Porter__What is Strategy__20030919__Excellent
What is Strategy - Micheal E.Porter (中文版)
什么是战略？一、运营效益不等于战略近20年来，管理者一直在学习运用一套新的管理原则：企业必须具有灵活性，才能迅速回应市场变化和竞争环境的改变；它们必须持续地运用标杆法才能达成最佳实践；它们必须积极采用外包，以获得更高的效率；它们还必须培养若干核心竞争力，才能领先于竞争对手。
一直以来，定位(positioning)是战略的核心，然而由于当今动荡的市场和不断变化的科技，很多人认为定位太过静态而抛弃了这一概念。
根据新的教条，竞争对手可以很快复制任何一个市场定位，所以任何竞争优势至多只能是暂时性的。
然而，上述信条都是危险而错误的，它们正在导致越来越多的企业走上互相摧毁式的竞争之路。
的确，随着管制的放宽和市场的日益全球化，一些阻碍竞争的障碍正在消失；的确，很多公司适当地投入精力，使自己变得更加精干和敏捷。
然而在许多行业，有些人所说的超级竞争(hypercompetition)其实是自设陷阱，而不是竞争模式发生变化所致的必然结果。
问题的根源出在人们未能分清运营效益（operational effectiveness）和战略（strategy）的区别。
对生产率、质量和速度的追求，催生出大量的管理工具和技巧，比如全面质量管理、标杆法、时基竞争、外包、结盟、企业再造以及变革管理等。
尽管很多企业的运营效益因此得到了极大提高，但它们却因为无法将这些进步转化为持续赢利而倍感挫折。
渐渐地，几乎在不知不觉中，管理工具取代了战略。
随着管理者努力进行全方位的改善，他们离自己原本可行的市场定位越来越远了。
运营效益：必要但不充分创造卓越绩效是所有企业的首要目标，运营效益和战略对于企业实现这一目标都至为关键，但两者的作用方式不同。
企业唯有建立起一种可长期保持的差异化时，才能胜出竞争对手。
它必须向客户交付更大的价值，或者以更低的成本创造出相当的价值，或者两者兼具。
获取出色利润率的算式就是这样的：交付更大的价值就能让企业收取更高的平均单位价格，而更高的效率就能实现更低的平均单位成本。
什么是战略（Whatisstrategy）
什么是战略（What is strategy）First, what is strategy?Strategy, English is called Strategy, and German is called Strategie. It is said that this is the word "commander" from Greek, which means the command of the army. Another theory is that the word "trick" originated in greek. Indeed, from the East immortal strategy of "grandchildren" is from a book, "life change" in the sentence to elaborate its strategic theory. In a word, the word "strategy" is probably a word that holds the weight of war.Recently, it seems that someone is using the word freely. From the enterprise management strategy, profit strategy, until the strategy of winning mahjong is used everywhere. I do not think that the terms of war should be confused with the general terms, which must be strictly distinguished, because war and peace have their own essence, and between the two. There should be a clear line. Only in this way can we correctly and clearly master the true meaning of war and peace.So, in modern times, what is the interpretation of "strategy"?The so-called strategy is considered to achieve the purpose of war and military operations, the implementation of the plan of war in a far sighted view, and the policy and strategy of large-scale application of military forces.But strategy has its more profound significance.It is not only related to have fought, from a higher standpointto explain, can be divided into "national strategy" and "military strategy" two.The first is the national strategy". In order to achieve the national goal, both in peacetime or wartime, in the development and use of national military forces at the same time, but also the development and use of all aspects of political, economic and social strength, policy and strategy to take, is called the "national strategy".However, since the national strategy is a strategy, in essence, it is bound to involve the expansion of the country, as well as the development and strengthening of military forces that support this expansion, which is probably a reality.At the same time, in the national strategy, the most important thing is "military strategy"". After all, it is through the use of military force, or by force as the backing, policies and strategies to promote the country's foreign policy and the use of military force.In conclusion, it is necessary to make clear that the so-called strategy, in any case, is linked to the use of military power.The above-mentioned national strategy and military strategy can be called "broad sense" strategy. The strategy mentioned above can be called "narrow sense" strategy.We use in the military of the word "strategy", is this kind of strategy, namely "ideas, planning, preparation, combat strategies, generally speaking, is higher than the tacticalconcept, it is the Tactical Guidance and application".To make it clear, it is "strategy" to command all combat or battlefield, and to command a "battlefield" or "fight" is "tactics"".Two, tactics and operations"Tactical" is mentioned here. Now let's explore its meaning.Tactics are the means to achieve strategic ends and the strategy of directing armies on the battlefield". So, what is the difference between it and what is commonly called "combat"?Tactics refer to specific combat commanders, but also include the design of general combat scenarios.And operations are more specific, refers to a certain period of time, command one or several troops to take action against the enemy. In this military operation, several battles may be included".This is because the tactics are more specific than the strategy, so it also includes a variety of specific content.Recently, "strategic bombing" or "tactical bombing" is often called".Perhaps some people think that, no matter which kind of, anyway, there is a large number of bombs poured out, I'm afraid there is no big difference. However, there is still a clear differencebetween "strategy" and "tactics"."Strategic bombing" began in the late second world war from the actual use of large heavy bombers.This strategy has not only attacked military targets,The military, military bases, military facilities, and on the rear of the production facilities and transportation authorities, including general residential area, have a thorough attack, its purpose is to destroy the capacity of all the other countries of the war, the enemy of the government and the national war will continue to lose.Therefore, the strategic bombing is inevitably "bombing", under normal circumstances, non combatants will suffer extremely serious harm.During the Second World War, 1943 7 to August, the U.S. and British air forces carried out the bombing of Hamburg in germany. Hamburg is a city with a population of one million seven hundred and sixty thousand, in July, suffered three massive raids, cast a large number of high performance magnesium for incendiary bombs and fifty-five percent to sixty percent, the city was destroyed, three hundred and fifty thousand people were injured, about one hundred thousand people died.Since March 1945, Japan has also conducted a very strategic bombing plan, destroying Japan's ability to carry out war, the first was the March 10th Tokyo air raid.This time, the central city of Tokyo was chosen, especially in densely populated areas where business people lived. Due to terrible incendiary bombing. Overnight, eighty thousand people were killed and one hundred thousand injured. Two hundred and seventy thousand homes were destroyed. More than one million people were killed in the disaster.The so-called strategic bombing, is such a cruel thing. In practice, it is against international law because international law prohibits indiscriminate killing of non combatants.The strategy of bombing was proposed by general black of Italy, a strategy of "throwing a lot of bombs on big cities, causing damage and terror to the people, and seeking to end the war".The implementation of this approach is completely general Li Mei, his city of Germany made the strategy for detonation, and on the Japanese mainland city of bombing, shattered the Japanese will to fight.Relatively speaking, the so-called "tactical bombing" is aimed at the military and military facilities, limited bombing, rather than indiscriminately bombing the general public residential areas. The Japanese naval assault on Pearl Harbor in December 8, 1941 was a typical "tactical bombing"".In addition, the two words "strategic nuclear weapons" and "tactical nuclear weapons" are often seen.The twenty-five million ton hydrogen bomb, owned by the UnitedStates and the Soviet Union, can destroy the entire Kanto Plain and suffer radiation damage only once, which of course does not need to be mentioned. It is a nuclear weapon of one million tons (equivalent to one million tons of ordinary yellow explosive), also a strategic nuclear weapon".On the other hand, with the development of nuclear weapons to lightweight and miniaturization, 100 tons equivalent to 1/40 of the Hiroshima atomic bomb and the equivalent of 1/20 of the one thousand tons (equivalent to one thousand tons of ordinary dynamite) nuclear weapons have become the actual use of weapons. Ten thousand tons of nuclear bombs, can use 155 mm artillery launch out accurate nuclear explosion in the target site, almost no difference with conventional weapons. As mentioned above, explosive forces and explosions have a strictly defined nuclear weapon known as "tactical nuclear weapons"".If the numbers are used, the limits are generally below 10000 tons, and the maximum twenty thousand tons of nuclear weapons (Hiroshima type) are tactical nuclear weapons. As for missiles, the range of missile is below seven or eight hundred kilometers, usually several kilometers or even tens of kilometers, and the missiles with the largest range of one or two hundred kilometers are all classified as tactical missiles.From what I have explained above, I think the distinction between the "strategic air force" and "tactical air force" can be made clear. The strategic air force, in particular, is playing its role as a nuclear strategic force. It has a clear line between tactical air forces that support combat operations in conventional warfare. Even the communications sector isdivided into strategic communications and tactical communications, functionally independent, individually performing tasks in their respective fields.Three, the so-called tacticsIn order to further clarify the difference between strategy and tactics, let us make a concrete discussion of tactics.What is known as tactics is, in a word, the means and tactics of directing the Army (military power) on the battlefield".Therefore, tactics must be tailored to specific circumstances. So, it has rich and varied changes and quick quick response of these two important characteristics are the same, and the development of the "strategic" look far ahead from a high plane corresponding to the.There are several basic types of tactics.As a narrower tactical approach to combat technology, the following are listed:Tactics for battlefield situations;Tactics of battle formation;Tactics of forming attack type;Tactics formulated according to different troops or services.In a word, the battle is not as long as about automatic rifles and throwing grenades can be, it must be received by the results for the purpose of military action.In March 1, 1984, the Vietminh guerrillas attack the Garrison for the French air force Katebi airport, destroying sixty military aircraft, the French army confound.Katebi airport is located on the outskirts of Hanoi, just a little, can see how it is in the method of attention. Around eight kilometers, surrounded by seven meters up to three meters fence. Between seven layers of barbed wire, full of mines for signal and kill purposes. A gun stand built with mortars and machine guns inside the wire fence. The patrolling patrol patrols every fifteen minutes on the inside of the wire fence.So strong, and the heavily-guarded Katebi airport, how can the guerrillas invade?Here, there is a careful and attentive tactical study.First, reconnaissance tactics.From eight months before the implementation of drastic surprise, guerrilla scouts turns up into around the airport, everything about the airport, make the full investigation, as well as to their own yard. Meanwhile, two scouts were arrested by the French army, tortured, and no one word was spoken, and finally sentenced to death.On the other hand, rushed to the airport players, in two months,the full grasp of the "surprise" tactics. To this end, repeated combat training has been repeated. To successfully rush in and out, in heavy, heavily armed situations, run five to six kilometers at full speed. For the front of the airport armed swimming River, three hundred meters across the river for breath training, in order to sneak into the airport, also carried out in only two hours can crawl five hundred to one thousand meters distance training. Besides. Also trained in seconds, placing explosives on the target, and withdrawing immediately, etc.. In short, for the surprise Katebi strict intense training, without pause to persist for two months.Therefore, the guerrillas "in a surprise, as well as peacetime training, calm and accurate, and has achieved great success.This is no surprise air force on the ground to the guerrillas, "shot down" the French Air Force Tactical maneuver. The twenty-eight B26 bombers, including transport planes, reconnaissance planes and sixty aircraft, exploded on fire on the ground, which was a major loss for the French army in the battle of Dien Bien Phu. On the ground, "shoot down" the plane, the guerrillas made a surprise tactics! And it was inherited and developed by the Vietnam War, which can be called the second Indochina war. The same tactics have been adopted so far.The first type, which is aiming at the battlefield situation and formulate tactics, also used in the Katebi battle. According to the fighting situation, the tactics of attack, defence, pursuit and retreat were adopted. According to the terrain conditions, the tactics of field operations, mountain, highland, forest, gorge and river were adopted.The second kind, that is, the tactics of battle formation, are centralized, scattered and dispersed, etc. in reality, these are often used in a comprehensive way.The third type, as the type of attack warfare, has positive tactics, side tactics, interspersed tactics and encirclement tactics, etc. These are often used together.The fourth kind, according to different troops or services, has infantry, artillery, tanks, aviation and other tactics, which are integrated into tactical, tactical and positional tactics in the actual war. In addition, new and special guerrilla tactics and hijacking tactics are adopted.Difference between strategy and tacticsStrategy, also known as military strategy, is a strategy for planning and directing the overall situation of the war. It is a war guide who uses the forces of war, the tools of war and the principles and methods of warfare to achieve the strategy and art of stopping wars or achieving the aims of war.Strategy is the product of war practice. War is a most violent action in the practical activities of all human society, relationship with the fight at outrance problems. The long-term practice of war needs, forced hostile both sides to explore and create winning art. As the art of planning and directing the war, strategy is developed and developed on the basis of this.Tactics are the means of fighting. Its main contents includebasic tactical principles, troop deployment, coordinated operations, methods of combat command and combat operations, and various safeguards. According to the type, divided into offensive tactics and defensive tactics; according to the military services, it is divided into contract tactics, services tactics and tactics of arms; according to the scale, they are divided into Corps tactics, army tactics, unit tactics, etc.. Chinese in ancient times, the "art of war" to "only the law" stated tactics and methods of warfare. In the west, "tactical" comes from the Greek word "lineup of art". With the development of military technology and the development of combat practice, the tactics evolved from the ancient army phalanx to the various arms contract tactics. The Cold War era, the opposing sides into squares to fighting against. Firearm era, produced a combination of firepower and shock line type tactics, tactics, tactics skirmish line column. During the first World War, contract tactics emerged with the emergence of tanks and aircraft. During the Second World War, services, tactics, arms tactics and contract tactics were comprehensively developed. After the war, the development of tactical nuclear weapons, missiles, helicopters and other conventional weapons, mechanization and armor of the army made the contract tactics enter a new stage of high speed, large depth and three-dimensional.Three Zhu Geliang for Liu Bei's attention is the strategy, in ancient times known as Wallace, known as the "Longzhongdui", while performing tricks trick used to reach the generals to make tactical.That is to say, the purpose and initial goal of war is strategy,and the tactics used in order to accomplish these goals are tactics.To put it simply, strategy is a big direction.Tactics is the concrete implementation process of strategy.Contrary to the strategy of tactics, success is a failure, the more successful, the more failure.Strategy is a strategy to guide the overall situation of the war. Usually refers to military strategy, that is, the direction, strategy and method of preparing and implementing war by the director of war in accordance with the laws of war for the purpose of achieving the political purpose of war.Tactics are the means of directing and conducting combat.。
什么是战略——迈克尔·波特《什么是战略》读后感
精心整理什么是战略——迈克尔·波特《什么是战略》读后感美国哈佛《商业评论》2004年1月号，在“哈佛经典”专栏摘要介绍了迈克尔·波特的新文章—《什么是战略》。
在这篇文章中，波特不但对“战略”意义作了新阐述，而且对“战略”含义作了新注释。
他说，“战略”一是“创造一种独特、有利（一）也互相依存。
后来，“战略”这个词的词义被人们引申了，目前至少有三种引申义：第一种引申义指的是对企业竞争的整体性、长远性、基本性谋划。
无论是安索夫的《企业战略论》，还是迈克尔·波特的《竞争战略》，就是对“战略”第一种引申义的具体运用。
对“战略”含义的第一种引申具有重大意义，否则，人们就很难思考与交流企业竞争战略问题，而这个问题对企业而言是非常重要的。
“战略”的第二种引申义突破了企业竞争领域，泛指对各种行为的整体性、长远性、基本性谋划，例如，中国经济发展战略，某些城市或地区经济发展战略，某些行业或产业发展战略，某些地区招商引资战略，某些企业的发展战略、营销战略、技术开发战略，以及战略重（二）需要进行的整体性、长远性、基本性谋划是复杂的、易变的、个性的，简单地用上述三个方面来概括，容易使人们以偏概全、认识僵化和千篇一律。
竞争战略像军事战略一样讲究灵活机动，战略无定式，其内容没有必要也没有可能被简单地概括出来。
即使认为概括一下对帮助人们系统地理解“竞争战略”不无好处，也应该事先声明这种概括只是相对的，而不能让人们相信这就是答案，更不能自称这是“完整的答案”。
有一个点需要指出：把“在竞争中做出取舍，其实质就是选择不做哪些事情”视为“竞争战略”的三项内容之一，存在着逻辑方面的毛博因为“定位”本身就是在“取舍”，“定位”与“取舍”存在包涵关系，而存在包涵关系的两个方面的内容是不能被并列的。
还有一个点需要指出：把搞好“配称”即搞好各项运营活动之间的“关联”，或“建立一个环环相扣、紧密联接的链”，视为“竞争战略”的三项内容之一，也存在着逻辑方面的毛博竞争战略实施需要管理但本身不是管理。
michael e. porter文献引用
Michael E. Porter，哈佛商学院经济学家和学者，是战略管理领域的泰斗级人物。
他的研究涉及领域广泛，包括竞争策略、行业竞争、经济发展等方面。
作为全球知名的管理学者，Porter的研究成果对于商业战略的制定和执行具有重要影响。
以下是一些对于Michael E. Porter的文献引用，以展现其在商业管理领域的重要影响：1. Porter, M. E. (1980). Competitive strategy: Techniques for analyzing industries andpetitors. Free Press.这本书是Porter最知名的著作之一，被誉为“竞争领域的圣经”。
在此书中，他提出了三种竞争策略：成本领先、差异化和集中化战略。
这些战略理论成为了商业管理中的重要工具，帮助企业分析其所在产业的竞争环境，并决定如何制定竞争策略以获得持续竞争优势。
2. Porter, M. E. (1985). Competitive advantage: Creating and sust 本人ning superior performance. Free Press.在这本书中，Porter进一步深化了竞争策略的研究，提出了价值链分析和核心竞争力理论。
他强调了企业要想在市场上取得持续竞争优势，就必须寻找自己的核心竞争力，并通过不断优化价值链来创造和维持这一竞争优势。
3. Porter, M. E. (1990). Thepetitive advantage of nations. FreePress.这本书是Porter在跨国经营和国际竞争领域的重要研究成果。
他提出了“国家竞争优势”的概念，强调了国家的经济竞争力与其产业集聚、创新能力以及国家因素相关。
这一理论对于国家经济发展和产业政策的制定具有重要的指导意义。
4. Porter, M. E. (2008). The fivepetitive forces that shape strategy. Harvard Business Review, 86(1), 78-93.这篇文章系统性地阐述了Porter的“五力分析”理论，强调了竞争对手、供应商、顾客、替代品和新进入者对企业竞争的影响。
企业竞争对手分析之Porter范式课件
一
否则，会引起激烈的竞争战。
未 来 目 标
竞争对手的假设：
——
• 对自己的假设
四
要 素
• 对行业及行业内其他公司的假设
之
二
假设：未经验证的判断。
竞
争
人性的弱点之一是容易把自己的判断当成真理，
对 手
懒于验证，因为验证是很费力的。
的 假
极易出现盲点和偏见。
设
一些例子：
四
要
素
• 对自己的假设：自己是全国知名企业；自己是低成本生产者；
手
的
假
设
局部行动
行动
• 言行
• 历史传统 四 • 管理层
推断
假设
要 • 顾问
素
之 二
检验
——
竞
对竞争战略的涵义：
争
对
利用对手的错误假设（盲点，偏见），制定对策
手
的
假
设
四
要 素
竞争对手的现行战略
之 三
—— 该竞争对手现在是如何竞争的
——
竞
争
对
1. 市场信号辨识方法
手
的
2. 现行职能综合分析方法√
现
标
聘特定的外来人员是否意味着他们选择某一方向？
• 竞争对手采用何种会计系统和规范？如何考虑成本？如 何定价？
• 竞争对手受到哪些限制或约束？合同？债务？行政规制 和法律限制？经历过哪些司法诉讼？
分析竞争对手未来目标的意义
——
四
要 素
为本企业找到一种竞争战略：既能达到本企业
之
的目的，又能不威胁竞争对手的位置。
（优势和劣势）
小结与复习思考题
专业外语《什么是战略》翻译What is strategy--Michael Porter
什么是战略？一，运作效率不是战略作者：Porter，Michael E ..，Harvard Business Review，Nov / Dec96，Vol。
74第6期，第61页，第18页，第3图，1图，2c近二十年来，管理人员一直在学习一套新的规则。
公司必须灵活应对竞争和市场变化。
他们必须不断进行基准测试以实现最佳实他们必须积极外包以提高效率。
他们必须在竞争中坚持一些核心竞争力，以保持领先于竞争对手。
定位 - 曾经是战略的核心 - 被拒绝，因为对于当今充满活力的市场和不断变化的技术而言过于静态。
根据新的教条，竞争对手可以迅速复制任何市场地位，而竞争优势充其量只是暂时的。
但这些信念是危险的半真半假，它们正在引导越来越多的公司走上相互破坏性竞争的道路。
诚然，随着监管的缓解和市场的全球化，竞争的一些障碍正在下降。
诚然，公司已经适当地投入精力，变得更精简，更灵活。
然而，在许多行业中，有些人认为超级竞争是一种自我伤害，而不是不断变化的竞争模式的必然结果。
问题的根源是无法区分运营效率和战略。
对生产力，质量和速度的追求催生了大量的管理工具和技术：全面质量管理，基准测试，基于时间的竞争，外包，合作，再造，变更管理。
虽然由此产生的运营改进往往是戏剧性的，但许多公司因无法将这些收益转化为可持续盈利而感到沮丧。
管理工具几乎不知不觉地一点一点地取代了战略。
随着管理者在各方面都在努力改进，他们离可行的竞争地位越来越远。
运营效率：必要但不充分运营效率和战略对于卓越绩效至关重要，毕竟这是任何企业的首要目标。
但他们以不同的方式工作。
只有当公司能够建立可以保留的差异时，它才能超越竞争对手。
它必须为客户提供更大的价值，或以更低的成本创造可比的价值，或两者兼顾。
然后是优越的盈利能力算法：提供更大的价值使公司能够收取更高的平均单价; 效率越高，平均单位成本越低。
最终，公司在成本或价格方面的所有差异来自创建，生产，销售和交付其产品或服务所需的数百项活动，例如呼吁客户，组装最终产品和培训员工。
what is strategy(什么是战略)-迈克尔·波特
什么是战略迈克尔•波特《哈佛商业评论》中文版2004年1月号一、运营效益并不是战略近20年来，各种游戏规则与管理理念层出不穷，令管理者应接不暇。
比如，企业必须保持一定的弹性，才能对瞬息万变的市场和竞争变化做出及时的反应；企业必须不断地进行基准比较，才能实现最佳实践的运作；企业必须各级发展外包，才能不断提高自己的效率；必须培养自己的核心竞争力，才能在竞争中始终一马当先。
与这些新兴的管理理念相比，面对当今风云变幻的市场和日新月异的科技，曾被视为战略核心的定位(positioning)被斥为过于一成不变而遭到遗弃。
根据新的管理信条，竞争对手可以迅速复制任何市场定位，因此，任何竞争优势充其量只能是暂时的。
但是，以上这些信条有可能带来危害，因为它们只说对了一半。
而且在这些信条的指引下，越来越多的企业正在走上相互残杀、竞相毁灭的竞争之路。
我们看到，随着管制的放松和市场的日益全球化，一些横亘在公司间、阻挡它们开展竞争的障碍正在消除。
我们同时也看到，很多公司投入了相当大的精力，力图使自己的组织变得更加精干、更加敏捷，以便应对随时可能出现的竞争。
然而在许多行业，有些人津津乐道的超级竞争（hypercompetition）却完全是一种自残行为，而不是竞争模式发生根本变化的必然结果。
追根溯源，问题出在人们混淆了运营效益（operational effectiveness）和战略（strategy）这两个最基本的概念。
为了追求生产率、质量和速度，企业开发出大量的管理工具和技巧，如全面质量管理、基准比较法、时基竞争（time-based competition）、外包、合作伙伴、流程再造（reengineering）以及变革管理等。
这些管理工具和技巧虽然使企业的运营效益得到了极大的提高，但是许多企业往往会因为无法将所得转化为持久赢利而感到万分沮丧。
不知不觉中，管理工具逐渐取代了战略。
于是，当管理者全线出击、力图全面改进企业运营时，他们其实是南辕北辙――离自己原本具有竞争优势的定位越来越远了。
英文翻译最后定稿
What Is Strategy?Michael E.Porter经典文章：《什么是战略？》迈克尔波特_哈佛商业评论04年1月号Operational effectiveness and strategy are both essential to superior performance, which, after all, is the primary goal of any enterprise. But they work in very different ways.A company can outperform rivals only if it can establish a difference that it can preserve. It must deliver greater value to customers or create comparable value at a lower cost, or do both. The arithmetic of superior profitability then follows: delivering greater,value allows a company to charge higher average unit prices; greater efficiency results in lower average unit costs.Ultimately, all differences between companies in cost or price derive from the hundreds of activities required to create, produce, sell, and deliver their products or services, such as calling on customers, assembling final products, and training employees. Cost is generated by performing activities, and cost advantage arises from performing particular activities more efficiently than competitors. Similarly, differentiation arises from both the choice of activities and how they are performed. Activities, then, are the basic units of competitive advantage. Overall advantage or disadvantage results from all a company's activities, not only a few.'Operational effectiveness fOE) means performing similar activities better than rivals perform them. Operational effectiveness includes but is not limited to efficiency. It refers to any number of practices that allow a company to better utilize its inputs by, for example, reducing defects in products or developing better products faster. In contrast, strategic positioning means performing different activities from rivals' or performing similar activities in different ways.GRAPH: Operational Effectiveness Versus Strategic PositioningDifferences in operational effectiveness among companies are pervasive. Some companies are able to get more out of their inputs than others because they eliminate wasted effort, employ more advanced technology, motivate employees better, or have greater insight into managing particular activities or sets of activities. Such differences in operational effectiveness are an important source of differences in profitability among competitors because they directly affect relative cost positions and levels of differentiation.Differences in operational effectiveness were at the heart of the Japanese challenge to Western companies in the 1980s. The Japanese were so far ahead of rivals in operational effectiveness that they could offer lower cost and superior quality at the same time. It is worth dwelling on this point, because so much recent thinking about competition depends on it. Imagine for a moment a productivity frontier that constitutes the sum of all existing best practices at any given time. Think of it as the maximum value that a company delivering a particular product or service can create at a given cost, using the best available technologies, skills, management techniques, and purchased inputs. The productivity frontier can apply to individual activities, to groups of linked activities such as order processing and manufacturing, and to an entire company's activities. When a company improves its operational effectiveness, itmoves toward the frontier. Doing so may require capital investment, different personnel, or simply new ways of managing.The productivity frontier is constantly shifting outward as new technologies and management approaches are developed and as new inputs become available. Laptop computers, mobile communications, the Internet, and software such as Lotus Notes, for example, have redefined the productivity frontier for sales-force operations and created rich possibilities for linking sales with such activities as order processing and after-sales support. Similarly, lean production, which involves a family of activities, has allowed substantial improvements in manufacturing productivity and asset utilization.For at least the past decade, managers have been preoccupied with improving operational effectiveness. Through programs such as TQM, time-based competition, and benchmarking, they have changed how they perform activities in order to eliminate inefficiencies, improve customer satisfaction, and achieve, best practice. Hoping to keep up with shifts in the productivity 'frontier, managers have embraced continuous improvement, empowerment, change management, and the so-called learning organization. The popularity of outsourcing and the virtual corporation reflect the growing recognition that it is difficult to perform all activities as productively as specialists.As companies move to the frontier, they can often improve on multiple dimensions of performance at the same time. For example, manufacturers that adopted the Japanese practice of rapid changeovers in the 1980s were able to lower cost and improve differentiation simultaneously. What were once believed to be real trade-offs- between defects and costs, for example- turned out to be illusions created by poor operational effectiveness. Managers have learned to reject such false trade-offs.Constant improvement in operational effectiveness is necessary to achieve superior profitability. However, it is not usually sufficient. Few companies have competed successfully on the basis of operational effectiveness over an extended period, and staying ahead of rivals gets harder every day. The most obvious reason for that is the rapid diffusion of best practices. Competitors can quickly imitate management techniques, new technologies, input improvements, and superior ways of meeting customers' needs. The most generic solutions- those that can be used in multiple settings- diffuse the fastest. Witness the proliferation of OE techniques accelerated by support from consultants.OE competition shifts the productivity frontier outward, effectively raising the bar for everyone. But although such competition produces absolute improvement in operational effectiveness, it leads to relative improvement for no one. Consider the $5 billion-plus U.S. commercial-printing industry. The major players- R.R. Donnelley & Sons Company, Quebecor, World Color Press, and Big Flower Press-are competing head to head, serving all types of customers, offering the same array of printing technologies (gravure and web offset), investing heavily in the same new equipment, running their presses faster, and reducing crew sizes. But the resulting major productivity gains are being captured by customers and equipment suppliers, notretained in superior profitability. Even industry-leader Donnelley's profit margin, consistently higher than 7% in the 1980s, fell to less than 4.6% in 1995. This pattern is playing itself out in industry after industry. Even the Japanese, pioneers of the new competition, suffer from persistently low profits. (See the insert "Japanese Companies Rarely Have Strategies.")The second reason that improved operational effectiveness is insufficient- competitive convergence- is more subtle and insidious. The more benchmarking companies do, the more they look alike. The more that rivals outsource activities to efficient third parties, often the same ones, the more generic those activities become. As rivals imitate one another's improvements in quality, cycle times, or supplier partnerships, strategies converge and competition becomes a series of races down identical paths that no one can win. Competition based on operational effectiveness alone is mutually destructive, leading to wars of attrition that can be arrested only by limiting competition.The recent wave of industry consolidation through mergers makes sense in the context of OE competition. Driven by performance pressures but lacking strategic vision, company after company has had no better idea than to buy up its rivals. The competitors left standing are often those that outlasted others, not companies with real advantage.After a decade of impressive gains in operational effectiveness, many companies are facing diminishing returns. Continuous improvement has been etched on managers' brains. But its tools unwittingly draw companies toward imitation and homogeneity. Gradually, managers have let operational effectiveness supplant strategy. The result is zerosum competition, static or declining prices, and pressures on costs that compromise companies' ability to invest in the business for the long term.II. Strategy Rests on Unique ActivitiesCompetitive strategy is about being different. It means deliberately choosing a different set of activities to deliver a unique mix of value.Southwest Airlines Company, for example, offers short-haul, low-cost, point-to-point service between midsize cities and secondary airports in large cities. Southwest avoids large airports and does not fly great distances. Its customers include business travelers, families, and students. Southwest's frequent departures and low fares attract pricesensitive customers who otherwise would travel by bus or car, and convenience-oriented travelers who would choose a full-service airline on other routes.Most managers describe strategic positioning in terms of their customers: "Southwest Airlines serves price- and convenience-sensitive travelers," for example. But the essence of strategy is in the activities-choosing to perform activities differently or to perform different activities than rivals. Otherwise, a strategy is nothing more than a marketing slogan that will not withstand competition.A full-service airline is configured to get passengers from almost any point A to any point B. To reach a large number of destinations and serve passengers with connecting flights, full-service airlines employ a hub-and-spoke system centered on major airports. To attract passengers who desire more comfort, they offer first-class orbusinessclass service. To accommodate passengers who must change planes, they coordinate schedules and check and transfer baggage. Because some passengers will be traveling for many hours, full-service airlines serve meals.Southwest, in contrast, tailors all its activities to deliver low-cost, convenient service on its particular type of route. Through fast turnarounds at the gate of only 15 minutes, Southwest is able to keep planes flying longer hours than rivals and provide frequent departures with fewer aircraft. Southwest does not offer meals, assigned seats, interline baggage checking, or premium classes of service. Automated ticketing at the gate encourages customers to bypass travel agents, allowing Southwest to avoid their commissions. A standardized fleet of 737 aircraft boosts the efficiency of maintenance.Southwest has staked out a unique and valuable strategic position based on a tailored set of activities. On the routes served by Southwest, a full-service airline could never be as convenient or as low cost.Ikea, the global furniture retailer based in Sweden, also has a clear strategic positioning. Ikea targets young furniture buyers who want style at low cost. What turns this marketing concept into a strategic positioning is the tailored set of activities that make it work. Like Southwest, Ikea has chosen to perform activities differently from its rivals.Consider the typical furniture store. Showrooms display samples of the merchandise. One area might contain 25 sofas; another will display five dining tables. But those items represent only a fraction of the choices available to customers. Dozens of books displaying fabric swatches or wood samples or alternate styles offer customers thousands of product varieties to choose from. Salespeople often escort customers through the store, answering questions and helping them navigate this maze of choices. Once a customer makes a selection, the order is relayed to a third-party manufacturer. With luck, the furniture will be delivered to the customer's home within six to eight weeks. This is a value chain that maximizes customization and service but does' so at high cost.In contrast, Ikea serves customers who are happy to trade off service for cost. Instead of having a sales associate trail customers around the store, Ikea uses a self-service model based on clear, instore displays. Rather than rely solely on thirdparty manufacturers, Ikea designs its own low-cost, modular, ready-to-assemble furniture to fit its positioning. In huge stores, Ikea displays every product . it sells in room-like settings, so customers don't need a decorator to help them imagine how to put the pieces together. Adjacent to the furnished showrooms is a warehouse section with the products in boxes on pallets. Customers are expected to do their own pickup and delivery, and Ikea will even sell you a roof rack for your car that you can return for a refund on your next visit.DIAGRAM: Mapping Activity SystemsAlthough much of its low-cost position comes from having customers "do it themselves," Ikea offers a number of extra services that its competitors do not. In-store child care is one. Extended hours are another. Those services are uniquely aligned with the needs of its customers, who are young, not wealthy, likely to havechildren (but no nanny), and, because they work for a living, have a need to shop at odd hours.The Origins Strategic PositionsStrategic positions emerge from three distinct sources, which are not mutually exclusive and often overlap. First, positioning can be based on producing a subset of an industry's products or services. I call this variety-based positioning because it is based on the choice of product or service varieties rather than customer segments. Variety-based positioning makes economic sense when a company. can best produce particular products or services using distinctive sets of activities.Jiffy Lube International, for instance, specializes in automotive lubricants and does not offer other car repair or maintenance services. Its value chain produces faster service at a lower cost than broader line repair shops, a combination so attractive that many customers subdivide their purchases, buying oil changes from the focused competitor, Jiffy Lube, and going to rivals for other services.The Vanguard Group, a leader in the mutual fund industry, is another example of variety-based positioning. Vanguard provides an array of common stock, bond, and money market funds that offer predictable performance and rock-bottom expenses. The company's investment approach deliberately sacrifices the possibility of extraordinary performance in any one year for good relative performance in every year. Vanguard is known, for example, for its index funds. It avoids making bets on interest rates and steers clear of narrow stock groups. Fund managers keep trading levels low, which holds expenses down; in addition, the company discourages customers from rapid buying and selling because doing so drives up costs and can force a fund manager to trade in order to deploy new capital and raise cash for redemptions. Vanguard also takes a consistent low-cost approach to managing distribution, customer service, and marketing. Many investors include one or more Vanguard funds in their portfolio, while buying aggressively managed or specialized funds from competitors.The people who use Vanguard or Jiffy Lube are responding to a superior value chain for a particular type of service. A variety-based positioning can serve a wide array of customers, but for most it will meet only a subset of their needs.A second basis for positioning is that of serving most or all the needs of a particular group of customers. I call this needs-based positioning, which comes closer to traditional thinking about targeting a segment of customers. It arises when there are groups of customers with differing needs, and when a tailored set of activities can serve those needs best. Some groups of customers are more price sensitive than others, demand different product features, and need varying amounts of information, support, and services. Ikea's customers are a good example of such a group. Ikea seeks to meet all the home furnishing needs of its target customers, not just a subset of them.A variant of needs-based positioning arises when the same customer has different needs on different occasions or for different types of transactions. The same person, for example, may have different needs when traveling on business than when traveling for pleasure with the family. Buyers of cans-beverage companies, for example-will likely have different needs from their primary supplier than from theirsecondary source.It is intuitive for most managers to conceive of their business in terms of the customers' needs they are meeting.. But a critical element of needs-based positioning is not at all intuitive and is often overlooked. Differences in needs will not translate into meaningful positions unless the best set of activities to satisfy them also differs. If that were not the case, every competitor could meet those same needs, and there would be nothing unique or valuable about the positioning.In private banking, for example, Bessemer Trust Company targets families with a minimum of $5 million in investable assets who want capital preservation combined with wealth accumulation. By assigning one sophisticated account officer for every 14 families, Bessemer has configured its activities for personalized service. Meetings, for example, are more likely to be held at a client's ranch or yacht than in the office. Bessemer offers a wide array of customized services, including investment management and estate administration, .oversight of oil and gas investments, and accounting for racehorses and aircraft. Loans, a staple of most private banks, are rarely needed by Bessemer's clients and make up a tiny fraction of its client balances and income. Despite the most generous compensation of account officers and the highest personnel cost as a percentage of operating expenses, Bessemer's differentiation with its target families produces a return on equity estimated to be the highest of any private banking competitor.Citibank's private bank, on the other hand, serves clients with minimum assets of about $250,000 who, in contrast to Bessemer's clients, want convenient access to loans-from jumbo mortgages to deal financing. Citibank's account managers are primarily lenders. When clients need other services, their account manager refers them to other Citibank specialists, each of whom handles prepackaged products. Citibank's system is less customized than Bessemer's and allows it to have a lower manager-to-client ratio of 1:125. Biannual office meetings are offered only for the largest clients. Both Bessemer and Citibank have tailored their activities to meet the needs of a different group of private banking customers. The same value chain cannot profitably meet the needs of both groups.The third basis for positioning is that of segmenting customers who are accessible in different ways. Although their needs are similar to those of other customers, the best configuration of activities to reach them is different. I call this access-based positioning. Access can be a function of cus, tomer geography or customer scale-or of anything that requires a different set of activities to reach customers in the best way.Segmenting by access is less common and less well understood than the other two bases. Carmike Cinemas, for example, operates movie theaters exclusively in cities and towns with populations un-der 200,000. How does Carmike make money in markets that are not only small but also won't support big-city ticket prices? It does so through a set of activities that result in a lean cost structure. Carmike,s small-town customers can be served through standardized, low-cost theater complexes requiring fewer screens and less sophisticated projection technology than big-city theaters. The company's proprietary information system and management process eliminate theneed for local administrative staff beyond a single theater manager. Carmike also reaps advantages from centralized purchasing, lower rent and payroll costs (because of its locations), and rock-bottom corporate overhead of 2% (the industry average is 5%). Operating in small communities also allows Carmike to practice a highly personal form of marketing in which the theater manager knows patrons and promotes attendance through personal contacts. By being the dominant if not the only theater in its markets-the main competition is often the high school football team-Carmike is also able to get its pick of films and negotiate better terms with distributors.Rural versus urban-based customers are one example of access driving differences in activities. 'Serving small rather than large customers or densely rather than sparsely situated customers are other examples in which the best way to configure marketing, order processing, logistics, and after-sale service activities to meet the similar needs of distinct groups will often differ.Positioning is not only about carving out a niche. A position emerging from any of the sources can be broad.or narrow. A focused competitor, such as Ikea, targets the special needs of a subset of customers and designs its activities accordingly. Focused competitors thrive on groups of customers who are over-served (and hence overpriced) by more broadly targeted competitors, or underserved (and hence underpriced). A broadly targeted competitor，for example, Vanguard or Delta Air Lines- serves a wide array of customers, performing a set of activities designed to meet their common needs. It ignores or meets only partially the more idiosyncratic needs of particular customer groups.Whatever the basis- variety, needs, access, or some combination of the three- positioning requires a tailored set of activities because it is always a function of differences on the supply side; that is, of differences in activities. However, positioning is not always a function of differences on the demand, or customer, side. Variety and access positionings, in particular, do not rely on any customer differences. In practice, however, variety or access differences often accompany needs differences. The tastes-that is, the needs-of Carmike's small-town customers, for instance, run more toward comedies, Westerns, action films, and family entertainment. Carmike does not run any films rated NC- 17.Having defined positioning, we can now begin to answer the question, "What is strategy?" Strategy is the creation of a unique and valuable position, involving a different set of activities. If there were only one ideal position, there would be no need for strategy. Companies would face a simple imperative-win the race to discover and preempt it. The essence of strategic positioning is to choose activities that are different from rivals'. If the same set of activities were best to produce all varieties, meet all needs, and access all customers, companies could easily shift among them and operational effectiveness would determine performance.。
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Faulty Definitions of Strategy
• Strategy as aspiration
– “Our strategy is to be #1 or #2…”
• Strategy as action
– “Our strategy is to merge…”
• Strategy as vision • Strategy as experiments
This presentation draws on ideas from Professor Porter’s books and articles, in particular, Competitive Strategy (The Free Press, 1980); Competitive Advantage (The Free Press, 1985); ―What is Strategy?‖ (Harvard Business Review, Nov/Dec 1996); ―Strategy and the Internet‖ (Harvard Business Review, March 2001); The Competitive Advantage of Nations (The Free Press, 1990); ―The Microeconomic Foundations of Economic Development,‖ in The Global Competitiveness Report 2001 (World Economic Forum, 2001); ―Clusters and the New Competitive Agenda for Companies and Governments,‖ in On Competition (Harvard Business School Press, 1998); Clusters of Innovation Initiative (), a joint effort of the Council on Competitiveness, Monitor Group, and Professor Porter; ―The Competitive Advantage of Corporate Philanthropy‖, Harvard Business Review, forthcoming, with Mark Kramer; and a forthcoming book. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means—electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise— without the permission of Michael E. Porter. Additional information may be found at the website of the Institute for Strategy and Competitiveness, .
• Shareholder value is the result of real economic value, not the goal itself
– Setting strategy to attempt to influence stock price directly is fraught with danger
• Competition is positive sum
2
Copyright 2003 © Professor Michael E. Porter
Flawed Models of Competition
• Winner Take All
• Quality is Free
• Change Faster
7
Copyright 2003 © Professor Michael E. Porter
Sweden - 09-19-03 - CT
The Economic Foundations of Competition
Basic Economics of Strategy
30%
27.8%
25%
Industry Average
20%
19.6%
15%
13.1%
10%
5%
0% Pharmacia & Upjohn*
Source: Note:
Southwest Airlines
Compustat ROIC calculated as EBIT divided by Average Invested Capital (Total Assets less Excess Cash less Current Operating Liabilities) * Prior to 1995, reflects Pharmacia only. Company was acquired in 2000 by Monsanto, which then changed its name to Pharmacia
• Prevalent accounting adjustments to reported profitability obscure true economic performance and can lead to bad competitive choices
– The risks of write-offs, merger accounting, ignoring amortization
• Strategic competition expands the market while increasing overall customer satisfaction
• Competition is often destructive and mostly zero sum
Sweden - 09-19-03 - CT
Industry Structure
Relative Position Within the Industry
- Sources of Competitive Advantage
- Overall Rules of Competition
• Strategy must encompass both
Sweden - 09-19-03 - CT
What is Strategy?
Professor Michael E. Porter Institute for Strategy and Competitiveness Harvard Business School
Goteborg School of Economics, Sweden September 19, 2003
Setting the Right Goals
• The goal of a company is to create economic value, or the ability to command prices greater than the full costs of producing its goods/services • The test of economic value is sustained profitability, measured by superiority in long-term return on investment
Sweden - 09-19-03 - CT
5
Copyright 2003 © Professor Michael E. Porter
The Economic Foundations of Competition
Determinants of Profitability
• The fundamental unit of strategic analysis is the industry • Company economic performance results from two distinct causes:
Return on Invested Capital 1985-2000
20%
19.%
0% Pharmacia & Upjohn*
Source: Note:
Southwest Airlines
Compustat ROIC calculated as EBIT divided by Average Invested Capital (Total Assets less Excess Cash less Current Operating Liabilities) * Prior to 1995, reflects Pharmacia only. Company was acquired in 2000 by Monsanto, which then changed its name to Pharmacia
• Companies pursue distinctive ways of competing
• Customer choice expands • Innovation flourishes
• A number of companies can be successful in the same industry serving different needs / consumers