布兰查德宏观经济学第四版t
西方经济学宏观部分高鸿业第四版PPT二十一章hqrt.pptx
边际收益产品 MRP：厂商增 加一单位要素 所增加的收益。
若劳动变动△N，资本变动△K，技术变动△A。 产出变动：△Y＝MRPN× △N＋MRPK ×△K＋F（N，K） ×△ A
两边同除以Y：
Y MRPN N MRPK K A
Y
Y
Y
A
继续变形： 业精于勤而荒于嬉
Y MRPN N N MRPK K K A
A
y
M
M'
k*
k
k
经济增长的黄金分割律
业精于勤而荒于嬉 温州大学商学院 韩纪江
15
8.技术进步下的新古典增长模型
将技术进步因素引入。 考虑技术进步：Y=F（AN，K） A＝技术进步，随着时间推移而增大，是一个外生变量，会导致劳动 效率提高。 AN即有效劳动。
按照有效劳动得到的劳均资本和产量，在稳态时＝0 人均产出增长率＝A的增长率 总产出增长率＝ A的增长率＋人口增长率
菲尔普斯的黄金分割律：若使稳态人均消费达到最大化，稳态人均资 本量的选择应使资本的边际产品等于劳动的增长率。
业精于勤而荒于嬉 温州大学商学院 韩纪江
14
黄金分割律图
△k＝0时，人均资本＝ (n+δ)k，则人均消费＝MM'
y
y
如果要使人均消费达 到最大，MM‘应该最大。 此时M点的斜率＝n
(n+δ)k
9
5.经济增长的稳态图示
由sy ＝△k+(n+δ)k， 推导出△k ＝ sy －(n+δ)k
kA左边， △ k>0 推动k上升
kA右边， △ k<0 引起k下降
稳态时的产出增 长独立于储蓄率。
y
左边△ k>0
布兰查德 宏观经济学 第11章
© 2006 Prentice Hall Business Publishing
Macroeconomics, 4/e
Olivier Blanchard
IS
SsY
It sYt
© 2006 Prentice Hall Business Publishing
Macroeconomics, 4/e
Olivier Blanchard
8
Investment and Capital Accumulation
The evolution of the capital stock is given by:
Macroeconomics, 4/e
Olivier Blanchard
12
Dynamics of Capital and Output
K t 1 K t NN
= s f K N t
change in capital from year t to year t+1
▪ investment during year t
If investment per worker is less than depreciation per worker, the change in capital per worker is negative: Capital per worker decreases.
© 2006 Prentice Hall Business Publishing
© 2006 Prentice Hall Business Publishing
布兰查德《宏观经济学》章节题库(通货膨胀、经济活动和名义货币增长)【圣才出品】
第9章 通货膨胀、经济活动和名义货币增长一、名词解释1．奥肯定理（Okun's law ）（厦门大学807经济学2006研）答：奥肯定律是由美国经济学家奥肯于1962年提出的一种说明经济周期中产出变化与失业变化之间数量关系的理论。
奥肯定律可用公式写为：()y y a u u **-=--式中，y 代表现时的实际GDP 的增长率，y *代表潜在GDP 的增长率，u 代表现时的实际失业率，u *代表自然失业率，a 代表由现时的实际失业率相对于自然失业率的变动而引起的实际产出增长率对潜在产出增长率的变化系数。
该式的含义为：当实际失业率相对于自然失业率上升时，实际产出增长率相对于潜在产出增长率下降，这时为经济周期的衰退阶段；当实际失业率相对于自然失业率下降时，实际产出增长率相对于潜在产出增长率上升，这时为经济周期的繁荣阶段。
奥肯定律说明产出变动与失业变动之间存在着反向替代关系。
奥肯定律提供了一种在经济增长率和失业率之间进行选择的“菜单”。
它对于政府在制定宏观调控政策时把握潜在产出水平和实际产出水平以及把握实际失业率，具有重要意义。
2．卢卡斯批判（Lucas Critique ）答：卢卡斯批判又称卢卡斯批评，是卢卡斯提出的一种认为传统政策分析没有充分考虑到政策变动对人们预期影响的观点。
卢卡斯在《计量经济学的政策评价：一个批判》一文中指出，由于人们在对将来的事态做出预期时，不但要考虑过去，还要估计现在的事件对将来的影响，并且根据他们所得到的结果而改变他们的行为。
这就是说，他们要估计当前的经济政策对将来事态的影响，并且按照估计的影响来采取政策，即改变他们的行为，以便取得最大的利益。
行为的改变会使经济模型的参数发生变化，而参数的变化又是难以衡量的。
因此，经济学者用经济模型很难评价经济政策的效果。
3．牺牲率（sacrifice ratio）答：牺牲率是指通货膨胀率每下降1%而带来的每年产出百分比下降的幅度。
布兰查德宏观经济学
Price of the one-year
bond:
$100 $P1t 1 i1t
Price of the two-year bond:
$100 $P2t (1i1t)(1ie1t1)
Chapter 15: Financial Markets and Expectations
The yield to maturity on a two-year bond, is closely approximated by:
i2t
1 2(i1t
i ) e 1t1
In words, the two-year interest rate is the average of the current one-year interest rate and next year’s expected one-year interest rate.
Given
$ P2t
$ Pe1t 1 1 i1t
and
$Pe1t1
$100 (1ie1t1)
,
then:
$100 $P2t (1i1t)(1ie1t1)
In words, the price of two-year bonds is the present value of the payment in two years— discounted using current and next year’s expected one-year interest rate.
The relation between maturity and yield is called the yield curve, or the term structure of interest rates.
布兰查德《宏观经济学》章节题库(物品市场)【圣才出品】
（2）在简单国民收入决定理论中，分别考虑两部门、三部门和四部门经济中均衡产出 水平的决定过程。
①两部门的收入决定。社会经济中假设只存在家庭和厂商两部门，不考虑政府和国外部 门。 Y C I ， Y C S ，其中 Y 表示总支出或总收入，均衡国民收入是总支出等于总收入时的收入。所以， 两部门决定均衡收入的条件是 C I C S ，则 I S ，即储蓄等于投资。消费—投资决定的 均衡收入，用消费曲线加投资曲线构成的总支出曲线同 45 度线的交点说明均衡收入的决定 的方法。交点就是均衡产出水平，经济体系处于均衡状态。
答：（1）宏观经济的均衡产出决定式是：
Y 1 1ቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱ c1
c0 I G c1T
（2）尽管该式从理论上表明，政府通过调整政府支出 G 和税收 T 可以改变产出水平 Y 。
但实际中，政府并不能选择它们所想要的产出水平。理由有五点：
①改变政府支出或税收并不容易；
②政府难以准确估计投资、消费对需求的影响；
3．储蓄悖论 答：储蓄悖论又称为节俭悖论，传统的观点认为勤俭节约是一种美德，但是凯恩斯却提
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圣才电子书 十万种考研考证电子书、题库视频学习平台
出了与之相矛盾的观点。根据凯恩斯的国民收入决定理论，国民产出由包含消费支出的总需 求决定，也就是说，消费支出的增加会引起国民产出的增加，消费支出的减少会引起国民产 出的减少，即消费变动与国民产出变动呈正向变动关系。同时由凯恩斯的消费理论知道消费 与储蓄具有互补关系，因而可得出储蓄变动与国民产出变动呈反向变动关系。即增加储蓄会 减少国民产出，使国家经济衰退，对于社会来讲是恶的；而减少储蓄会增加国民产出，使经 济繁荣，对于社会来讲是好的。这种矛盾被称为“储蓄悖论”。
课件 西方经济学(宏观部分)第四版
第一节 投资的决定
四、投资边际效率曲线
投资边际效率
[Marginal Efficiency of Investment，MEI] ，
——随投资量的增加 随投资量的增加 而递减的资本边际效
资本边际效率曲线（ 资本边际效率曲线（MEC） ） 和投资边际效率曲线（ 和投资边际效率曲线（MEI） ）
率或内部收益率。 率或内部收益率。
Rn R0 = (1 + r )n
Rn = R0(1 + r)
n
第一节 投资的定
本利和的现值
第二年本利和第三年本利和 第三年本利和第三年本利和的现值 本金 年利率 第一年本利和 第二年本利和第三年本利和第三年本利和的现值 102.01 100. 100 1% 101 103.03 ￥ 100 . 00 104.04 100. 100 2% 102 106.12 ￥ 100 . 00 106.09 100. 100 3% 103 109.27 ￥ 100 . 00 108.16 100. 100 4% 104 112.49 ￥ 100 . 00 110.25 100. 100 5% 105 115.76 ￥ 100 . 00 112.36 100 6% 106 119.10 ￥ 100. 00 100 . 114.49 100. 100 7% 107 122.50 ￥ 100 . 00 116.64 100. 100 8% 108 125.97 ￥ 100 . 00 118.81 100. 100 9% 109 129.50 ￥ 100 . 00 121 100. 100 10% 110 133.10 ￥ 100 . 00 123.21 11% 100. 100 111 136.76 ￥ 100 . 00
宏观经济学布兰查德后作业答案
分别为0.09、0.09
c.第1年到第2年、第2年到第3年、第3年到第4年之间，通货 膨胀率是多少？
根据公式：π=(Pt-Pt-1)/Pt-1 第1年到第2年：π=（100-95.2）/95.2=0.05
e.计算中期的失业率和通货膨胀率。
中期，失业率回到自然失业率5%，产出等于正常 增长率3%，通货膨胀等于调整的名义货币增长 率3%-3%=0。
f.“通货膨胀总是一个货币现象”是对中期还是短 期的描述。
在中期内，失业率等于自然失业率，产出以正常 增长率增长。名义货币增长决定通货膨胀率：名 义货币增长1%导致通货膨胀增加1%。
c.你相信问题（b）中的答案吗？为什么？（提示： 考虑人们如何形成通货膨胀预期。）
不相信。因为（b）中的前提是π et= 0，而πt永远 等于4%，意味着人们未来的预期通胀都为零，仅 仅用过去的通胀水平表示未来的通胀水平而不加 任何修正，而且这样通胀预期将会永远维持下去 。但是因为预期通货膨胀率是由通货膨胀率决定 的，所以正的π t不可能永远只产生等于零的π et。 事实上，人们不可能犯这样的系统性错误，因而 （b）中的答案是不可能的。
t+2
-0.7%
8.8%
t+3
-3.2%
7.5%
t+4
-4.1%
5.9%
t+5
-3.5%
4.4%
t+6
-3.1%
3.6%
t+7
-0.5%
3.4%
t+8
布兰查德《宏观经济学》章节课后习题详解(菲利普斯曲线、自然失业率和通货膨胀)【圣才出品】
第8章菲利普斯曲线、自然失业率和通货膨胀一、概念题1．菲利普斯曲线（Phillips curve）答：英国经济学家菲利普斯根据1861～1957年英国的失业率和货币工资变动率的经验统计资料，得出货币工资增长率与失业率之间存在替换关系，故称之为菲利普斯曲线。
后来的学者用物价上涨率（即通货膨胀率）代替货币工资上涨率，以表示物价上涨率与失业率之间也有对应关系：物价上涨率增加时，失业率下降；物价上涨率下降时，失业率上升。
这就是一般所说的经过改造后的菲利普斯曲线。
菲利普斯曲线如图8-1所示。
图8-1 菲利普斯曲线菲利普斯曲线提供的失业率与通货膨胀率之间的关系为实施政府干预、进行总需求管理提供了一份可供选择的菜单。
它意味着当通货膨胀率过高时，可通过紧缩性的经济政策使失业率提高，以换取低通货膨胀率；当失业率过高时，采取扩张性的经济政策使通货膨胀率提高，以获得较低的失业率。
对于菲利普斯曲线具体的形状，不同学派对此有不同的看法。
普遍接受的观点是：在短期内，菲利普斯曲线向右下方倾斜，而长期菲利普斯曲线是一条垂直线，表明在长期失业率与通货膨胀率之间不存在替换关系。
2．工资－价格螺旋（wage-price spiral）答：工资—价格螺旋又称为“工资—物价螺旋式上升”，是一种关于工资与物价相互促进而引起持续通货膨胀的理论。
给定预期价格，工人认为就是去年的价格，更低的失业导致更高的名义工资，更高的名义工资导致更高的价格，更高的价格导致更高的通货膨胀。
这一机制被称为工资—价格螺旋。
其作用机制为：（1）低失业引起更高的名义工资。
（2）作为对更高工资的反应，企业提高它们的价格，价格就升高了。
（3）作为对更高价格的反应，工人要求更高的名义工资。
（4）更高的名义工资致使企业进一步提高价格，最终价格进一步提升。
（5）作为对价格进一步提升的反应，在他们再次制定工资的时候，工人进一步要求更高的名义工资。
价格和工资之间的这种竞赛，导致持续的工资和价格膨胀。
布兰查德《宏观经济学》章节课后习题详解(本书之旅)【圣才出品】
第2章本书之旅一、概念题1．国民收入和生产账户（national income and product accounts）答：国民收入和生产账户，简称国民收入账户，是指对一国一定时期（通常为一年）内国民收入进行系统记录的账户。
国民收入指一个国家在一定时期（通常为一年）内物质资料生产部门的劳动者新创造的价值的总和，即社会总产品的价值扣除用于补偿消耗掉的生产资料价值的余额。
反映国民收入的两个主要统计数字是GDP和GNP，前者计算一段特定时期本地进行的生产，而后者则计算本地居民的总体收入。
衡量国民收入的方法有三种：收入法、支出法和产出（产品）法。
常用的两个核算公式为：①国内生产总值＝消费（C）＋私人投资（I）＋政府支出（G）＋净出口（X－IM）；②国内生产总值＝工资或其他劳动收入＋利息、租金及其他财产收入＋间接税＋折旧＋利润。
其经济意义为：①国民收入的生产结构和经济成分结构指标综合地反映出一国的国民经济结构；②国民收入指标综合地反映社会再生产中各种错综复杂的经济关系；③反映了国民收入的生产、分配和使用中的各种比例关系；④国民收入是反映宏观经济效益的综合指标。
2．总产出（aggregate output）答：总产出是指一个国家或地区一定时期内（核算期内）全部生产活动的总成果，即全部生产单位生产的物质产品和服务的总价值之和，包括本期生产的已出售和可供出售的物质产品和服务、在建工程以及自产自用消费品和自制固定资产价值。
一般按生产价格计算。
经济总产出的主要衡量指标有国内生产总值（GDP）、国民生产总值（GNP）等。
3．国内生产总值（gross domestic product，GDP）答：国内生产总值是指一个国家（地区）的领土范围内，本国（地区）居民和外国居民在一定时期内所生产和提供的最终使用的产品和劳务的价值总和。
国内生产总值之所以称为总值，是因为它包含了生产中的固定资产消耗（固定资产折旧）。
其一般通过支出法、增值法和收入法三种方法进行核算。
布兰查德宏观经济学课后答案共25页word资料
Chapter 11. a.True. b.True. c.False. d.True. e.False. f.False.2. a. 1960-98 2019-99-------------------US 3.1% 3.8%EU 3.1% 2.5%Japan 5.8%-1.0%While the US growth rate higher than its long-run average over the period, the growth rate has slowed relative to long-run averages in both the EU and Japan over the last few years.b. Sometimes the economy is growing quickly, other times it is growing slowly or even contracting. The last few years of rapid growth in the US do not imply that the long-run average rate of growth has increased back to its pre-1974 level.3. a. The data in the web page are: Real Gross Domestic Product,Real Final Sales of Domestic Product, and Real Gross National Product, Quarterly, 1959-96[Percent change from preceding quarter]Gross Final sales Grossdomestic of domestic nationalproduct product product1959: I 8.6 9.2 8.6II11.27.311.1III-0.3 5.3-0.2IV 1.7-1.3 1.91996: I 1.8 2.6 1.8II 6.0 5.2 5.7III 1.00.20.6IV 4.3 4.5 4.9suggesting that recessions typically last two-three quarters and that the most severe recessions in that period were the recessions of 1974-75 and 1981-82.b. Percentage Changes in:Output GrowthInflation1968: 4.7 4.4I7.5 4.7II7.1 4.1III 3.0 3.8IV 1.8 5.51969: 3.0 4.7I 6.2 3.8II 1.0 5.0III 2.3 5.8IV-2.0 5.11970: 0.1 5.3I-0.7 6.0II0.6 5.7III 3.7 3.4IV-3.9 5.41971: 3.3 5.2I11.3 6.4II 2.3 5.5III 2.6 4.4IV 1.1 3.3If history simply repeats itself, the United States might have a short recession (lasting perhaps oneyear) accompanied by an acceleration in the rate of inflation by about one percentage point.4. a. Banking services, business services.b. Not only has the relative demand for skilled workers increased but the industries wherethis effect is the strongest are making up a greater fraction of the economy.5. 1. Low unemployment might lead to an increase in inflation.2. Although measurement error certainly contributes to the measured slowdown ingrowth, there are other issues to consider as well, including the productivity of newresearch and accumulation of new capital.3. Although labor market rigidities may be important, it is also important to consider thatthese rigidities may not be excessive, and that high unemployment may arise from flawed macroeconomic policies.4. Although there were serious problems with regard to the management of Asian financial systems, it is important to consider the possibility that the flight of foreign capital from these countries worsened the situation by causing a severe stock market crash and exchange rate depreciation.5. Although the Euro will remove obstacles to free trade between European countries,each country will be forced to give up its own monetary policy.* 6. a. From Chapter 1: US output 2019=$8b; Ch ina output 1996=$.84b. Note that China’s outputin 2019 is $(.84)*(1.09) b. Equating output for some time t in the future:8*(1.03)t=(.84*1.09)*(1.09)t8/(.84*1.09)=(1.09/1.03)t8.737=(1.058)tt =ln(8.737)/ln(1.058) H38yrsb. From Chapter 1: US output/worker in 2019=$29,800; China output/per worker in1996=$70029.8*(1.03)t=(.7*1.09)*(1.09)tt H65 yearsChapter 21. a. False.b. Uncertain: real or nominalGDP. c. True.d. True.e. False. The level of the CPI means nothing. Its rate of change tells us about inflation.f. Uncertain. Which index is better depends on what we are trying to measure—inflationfacedby consumers or by the economy as a whole.2. a. +$100; Personal ConsumptionExpenditures b. nochange:intermediategoodc. +$200 million; Gross PrivateDomesticFixedInvestmentd. +$200 million; Net Exportse. no change: the jet was already counted when it was produced, i.e., presumably whenDelta(or some other airline) bought it new as an investment.*3. a. Measured GDP increases by $10+$12=$22.b. True GDP should increase by much less than $22 because by working for an extra hour,you are no longer producing the work of cooking within the house. Since cooking within the house is a final service, it should count as part of GDP. Unfortunately, it is hard to measure the value of work within the home, which is why measured GDP does not include it.4. a. $1,000,000 the value of the silver necklaces.b. 1st Stage:$300,000.2ndStage:$1,000,00-$300,000=$700,000.GDP: $300,000+$700,000=$1,000,000.c. Wages: $200,000 + $250,000=$450,000.Profits: ($300,000-$200,000)+($1,000,000-$250,000-300,000)=$100,000+$450,000=$550,000.GDP:$450,000+$550,000=$1,000,000.5. a. 2019 GDP: 10*$2,000+4*$1,000+1000*$1=$25,0002019 GDP: 12*$3,000+6*$500+1000*$1=$40,000Nominal GDP has increased by 60%.b. 2019 real (2019) GDP: $25,0002019 real (2019) GDP: 12*$2,000+6*$1,000+1000*$1=$31,000Real (2019) GDP has increased by 24%.c. 2019 real (2019) GDP: 10*$3,000+4*$500+1,000*$1=$33,0002019 real (2019) GDP: $40,000.Real (2019) GDP has increased by 21.2%.d. True.6. a. 2019 base year:Deflator(2019)=1; Deflator(2019)=$40,000/$31,000=1.29Inflation=29%b. 2019 base year:Deflator(2019)=$25,000/$33,000=0.76; Deflator(2019)=1Inflation=(1-0.76)/0.76=.32=32% c. Yes7. a. 2019 real GDP = 10*$2,500 + 4*$750 + 1000*$1 = $29,0002019 real GDP = 12*$2,500 + 6*$750 + 1000*$1 = $35,500b. (35,500-29,000)/29,000 = .224 = 22.4%c. Deflator in 2019=$25,000/$29,000=.86Deflator in 2019=$40,000/$35,500=1.13Inflation = (1.13 -.86)/.86 = .314 = 31.4%.8. a. The quality of a routine checkup improves over time. Checkups now may includeEKGs, for example. Medical services are particularly affected by this problem due toconstantimprovements in medical technology.b. You need to know how the market values pregnancy checkups with and withoutultra-soundsin that year.c. This information is not available since all doctors adopted the new technologysimultaneously. Still, you can tell that the quality adjusted increase will be lower than20%.*9. a. approximately 2.5% b. 1992 real GDP growth: 2.7%;unemployment rate Jan 92: 7.3%; unemployment rate Jan 93: 7.3%Supports Okun's law because the unemployment rate does not change when the growth rate of real GDP is near 2.5% c. -2 percentage points change in the unemployment rate; 5percent GDP growth d. The growth rate of GDP must increase by 2.5 percentage points. Chapter 31. a. True.b. False. Government spending was 18% if GDP without transfers.c. False. The propensity to consume must be less than one for our model to be welldefined.d.True. e.False.f. False. The increase in output is one times the multiplier.2. a. Y=160+0.6*(Y-100)+150+150 0.4Y=460-60 Y=1000b. Y D=Y-T=1000-100=900c. C=160+0.6*(900)=7003. a. No. The goods market is not in equilibrium. Frompart 2a, Demand=1000=C+I+G=700+150+150b. Yes. The goods market is in equilibrium.c. No. Private saving=Y-C-T=200. Public saving =T-G=-50. National saving (or inshort, saving) equals private plus public saving, or 150. National saving equalsinvestment.4. a. Roughly consistent. C/Y=700/1000=70%; I/Y=G/Y=150/1000=15%.b. Approximately -2%.c. Y needs to fall by 2%, or from 1000 to 980. The parameter c0needs to fall by20/multiplier,or by 20*(.4)=8. So c0needs to fall from 160 to 152.d. The change in c0(-8) is less than the change in GDP (-20) due to the multiplier.5. a. Y increases by 1/(1-c1) b. Y decreases by c1/(1- c1)c. The answers differ because spending affects demand directly, but taxes affectdemand through consumption, and the propensity to consume is less than one.d. The change in Y equals 1/(1-c1) - c1/(1- c1) = 1. Balanced budget changes in G and Tare not macroeconomically neutral.e. The propensity to consume has no effect because the balanced budget tax increase abortsthe multiplier process. Y and T both increase by on unit, so disposable income, and hence consumption, do not change.*6. a. The tax rate ilessthanone.b.Y=c0+c1Y D+I+G impliesY=[1/(1-c1+c1t1)]*[c0-c1t0+I+G]c. The multiplier = 1/(1-c1+c1t1) <1/(1- c1), so the economy responds less to changes inautonomous spending when t1is positive.d. Because of the automatic effect of taxes on the economy, the economy responds less tochanges in autonomous spending than in the case where taxes are independent of income. So output tends to vary less, and fiscal policy is called an automatic stabilizer.*7. a. Y=[1/(1-c1+c1t1)]*[c0-c1t0+I+G] b. T = c1t0+ t1*[1/(1-c1+c1t1)]*[c0-c1t0+I+G]c. Both Y and T decrease.d. If G is cut, Y decreases even more.Chapter 41.a.True.b.Fals.c.True.d.True.e.False.f.False.g.True.2. a. i=0.05: Money demand = $18,000; Bond demand = $32,000i=.1: Money demand = $15,000; Bond demand = $35,000b. Money demand decreases when the interest rate increases; bond demand increases. Thisis consistent with the text.c. The demand for money falls by 50%. d. The demand formoney falls by 50%.e. A 1% increase (decrease) in income leads to a 1% increase (decrease) in money demand.This effect is independent of the interest rate.3. a. i=100/$P B–1; i=33%; 18%; 5% when $P B=$75; $85; $95.b. Negative.c. $P B=100/(1.08) $934. a. $20=M D=$100*(.25-i) i=5%b. M=$100*(.25-.15)M=$105. a. B D= 50,000 - 60,000 (.35-i)An increase in the interest rate of 10% increases bond demand $6,000.b. An increase in wealth increases bond demand, but has no effect on money demand.c. An increase in income increases money demand, but decreases bond demand.d. When people earn more income, this does not change their wealth right away. Thus,they increase their demand for money and decrease their demand for bonds.6. a. Demand for high-powered money=0.1*$Y*(.8-4i)b. $100 b = 0.1*$5,000b*(.8-4i) i=15%c. M=(1/.1)*$100 b=$1,000 b M= M d at the interest derived in part b.6. d. If H increases to $300, falls to 5%.e. M=(1/.1)*$300 b=$3,000 b7. a. $16 is withdrawn on each trip to the bank.Money holdings—day one: $16; day two: $12; day three: $8; day four: $4.b. Average money holdings are $10.c. $8 dollar withdrawals; money holdings of $8; $4; $8; $4.d. Average money holdings are $6.e. $16 dollar withdrawals; money holdings of $0; $0; $0; $16.f. Average money holdings are $4.g. Based on these answers, ATMs and credit cards have reduced money demand.8. a. velocity=1/(M/$Y)=1/L(i)b. Velocity roughly doubled between the mid 1960s and the mid 1990s.c. ATMS and credit cards reduced L(i) so velocity increased.Chapter 51.a.Trub.Truc.Fal.d. False. The balanced budget multiplier is positive (it equals one), so the IS curve shiftsright.e. False.f. Uncertain. An increase in G leads to an increase in Y (which tends to increaseinvestment), but an increase in the interest rate (which tends to reduce investment).g. True.*2. Firms deciding how to use their own funds will compare the return on bonds to the return on investment. When the interest rate on bonds increases, they become more attractive, and firms are more likely to use their funds to purchase bonds, rather than to finance investment projects.a.Y=[1/(1-c1)]*[c0-c1T+I+G]The multiplier is 1/(1-c1).b. Y=[1/(1-c1-b1)]*[c0-c1T+ b0-b2i +G]The multiplier is 1/(1-c1-b1). Since the multiplier is larger than the multiplier in part a, the effect of a change in autonomous spending is bigger than in part a.c. Substituting for the interest rate in the answer to partb: Y=[1/(1-c1-b1+ b2d1/d2)]*[c0-c1T+ b0+(b2*M/P)/d2+G]The multiplier is 1/(1-c1-b1+ b2d1/d2).d. The multiplier is greater (less) than the multiplier in part a if (b1- b2d1/d2) is greater (less)than zero. The multiplier is big if b1is big, b2is small, d1is small, and/or d2is big, i.e., if investment is very sensitive to Y, investment is not very sensitive to i, money demand is not very sensitive to Y, money demand is very sensitive to i.4. a. The IS curve shifts left. Output and the interest rate fall. The effect on investmentis ambiguous because the output and interest rate effects work in opposite directions: the fall in output tends to reduce investment, but the fall in the interest rate tends to increase it.b. From 3c: Y=[1/(1-c1-b1)]*[c0-c1T+ b0-b2i +G]c. From the LM relation: i= Y*d1/d2–(M/P)/d2To obtain the equilibrium interest rate, substitute for Y from part b.d. I= b0+ b1Y- b2i= b0+ b1Y- b2Y* d1/d2+ b2(M/P)/d2To obtain equilibrium investment, substitute for Y from part b.e. Holding M/P constant, I increases with equilibrium output when b1>b2d1/d2.Since a decrease in G reduces output, the condition under which a decrease in G increases investment is b1<b2d1/d2.f. The interpretation of the condition in part e is that the effect on I from Y has to be lessthan the effect from i after controlling for the endogenous response of i and Y, determined by the slope of the LM curve, d1/d2.5. a. Y=C+I+G=200+.25*(Y-200)+150+.25Y-1000i+250Y=1100-2000ib.M/P=1600=2Y-8000i i=Y/4000-1/5c. Substituting b into a: Y=1000d. Substituting c into b: i=1/20=5%e. C=400; I=350; G=250; C+I+G=1000f. Y=1040; i=3%; C=410; I=380. A monetary expansion reduces the interest rate andincreases output. The increase in output increases consumption. The increase in outputand the fall in the interest rate increase investment.g. Y=1200; i=10%; C=450; I=350. A fiscal expansion increases output and the interestrate. The increase in output increases consumption.h. The condition from problem 3 is satisfied with equality (.25=1000*(2/8000)), socontractionary fiscal policy will have no effect on investment. When G=100: i=0%;Y=800; I=350; and C=350.*6. a. The LM curve is flatb. Japan was experiencing a liquidity trap. c. Fiscal policy is more effective.7. a. Increase G (or reduce T) and increase M.b. Reduce G (or increase T) and increase M. The interest rate falls. Investment increases,since the interest rate falls while output remains constant.CHAPTER 61.a.Fals.b.Fals.c.Falsd.False.Truf.Falsg.Uncertaih.True.i. False.2. a. (Monthly hires+monthly separations)/monthly employment =6/93.8=6.4%b. 1.6/6.5=25%c. 2.4/6.5=37%. Duration is 1/.37 or 2.7 months.d. 4.9/57.3=9%.e. new workers: .35/4.9=7%; retirees: .2/4.9=4%.3. a and b. Answers will depend on when the page is accessed.c. The decline in unemployment does not equal the increase in employment, because thelabor force is not constant. It has increased over the period.4. a. 66%; 66%*66%*66%= 29%; (66%)6= 8%b. (66%)6= 8%c. (for 2019): 875/6210= .145. a. Answers will vary.b and c. Most likely, the job you will have ten years later will pay a lot more thanyour reservation wage at the time (relative to your typical first job).d. The later job is more likely to require training and will probably be a much harderjob to monitor. So, as efficiency wage theory suggests, your employer will be willing topay a lot more than your reservation wage for the later job, to ensure low turnover andlow shirking.6. a. The computer network administrator has more bargaining power. She is muchharder to replace.6. b. The rate of unemployment is a key statistic. For example, when there are manyunemployed workers it becomes easier for firms to find replacements. This reduces the bargaining power of workers.7. a. W/P=1/(1+ )=1/1.05=.95 b. Price setting: u=1-W/P=5%c. W/P=1/1.1=.91; u=1-.91=9%. The increase in the markup lowers the real wage.From the wage-setting equation, the unemployment rate must rise for the real wage to fall.So the natural rate increases.CHAPTER 71.a.Trub.Trc.Falsd.Fale.Truf.Falg.Fal2. a. IS right, AD right, AS up, LM up, Y same, i up, P upb. IS left, AD left, AS down, LM down, Y same, i down, P down3. a.WS PS AS AD LM IS Y i PShort run:up same up same up same down up upMedium run:up same up same up same down up upb.WS PS AS AD LM IS Y i PShort run:same up down same down same up down downMedium run:same up down same down same up down down4. a. After an increase in the level of the money supply, output and the interest-rate eventually return to the same level. However, monetary policy is useful, because it can accelerate the return to the natural level of output.b. In the medium run, investment and the interest rate both change with fiscal policy.c. False. Labor market policies, such as unemployment insurance, can affect the naturallevel of output.*5. a. Open answer. Firms may be so pessimistic about sales that they do not want to borrow at any interest rate.b. The IS curve is vertical; the interest rate does not affect equilibrium output.c. No change.d. The AD curve is vertical; the price level does not affect equilibrium output.e. The increase in z reduces the natural level of output and shifts the AS curve up. SincetheAD curve is vertical, output does not change, but prices increase. Note that output is above its natural level.f. The AS curve shifts up forever, and prices keep increasing forever. Output does notchange, and remains above its natural level forever.6. a. The natural level of output is Y n. Assuming that output starts at is naturallevel, P0= M0- (1/c)*Y nb. Assuming that P e=P0: Y = 2cM0-cP=2cM0-cP0-cdY+cdY nRecalling that Y n=c(M0-P0): Y= Y n+ (c/(1+c d))*M0c. Investment goes up because output is higher and the interest rate is lower.d. In the medium run, Y = Y ne. In the medium run, investment returns to its previous level, because output and the interestrate return to their previous levels.CHAPTER 81.a.Trb.Fac.Fad.Tre.Faf.Tr2. a. No. In the 1970s, we experienced high inflation and high unemployment. The expectations- augmented Phillips curve is a relationship between inflation and unemployment conditional on the natural rate and inflation expectations. Given inflation expectations,increases in the natural rate (which result from adverse shocks to labor market institutions—increases in z—or from increases in the markup—which encompass oil shocks) lead to an increase in both theunemployment rate and the inflation rate. In addition, increases in inflation expectations imply higher inflation for any level of unemployment and tend to increase the unemployment rate inthe short run (think of an increase in the expected price level, given last period’s price, in the AD-AS framework). In the 1970s, both the natural rate and expected inflation increased, so both unemployment and inflation were relatively high.b. No. The expectations-augmented Phillips curve implies that maintaining a rate ofunemployment below the natural rate requires increasing (not simply high) inflation. This is because inflation expectations continue to adjust to actual inflation.3. a. u n=0.1/2 =5%b. t=0.1-2*.03 = 4% every year beginning with year t.c. e= 0 and =4% forever. Inflation expectations will be forever wrong. This isunlikely.t td. ⎝ m ight increase because people’s inflation expectations adapt to persistently positiveinflation. The increase in ⎝ has no effect on u n.e. 5= 4+.1-.06=4%+4%=8%For t>5, repeated substitution implies, t= 5+(t-5)*4%.So, 10=28%; 15=48%.f. Inflation expectations will again be forever wrong. This is unlikely.4. a. t= t-1+ 0.1 - 2u t= t-1+ 2%t=2%; t+1=4%; t+2=6%; t+3=8%.b. t=0.5 t+ 0.5 t-1+ 0.1 - 2u tor, t= t-1+ 4%4. c. t=4%; t+1=8%; t+2=12%; t+3=16%d. As indexation increases, low unemployment leads to a larger increase in inflation overtime.5. a. A higher cost of production means a higher markup.b. u n=(0.08+0.1⎧)/2; Thus, the natural rate of unemployment increases from 5% to 6% as⎧increases from 20% to 40%.6. a. Yes. The average rate of unemployment is down. In addition, the unemploymentrate is at a historical low and inflation has not risen.b. The natural rate of unemployment has probably decreased.7. An equation that seems to fit well is: t- t-1=6-u t, which implies a natural rate of approximately 6%.8. The relationships imply a lower natural rate in the more recent period.CHAPTER 91. F TT F FT TT2. a. The unemployment rate will increase by 1% per year when g=0.5%. Unemploymentwill increase unless the growth rate exceeds the sum of productivity growth and labor force growth.b. We need growth of 4.25% per year for each of the next four years.c. Okun’s law is likely to become: u t-u t-1=-0.4*(g yt-5%)3. a. u n= 5%b. g yt= 3%; g mt=g yt+ t= 11%c. u g yt g mtt-1:8%5%3%11%t:4%9%-7%-3%t+1:4%5%13%17%t+2:4%5%3%7%4. a. t- t-1= -(u t-.05)u t- u t-1= -.4*(g mt- t-.03)b. t=6.3%; u t=8.7%t+1=1%; u t+1=10.3%c. u=5%; g y=3%; =-3%;5. a. See text for full answer. Gradualism reduces need for large policy swings, with effectsthat are difficult to predict, but immediate reduction may be more credible and encourage rapid, favorable changes in inflation expectations. On the other hand, the staggering of wagedecisions suggests that, if the policy is credible, a gradual disinflation is the optionconsistent with no change in the unemployment rate.b. Not clear, probably fast disinflation, depending on the features inc.5. c. Some important features: the degree of indexation, the nature of the wage-settingprocess, and the initial rate of inflation.*6. a. u n=K/2; sacrifice ratio=.5 b. t=10%; t+1=8%; t+2=6%; t+3=4%; t+4=2%c. 5 years; sacrifice ratio=(5 point years of excess unemployment)/(10 percentage pointreduction in inflation)=.5d. t=7.5%; t+1=4.125%; t+2=1.594%; 3 years of higher unemployment for a reduction of10%: sacrifice ratio=0.3 e. t+1f. Take measures to enhance credibility.7. a. Inflation will start increasing.b.It should let unemployment increase to its new, higher, natural rate.Chapter 101. TTTFFFTU2. a. Example: France: (1.042)48*5.150=$37.1 k.Germany: $43.4 k; Japan: $76.5 k; UK: $22.5 k; U.S.:$31.7k b. 2.4c. yes.3. a. $5,000b. 2,500 pesos c. $500d. $1,000e. Mexican standard of living relative to the U.S.—exchange rate method:1/10; PPP method: 1/54. a. Y=63b. Y doubles. c. Yes.d. Y/N=(K/N)1/2e. K/N=4 implies Y/N=2. K/N=8 implies Y/N=2.83. Output less than doubles.f. No.g. No. In part f, we are looking at what happens to output when we increasecapital only, not capital and labor in equal proportion. There are decreasing returns tocapital.h. Yes.5. The United States was making the most important technical advances. However, theother countries were able to make up much of their technological gap by importing thetechnologies developed in the United States, and hence, have higher technological progress.6.Convergence for the France, Belgium, and Italy; no convergence for the second set ofcountriesChapter 111. a. Uncertain. True if saving includes public and private saving. False if saving onlyincludes private saving.b. False.c.Uncert UTFFd2. a. No. (1) The Japanese rate of growth is not so high anymore. (2) If the Japanesesaving rate has always been high, then this cannot explain the difference between the rate of growth inJapan and the US in the last 40 or 50 years. (3) If the Japanese saving rate has been higher thanit used to be, then this can explain some of the high Japanese growth. The contribution of high saving to growth in Japan should, however, come to an end.3. After a decade: higher growth rate. After five decades: growth rate back to normal, higher level of output per worker.4. a. Higher saving. Higher output per workerb. Same output per worker. Higher output per capita.5.*YYYd. Y/N = (K/N)1/3e. In steady state, sf(K/N) = ™K/N, which, given the production function in part d,implies: K/N=(s/™)3/2f. Y/N =(s/™)1/2g. Y/N = 2h. Y/N = 21/26.* a. 1b. 1c. K/N=.35; Y/N=.71d. Using equation (11.3), the evolution of K/N is: 0.9, 0.82, 0.757. a. K/N=(s/(2™))2; Y/N=s/(4™) b. C/N=s(1-s)/(4™)c-e. Y/N increases with s; C/N increases until s=.5, then decreases. CHAPTER 121.TFTFTFTUF2. a. Lower growth in poorer countries. Higher growth in rich countries.b. Increase in R&D and in output growth.c. A decrease in the fertility of applied research; a (small) decrease in growth.d. A decrease in the appropriability of drug research. A drop in the development of newdrugs. Lower technological progress and lower growth.3. See discussion in section 12.2.4. Examples will vary. Weakening patent protection would accelerate diffusion, but mightalso discourage R&D.5. a. Year 1: 3000; Year 2: 3960b. Real GDP: 3300; output growth: 10%c. 20%d. Real GDP/Worker=30 in both years; productivity growth is zero.e. RealGDP:3990;outputgrowth:33%.f. -0.8%g. Proper measurement implies real gdp/worker=36.3 in year 2. With improper measurement, productivity growth would be 21 percentage points lower and inflation 21% points higher.6. a. Both lead to an initial decrease in growthb. Only the first leads to a permanent decrease in growth7. a. (K/(AN))*=(s/( +g A+g N))2=1; (Y/(AN))*=(1)1/2; g Y/(AN)=0; g Y/N=4%; g Y=6%b. (K/(AN))=(4/5)2; (Y/(AN))*=(4/5); g Y/(AN)=0; g Y/N=8%; g Y=10%c. (K/(AN))=(4/5)2; (Y/(AN))*=(4/5); g Y/(AN)=0; g Y/N=4%; g Y=10%People are better off in case a. Given any set of initial values, the level of technology is the same in cases a and c, but the level of capital per effective worker is higher atevery point in time in case a. Thus, since Y/N=A*(Y/(AN))=A*(K/(AN))1/2, output per worker is always higher in case a.8. There is a slowdown in growth and the rate of technological progress in the modernperiod. Japan’s growth rate of technological progress is higher because it is catching up to the U.S. level of technology. Not all of the difference in growth rates of output per worker is attributable to the difference in rates of technological progress. A big part is attributable to the difference in rates of growth of capital per worker.9.* a. ProbablyaffectsA.Thinkofclimate.b.Affects H.c. Affects A. Strong protection tends to encourage more R&D but also to limit diffusion of technology.d. May affect A through diffusion.e. May affect K, H, and A. Lower tax rates increase the after-tax return on investment,and thus tend to lead to more accumulation of K and H and more R&D spending.f. If we interpret K as private capital, than infrastructure affects A—e.g., bettertransportation networks may make the economy more productive by reducing congestion time.g. Assuming no technological progress, lower population growth implies highersteady-state level of output per worker. Lower population growth leads to higher capital per worker. Ifthere is technological progress, there is no steady-state level of output per worker. In this case, however, lower population growth implies that output per worker will be higher at every point in time, for any given path of technology. See the answer to problem 7c.Chapter 131.FFTTTTTTF2. a. u=1-(1/(1+⎧))(A/A e)b. u=1-(1/(1+⎧))=4.8%c. No. Since wages adjust to expected productivity, an increase in productivityeventuallyleads to equiproportional increases in the real wage implied by wage setting and price setting, at the original natural rate of unemployment. So equilibrium can bemaintained without any change in the natural rate of unemployment.3.* a. P=P e(1+⎧)(A e/A)(Y/L)(1/A)b. AS shifts down. Given A e/A=1, an increase in A implies a fall in P, given Y. Thisoccurs because for a given level of Y, unemployment is higher, so wages are lower and so, in turn, is the price level.c. There is now an additional effect, a fall in A e/A. In effect, workers do not receive asmuchof an increase in wages as warranted by the increase in productivity. Compared to part b, nominal wages are lower, leading to a lower value of P given Y.4. Discussion question.5. a. Reduce the gap, if this leads to an increase in the relative supply of skilled workers.b. Reduce the gap, since it leads to a decrease in the relative supply of unskilled workers.c. Reduce the gap, since it leads to an increase in the relative supply of skilled workers.d. Increase the gap, if U.S. firms hire unskilled workers in Central America, since itreduces the relative demand for U.S. unskilled workers.6. a. Textiles production is moving to low wage countries.b. Possibly demographic changes, increased availability of child care outside the home,decline in labor supply for these positions.c. Technological progress.7. Discussion question.CHAPTER 141. TTTFTFTTF The nominal interest rate is always positive.The real interest rate can be negative.2. a. Real. Nominal profits are likely to move with inflation; real profits are easier to forecast.b. Nominal. The payments are nominal.c. Nominal. If lease payments are in nominal terms, as is typical.3. a. Exact: r=(1+.04)/(1+.02)-1=1.96%; Approximation: r=.04-.02=2%b. 3.60%; 4%c. 5.48%; 8%4. a. No. Otherwise, nobody would hold bonds. Money would be more appealing: it pays at leasta zero nominal interest rate and can be used for transactions.b. Yes. The real interest rate will be negative if expected inflation exceeds the nominalinterest rate. Even so, the real interest rate on bonds (which pay nominal interest) willexceed the real interest rate on money (which does not pay nominal interest) by the nominal interest rate.c. A negative real interest rate makes borrowing very attractive, and leads to a largedemand for investment.5. a. The discount rate is the interest rate. So EPDV are (i) $2,000*(1-.25) under eitherinterest rate and (ii) (1-.2)*$2,000 under either interest rate.b. The interest rate does not enter the calculation. Hence, you prefer ii to i since 20%<25%. Note that the answer to parta does not imply that saving will not accumulate. By retirement,the initial investment will have grown by a factor of (1+i)40in nominal terms and (1+r)40in real terms. As long as r is positive, the purchasing power of the initial investment will grow.In addition, this simple example omits an important real-world feature of retirement savings: the tax-free accrual of interest. As a result of this feature, the effective interest rate on。