eng and DengXiaoping , the liberation forces cross the Yellow River and come to Ta-PiehMountains, this symbolize the strategic counter offensive begins.2 decisive strategic engagement - the Three Campaigns( 9,1948-1,1949 the Liaoxi-Shenyang Campaign, the Huai-Hai Campaign, beiping-tianjin campaign)According to the three campaigns instruct students to draw a chart like this to help thembetter understand this lesson.the Liaoxi-ShenyangCampaignthe Huai-Hai Campaign beiping-tianjin campaign time 9,1948——1,1949troops The northeast people'sliberation armyCentral and East China's people'sliberation armyThe northeast and northpeople's liberation armyleaders Lin Biao, Luo Rongheng Liu Po-ch'engChen Yi 、Deng XiaopingLin Biao Luo RonghengNieh Jung-chenvictory Killed 470,000 soldiers，liberate the northeastareaKilled 550,000 soldiers，liberatemost of the central plainsKilled 520,000soldiers,liberate the northarearesults of battle: the soldier killed or joined the People Liberation army accounts to150,000, the main strength of Kuomintang are almost killed.III The great victory of the new-democratic revolution1 Beijing negotiations(1) Time :4,1949(2) Reason : Kuomintang’s failure in the field, and Chiang kai-shek issued astatement about seeking peace with the Communist Party in New Year’s Dayof 1949. In order to end the war quickly, realize peace,reduce the pain of the war , the Communist Party agreed to negotiate with the Kuomintang.(3) Result : It reached the Domestic peace agreement, but the representative aredirected not to sign this agreement, so it was turned out a failure.2 The battle to cross the riverOn April 21, 1949 People's liberation army launched a campaign to cross the river, in 23, the people's liberation army occupied Nanjing, it indicate the fall of the regime of the National Government in the mainland and the new-democratic revolution see its victory.3 To fight across the countryMaterials:Capture of Nanjing by the People’s Liberation Army ( 4,1949)Over the purple Mountains sweeps a storm headlong,Our troops have crossed the great river, a millions strong.The Tiger girl with Dragon outshines days gone by,Heaven and earth overturned, our spirits never so high.With our courage unspent pursue the foe overthrown,Do not fish like the Herculean King for renown.Heaven would have grown old were it moved to motions,The world goes on with changes in the fields and oceans.(1) This poem reflects the historic events of the Battle of crossing the river or theoccupation of Nanjing.(2) “With our courage unspent pursue the foe overthrown, Do not fish like the HerculeanKing for renown.” these two lines reflects that we should pluck up our courage and until we finally win the battle.IV Great significance of the victory of the new-democratic revolution (p80-81)Domestic significance:The end of one hundred years of humiliation and the division of history, an independent, unified new China will be born.International significance: It has changed the world political pattern and inspired the oppressed nations and people's to struggle for liberation.The ideological significance: The victory of the Marxism and MAO Zedong thought.Summary :After the victory of Anti-Japanese War,The Kuomintang reactionaries tear up the agreement, resolution, and launched the full-scale civil war, it means the people's liberation war began. In the first year of the Liberation War,the people's liberation army has smashed the Massive Assault and attacks against key sectors . The following year of the Liberation War, the people’s liberation army began to fight back. The decisive year of the third year of the liberation war, the Chinese Communist Party launched three campaigns, and the victory of the campaigns laid the foundation of the liberation all over the mainland. In 12,4, 1949 the people’s liberation army occupied Nanjing, it means the fall of the regime of Kuomintang and the victory of the new-democratic revolution.。
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IPC Crisis at the end of the XX century
IPC - a tool for manual searching IPC - a compromise between large and small patent offices
– not sufficiቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱntly detailed for large offices – too complex for small offices
Purposes of the IPC
Primary purpose: effective search tool for the retrieval of patent information Other purposes:
– selective dissemination of information – investigation of the state of the art – preparation of industrial property statistics
IPC REFORM
Objectives and principal Features
Antonios Farassopoulos World Intellectual Property
Organization
IPC Forum 2006 Geneva
Modern History of the IPC
IPC - need to consult several editions
IPC Advanced Seminar (December 1998)
Discussions about the IPC future
Seminar Conclusions
IPC retains its value as the only worldwide patent classification Methods of revision and use of the IPC should be radically changed IPC should become a tool for searching electronic information
Regular Core Level
Publications of the IPC
Printed publication - only the core level Internet publication - on the user’s choice, display is possible:
MCD in 2006
IPC 1
Documents 1970 - 1975
IPC 4
Documents 1985 – 1990
IPC 7
Documents 2000 – 2005
Conversion of back file (mainly using ECLA + JPO input)
Electronic exchange of data
Reclassification for each new AL version – PCT min by trilateral offices – propagation of reclassification to all family
members – lists of remaining documents to be
Italics Advanced Level Bold Invention Information
Version Indicator
Non-bold Additional Information
Document classified in the core level:
(51) Int. Cl. (2006) B28B 5/00 B28B 1/00 H05B 3/10
Chemical formulae; drawings Standardized sequence of main groups
Master Classification Database
Hosted by EPO; extension of existing DocDB Classification data on the worldwide patent collections Complete IPC data according to current version Complete information of the core level by rollingup of advanced level symbols Bridge to full text databases Access via Espacenet, Epoque, national systems
> more stable
Advanced level
Initial volume in 2006 - 70, 000 groups Revision by a Special Subcommittee according to accelerated procedure Use - search in international patent files (PCT minimum documentation) Continuous revision
– only to the core level or to the complete text of the Classification (advanced level)
– only tо the official text or with the inclusion of electronic information
– attribute: (H), (M) or (G)
New ST.10/C
Document classified in the advanced level:
(51) Int. Cl. B28B 5/00 (2006.01) B28B 1/29 (2007.04) H05B 3/18 (2008.07)
– attribute: (A) or (C)
original / reclassified
– attribute: (B) or (R)
action date
– attribute: YYYYMMDD
human / machine propagated / generated by computer
Unique Advanced Level collection DOCDB – 54,000,000 documents
+
Immediate reclassification after partial revision (carried out for the world by trilateral offices)
> accelerated revision, more dynamic
Core and advanced levels
May be used on the choice of patent offices Are fully compatible
Electronic information in the reformed IPC
Principal objectives of the reform
Division of the IPC into core and advanced levels Creation of the Master Classification Database Reclassification of search files according to revision changes Introduction in the IPC of electronic information and tools facilitating classification and search Accommodate the IPC to an electronic environment
Launch of the reform
In March 1999 the IPC Committee of Experts decides to start reform of the Classification In March 2000 the strategic plan for the development of the IPC is approved
Core level
Volume - 18, 000 groups (all main groups and some 1, 2 dot gr. based on file size) Use: - search in small national patent files
- dissemination of patent information - patent statistics Revision according to the traditional procedure (IPC/CE) Revision cycle - three years
1956 - Council of Europe initiates work on European Patent Classification
1968 - 1st edition of the IPC 1971 - Strasbourg Agreement concerning the IPC 1975 - Strasbourg Agreement entered into force Every five years - a new edition of the IPC 2000 - 7th edition of the IPC