Chapter 4 Phonological Overregularity
医学英语翻译 Chapter 4
Translation of some adjective phrases
Accurate to Accustomed to Adequate for Adequate to Afraid of Angry at (angry about) Angry with (angry at) Annoyed for Apt to Ashamed of
necessityfeasibilitypossibility说明另一概念的性质或特征本身就是由形容词派生而来
Chapter 4
Conversion
英译汉：转译成动词
名 动：由动词派生的名词；具有动作意 义的名词 介 动：含有动作意味的介词(短语) ：含有动作意味的介词(短语) 形 动：表示心理或精神状态的形容词
英译汉：转译成名词
动 名：表示静态的特征或状态 形 名：the + adj. 名：the
英译汉：转译成形容词
名 形：抽象名词(如：necessity, 形：抽象名词(如：necessity, feasibility, possibility)，说明另一概念的性 possibility)，说明另一概念的性 质或特征，本身就是由形容词派生而来。
Refractory to Responsible for Rich in Short of Sick of Suitable for Subject to Suggestive of Sure of Susceptible to Suspicious of Used to Useful for Worthy of
汉译英
动 名、形、介词短语、非谓语形式：选 择主要谓语动词。 副 名 名 代
Translation of several commonly used words with different word classes and word meanings
语言学Chapter-4--Exercises-含答案
语言学C h a p t e r-4--E x e r c i s e s-含答案(总10页)--本页仅作为文档封面，使用时请直接删除即可----内页可以根据需求调整合适字体及大小--Chapter 4 From Word to TextI. Decide whether each of the following statements is true or false:1. Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.2. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, butthere is no limit to the number of sentences nativespeakers of that language are able to produce andcomprehend.3. An endocentric construction is also known as headedconstruction because it has just one head4. Constituents that can be substituted for one another withoutloss of grammaticality belong to the same syntacticcategory.5. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories arecommonly recognized and discussed, namely, nounphrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliaryphrase.6. Number and gender are categories of noun and pronoun.7. Word order plays an important role in the organization ofEnglish sentences.8. Like English, modern Chinese is a SVO language.9. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb.10. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.( 1-5 TTFTF 6-10 TTTTT )II.Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:1 A s________ is a structurally in dependent unit that usuallycomprises a number of words to form a completestatement, question or command2. A clause that takes a subject and a finite verb, and at thesame time structurally alone is known as an f__________clause3. The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or averb phrase and which says something about the subjectis grammatically called p_________.4. A c_________ sentence contains two, or more, clauses, oneof which is incorporated into the other.5. In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinateclause is normally called an e_______ clause.6. Major lexical categories are o___ categories in the sensethat new words are constantly added.7. G_________ relations refer to the structural and logicalfunctional relations between every noun phrase andsentence8. A a__________ sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.9. A s__________ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command.10. A s__________ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicate.Answers:1. sentence2. finite3. predicate4. complex5. embedded6. open7. grammatical8. simple9. sentence 10. subjectIII. There are four given choices for each statement below.Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:1 The head of the phrase “the city Rome”is__________A the cityB RomeC cityD the city and Rome 2. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause.A. coordinatorB. particleC. PrepositionD. subordinator3 Phrase structure rules have ____ properties.A. recursiveB. grammaticalC. socialD. functional4. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand_____________.A. how words and phrases form sentences.B. what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of wordsC. how people produce and recognize possible sentencesD. All of the above.5 The phrase “on the half” belongs to ________constructionA endocentricB exocentricC subordinateD coordinate6 . The theory of case condition accounts for the fact that__________.A. noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.B. noun phrases can be used to modify another noun phraseC. noun phrase can be used in adverbial positionsD. noun phrase can be moved to any place if necessary.7 The sentence structure is ________.A. only linearB. Only hierarchicalC. compelD. both linear and hierarchical8. The syntactic rules of any language are ____ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite9. The ________ rules are the rules that group words and phrasesto form grammatical sentences.A. lexicalB. morphologicalC. linguisticD. combinational10 The sentence “They were wan ted to remain quiet and notto expose themselves” is a ____________sentenceA simpleB coordinateC compoundD complex Answers:1 D2 D 3. A 4 D 5 B 6 A 7 D 8 C 9 D 10 AIV. Explain the following terms, using examples.1. Syntax2. IC analysis3. Hierarchical structureAnswers :1.Syntax: Syntax refers to the rules governing the way wordsare combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.2. IC analysis: Immediate constituent analysis, IC analysis forshort, refers to the analysis of a sentence in terms of itsimmediate constituents – word groups (phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate sake ofconvenience.3. Hierarchical structure: It is the sentence structure thatgroups words into structural constituents and shows thesyntactic category of each structural constituent, such as NP, VP and PP.V. Answer the following questions:1. What are the major types of sentences Illustrate them with examples.2. What are endocentric construction and exocentric construction?3. Draw a tree diagram according to the PS rules to show the deep structure of the sentence:The child asked for a new book4. What are the major types of sentences according to traditional approach Illustrate them with examplesAnswers :1. Traditionally, there are three major types of sentences.They are simple sentence, coordinate( compound) sentence, and complex sentence. A simple sentence consists of asingle clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence, for example: John readsextensively. A coordinate sentence contains two clausesjoined by a linking word that is called coordinatingconjunction, such as "and", "but", "or". For example: John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparing for herhistory exam. A complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentence do not have equal status, one is subordinate to the other. For example: Before John gave her a lecture, Mary showed no interest in linguistics.2. An endocentric construction is one whose distribution isfunctionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to oneof its constituents, which serves as the center, or head, of the whole. A typical example is the three small childrenwith children as its head. The exocentric construction,opposite to the first type, is defined negatively as aconstruction whose distribution is not functionallyequivalent to any of its constituents. Prepositional phrasal like on the shelf are typical examples of this type.3.略4. Traditionally, there are three major types of sentences. Theyare simple sentence, coordinate( compound) sentence, and complex sentence. A simple sentence consists of a singleclause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence, for example: John readsextensively. A coordinate sentence contains two clausesjoined by a linking word that is called coordinatingconjunction, such as "and", "but", "or". For example: John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparing for her history exam. A complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. Thetwo clauses in a complex sentence do not have equalstatus, one is subordinate to the other. For exam­ple:Before John gave her a lecture, Mary showed no interest in lin­guistics.。
英语文体学Chapter 5 Phonological Overregularity资料
5.1 Phonemic Patterning 5.1.1 Alliteration It should be pointed out that it is usually the first stressed syllable of a word that carries the alliteration, not necessarily the initial syllable. E.g. In Tennyson’s “Here in the long unlovely street”, ‘long’ alliterates with ‘unlovely’.
Similar sounds make up similar feeling or thought
5.1 Phonemic Patterning 5.1.1 Alliteration
E.g. When he saw Grendel’s gruesome footprints, that great man grieved for his retainers. (Beowulf)
5.1 Phonemic Patterning 5.1.2 Rhyme Example 2 Reflections on Ice-breaking Candy Feminine rhymes Is dandy, But liquor Is quicker. (Ogden Nash)
5.1 Phonemic Patterning 5.1.2 Rhyme — Types of Rhymes
5.1 Phonemic Patterning 5.1.2 Rhyme Thus theoretically speaking a rhyme may have multiple syllables, though in actual use rhymes of more than two syllables are rare. One-syllable rhymes are referred to as masculine rhymes and two-syllable rhymes are called feminine rhymes. Other kinds of rhymes may be simply called polysyllabic rhymes.
chapter 4 phonology
Rule 3: deletion rule(省略规则) A sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. eg.(1) signature, designation, paradigmatic • (2) sign, design, paradigm deleted • In the second group, /g/ is _______.
• 音位有时还可能有free variants
互补分布
当同一个音位的两个或两个以上的音位变体 不区别意义，并且永远不会出现在相同的位 置上，那么它们被称为处于互补分布。 [p]/[pʰ]是两个不同的音子，即音位/p/的变化 形式。[p]只出现在[s]之后，而[pʰ]只出现在其 他位置。 /p/→[p]/[s]͟ [pʰ]剩余位置 注：——是/p/出现的位置
phonetics and phonology
Phonetics General (concerned with speech sounds as such without reference to their function in a particular language). Descriptive Classificatory Particular (having a particular language or languages in view) Functional (concerned with the working or functioning of speech sounds in a language or languages) Functional phonetics p137
自由变体
04 Phonology
Anticipatory/ perseverative coarticulation
The fact that the vowel [a] in lamb has some quality of the following nasal is a phenomenon we call nasalization.
phoneme phonological unit
not distinctive of meaning
physical as heard or produced
marked with [ ]
distinctive of meaning abstract, not physical marked with / /
phonetics – Phone音素
phone: the smallest perceptible discreet segment of sound in a stream of speech
i) phonetic unit ii) not distinctive of meaning iii) physical as heard or produced iv) marked with [ ]
1.2 Relation between Phonetics and Phonology: Similarity: both studying sounds; Dissimilarity: Phonetics --- sounds’ classification & description; Phonology --- rules of sound system.
Phonetics and Phonology
Phonetics
语言学第四章chapter4
英语语言学：第4章
Adverbs are words that describe or add to the meaning of a verb, an adjective, another adverb, or a sentence, and which answers the questions introduced by how, where, when, etc. carefully, slowly, then, now Prepositions are words used with nouns in phrases providing information about time, place and other connections involving actions and things.
河南大学外语学院 马应聪
英语语言学：第4章
Syntactic rules
(1) a. The hunter fears the cries of the blackbirds. b. The blackbirds fear the cries of the hunter. (2) a. Jack looked up the word. b. Jack looked the word up. (3) *Cries fear the the of hunter blackbirds the. Conclusion: The structure of sentence such as word order can change the meaning. Every sentence is a sequence of words but not every sequence of words is a sentence. Sentence formation has rules, so that we have well/ill formed or (un)grammatical sentences.
文体学
Shakespearean sonnet: A sonnet is a form if lyric poetry with 14 lines and a specific rhyme scheme. The Shakespearean sonnet (also called the English sonnet) has three four-line stanzas (quatrains) in iambic pentameter and a heroic couplet. Each of the four-line stanzas rhymes every other line, and the sonnet ends with a heroic couplet. The rhyming pattern in a Shakespeare`s sonnet is abab cdcd efef gg.Oxymoron is the yoking of two expression which are incompatible/a theatrical figure in which an epigrammatic effect is created by the conjunction of incongruous or contradictory terms.矛盾修饰Iambic pentameter is a rhythmic pattern of English verse. A line of iambic pentameter consists of five verse feet (i.e. ten syllables), with the unstressed syllable prior to the stressed syllable in each foot.五步抑扬格Parallelism means exact repetition in equivalent positions. It differs from simple repetition in that identity does not extend to absolut e duplication. It requires some variable features of the pattern.排比，对偶Extended metaphor is a type of metaphor developed by a number of different figurative expressions. Usually an extended metaphor has one basic comparison as its core, from which other relevant figurative expressions derive.扩展性隐喻Heroic couplet is a verse unit consisting of two rhymed lines in iambic pentameter.英雄双韵体Paradox is a type of statement that seems to be absurd, self-contradictory or self-evidently false at the first sight, but is or may be true if considered in a different way.似是而非的隽语Couplet: A couplet is a two- line unit that is always indented; both lines rhyme at the end.Onomatopoeia refers to both the use of words formed in imitation of the natural sounds associated with the object or action involved, and recurrence of phonemes in a text unit that suggests certain natural sounds.拟声，像声Onomatopoeia: There are two interpretation of Onomatopoeia. Firstly, Onomatopoeia refers to the use of words formed in imitation of the natural sounds associated with the object or action involved. Secondly, Onomatopoeia refers to the recurrence of phonemes in a text unit that suggests certain natural sounds which reinforce the meaning conveyed in that text unit.Spenserian stanza is an English poetic stanza of nine iambic lines, the first eight being pentameter while the ninth is a longer line known either as an iambic hexameter or as an alexandrine. The rhyme scheme of the stanza is abab bcbc c.斯宾塞的诗节Open-class items: In English, there are two major classes of words: open-class items and close-system items. The open-class items include nouns, verbs (not including auxiliary verbs), adjectives and adverbs. The class is open in the sense that new items a re constantly being created.开放类词Close-system item include the other six classes of words such as pronouns, articles, prepositions. The system is closed in the sense that creation of new item is hardly possible. 闭合词类Grammetrics means the ways in which grammatical units (usually sentences) are fitted into metrical units such as lines and stanzas.语法单位嵌入诗歌单位Synecdoche is a type of transference of meaning which involves the a substitution of a part for the whole, or the whole for the part.提喻Extended metaphor is a type of metaphor developed by a number of different figurative expressions.Lexical deviation in literature refers almost exclusively to neologisms or the coinage of new words. In coining new words, the literary writer is not so much breaking rules of word-formation as extending the rules such as affixation, compounding, conversion and etc. those new words are usually made up for use on only one particular occasion.词汇变异Graphological deviation is a distinctiveness of a literary text (i.e. its departure from the communicatively normal characteristics) in terms of the encoding of meaning in visual symbols.语项变异Polysemy is the state of being a polyseme; i.e. a word or phrase with multiple meanings, but all the meanings come from the same etymology.一词多项Parallelism means exact repetition in equivalent positions. It differs from simple repetition in that identity does not extend to absolut e duplication. It requires some variable features of the pattern.排比，对偶Alliteration is the repetition of the initial consonant cluster in stressed syllables.押头韵Aphesis——the omission of an initial part of a word.（词首短元音省略）Syncope——the omission of a medial part of a word（词中音省略）Apocope——the omission of a final part of a word(词尾音省略) Overstatement is termed hyperbole in traditional rhetoric. It distorts the truth by great exaggeration. It is usually used to emphasize strong feeling and to create a sentimental.（夸张）Understatement is the opposite of overstatement in that it misrepresents the truth by deliberately understating it as opposed to exaggerating it. (低调陈述)Stylistics is an area of which straddles two disciplines: literary criticism and linguistics.Two assumptions: literature is made of language; literature is a type of communicative discourse.Graphology is the encoding of meaning in visual symbolsSyntactic deviation refers to departures from normal(surface)grammar. These include a number of features such as unusual clause themes, unusual phrase structures.Lexical deviation in literature refers almost exclusively to neologisms or the coinage of new wordsAffixation is the addition of a prefix or suffix to an item which already exists in the language.Compounding is the combination of two or more items to make a single compound one.Conversion,“zero affixation”, the adaptation of an item to a new grammatical function without changing its form.Paradox is a statement which is absurd because it is self-evidently false.Synecdoche is a type of transference of meaning which involves the substitution of a part for the whole.Metonymy is another type of transference which involves substitution, and therefore has often been confused with synecdoche. the substitution of a word referring to an attribute of the thing that is meant, rather than the substitution of a part for the whole, or the whole for a part.Irony is misrepresenting the truth by saying the opposite of what one feels to be the case.正话反说，反话正说Rhyme is identity of sounds between words or verse lines extending back from the end to the last fully accented vowel and not further. Masculine rhymes; feminine rhymes; an alternation of masculine and polysyllabic rhymes; end rhymes. Internal rhyme (occurs within a verse line); half-rhyme formed by the vowel or the final consonant cluster.Assonance is the repetition of identical vowel or diphthong in stressed syllables.半韵Consonance is the repetition of the final consonant cluster in stressed syllables.和声Foot is actually the unit of stressed and unstressed syllables which is repeated to form a metrical pattern.·Surface-structure deviation:1.Phonological deviation:Omission（aphesis; syncope; apocope）; Mispronunciation and sub-pronunciation; Special pronunciation; Change of stress2.Graphological deviation: Shape of text; Type of print(italics,bold print,capitalization, ecapitalization); Grammetrics; Punctuation; Indentation.3.Syntctic deviation: Unusual clause theme; Deviation phrase structure4.Lexical deviation: Affixation; Compounding; Conversion ·Deep-surface deviation:1.Contradiction: Oxymoron; Paradox2.Transference: Synecdoche; Metonymy; Metaphor (three elements: tenor, vehicle, ground)3.Deception: Overstatement; Understatement (litotes, meiosis); Irony (types: verbal irony, dramatic, Socratic)4.Ambiguity ·Phonological overregularity:1.Phonemic patterning: Alliteration; rhyme(masculine rhymes, feminine rhyme, an alternation of masculine, polysyllabic rhymes, end rhymes)assonance; consonance; onomatopoeia2.Rhythmic patterning: Stress(open-class items, close-system items); Metre(tambic抑扬, trochee扬抑, anapaest抑抑扬, dactyl扬抑抑, spondee扬扬); Metrical variation·Syntactic overregularity: Repetition: immediate; intermittent Parallelism: large-scale; small-scaleDefinition of stylistics：Stylistics is an area of study which straddles two disciplines: literary criticism and linguistics.①Wales—the study of style ②Widdowson—the study of literary discourse from a linguistic orientation and I shall take the view that what distinguishes stylistics from literary criticism on the one hand and linguistics on the other is that it is essentially a means of linking the two. ③Leech —the study of the use of language in literature; a meeting-ground of linguistics and literary study.Three revolutions in social sciences:①the modernist movement in art and literature(1890-the beginning of World War2)②the one in literary criticism which has had a profound and radical influence on stylistics; I.A. Richards, Pratical Criticism(1929)③the third①to show why and how the text means what it does; ②the second is that★Short: Description←Interpretation←Evaluation. ★Halliday: two phase—analytic phase and interpretative phase. (Relations: these phases are conceptually distinct; they may be interleaved one with the other; they overlap.)Stylistic analysis is generally concerned with the uniqueness of a text. This naturally involves comparisons of the language of the text with that used in conventional types of discourse and also the language uses in that text with those in another.Style The question of what is style is still one of heated dispute. Aristotle defined style as form; Cicero defined style as eloquence; Buffon defined style as the man; Murry defined style as personal idiosyncrasy…Nowadays the choice, deviance，and style as foregrounding, We must note that there is some overlap among these various definitions.文体，风格Widdowson: Style as deviance, the distinctiveness of a literary text resides in its departure from the characteristics of what is communicatively normal. Traugott and Pratt: Style as choice, results from a tendency of a speaker or writer to consistently choose certain structures over others available in the language.(is not the same as saying that it is always conscious choice; is a matter of form or expression, sometimes content involved.)Mayer (Leech): Style as foregrounding, include both the deviance features and those linguistic phenomena which are not deviance, but striking.4 points P19Five main types of metaphor, grouped partly in accordance with Chapman’s organization.①One type of sensory perception is expressed in terms of another ②A non-human referent is given human attributes ③A non-animate referent is given animate characteristics ④An abstraction is treated as if it were animate ⑤A human referent is treated either as an inanimate being or an animal or a bird.Two steps of meter: ①First step is to examine the type of foot it has. (Four types of foot: Iamb, Trochee, Anapaest and Dactyl) ②Second step is to see how many feet there are in a line. We have: Monometer, Dimeter, Trimeter, Tetrameter, Pentameter, Hexameter. Chapter 1 Introduction1.1 Definition of stylisticsWales—the study of styleWiddowson—the study of literary discourse from a linguistic orientation and I shall take the view that what dist inguishes stylistics from literary criticism on the one hand and linguistics on the other is that it is essentially a means of linking the two. Leech—the study of the use of language in literature; a meeting-ground of linguistics and literary study.Stylistics is an area of study which straddles two disciplines: literary criticism and linguistics.1.2 Emergence of Stylistics as an Interdisciplinary Field of StudyThree revolutions in social sciences:# the modernist movement in art and literature(1890-the beginning of World War2)#the one in literary criticism #the third revolution took place in linguistic science starting in the late 1950‟s.1.3 Two Important Assumptions of StylisticsThe first important assumption of stylistics is that literature is made of language. The second is the assumption that literature is a type of communicative discourse.1.4 The Goals, Components and Procedure of Stylistic InquiryHalliday identifies two possible goals of stylistic inquiry: the first is to show why and how the text means what it does; the second is that of showing why the text is valued as it is.The components of literary criticism—Short: the three parts are logically ordered: Description←Interpretation←Evaluation. Halliday: two phase—analytic phase and interpretative phase. (relations of two phases: these phases are conceptually distinct; they may be interleaved one with the other; they overlap.)1.5 The Nature of Stylistic AnalysisStylistic analysis is generally concerned with the uniqueness of a text. This naturally involves comparisons of the language of the text with that used in conventional types of discourse and also the language uses in that text with those in another. Chapter2 Three views on Style2.1 Style as DevianceJan Mukarovsky <<Standard language and poetic language>>2.2 Style as ChoiceBy style as choice is meant that style results from a tendency of a speaker or writer to consistently choose certain structur e over others available in the language.2.3 Style as ForegroundingThe term foregrounding is a concept of pictorial arts, referring to that part of the composition that appears to be closest to th e view.Chapter3 Surface-structure Deviation3.1 Phonological Deviation3.1.1 Omission(省略)Aphesis—the omission of an initial part of a wordSyncope—the omission of a medial part of a wordApocope—the omission of a final part of a word3.1.2 Mispronunciation and Sub-standard Pronunciation3.1.3 Special Pronunciation3.1.4 Change of Stress3.2 Graphological Deviation3.2.1 Shape of T ext: the shape of a piece of literary work, especially a poem, can be designed in an unconventional way so that it may be suggestive of a certain literary theme.3.2.2 Type of Print: italics, bold print, capitalization and decapitalization, etc.3.2.3 Grammetrics 1.every line of the poem creates a strong pulling-forward effect. 2. the majority of the lines in the first two stanzas create a very strong pulling-forward effect because they arouse syntactic expectations from the reader.3.3 Syntactic Deviation: refers to departures from normal (surface) grammar.3.3.1 Unusual Clause Theme3.3.2 Deviant Phrase Structure3.4 Lexical Deviation: three major rules of word-formation: affixation, compounding and conversion.3.4.1 Affixation: is the addition of a prefix or suffix to an item which already exists in the language.3.4.2 Compounding: is the combination of two or more items to make a single compound one.3.4.3 Conversion, which is often described as …zero affixation‟, is the adaptation of an item to a new gr ammatical function without changing its form.Chapter4 Deep-structure Deviation---refers to semantic deviation, which may be defined as “linguistic effects involving something odd in the cognitive meaning of a certain linguistic unit”4.1 ContradictionContradiction is a type of semantic deviation which conveys self-conflicting information. Two types: Rhetoric oxymoron and paradox.4.1.1 Oxymoron 4.1.2 Paradox4.2 TransferenceIn literature, transference of meaning is the process whereby literary absur dity leads the mind to comprehension on a figurative plane.4.2.1 Synecdoche is a type of transference of meaning which involves the substitution of a part for the whole.4.2.2 Metonymy is another type of transference which involves substitution, and there fore has often been confused with synecdoche. However, metonymy is the substitution of a word referring to an attribute of the thing that is meant, rather than the substitution of a part for the whole, or the whole for a part.4.2.3 Metaphor “metaphoric rule”—the figurative meaning is derived from the literal meaning or it is, as it were, the literal meaning.There are three elements in metaphor: tenor (for the literal meaning); vehicle (for the figurative meaning); ground (of comparison)There are five mai n types of metaphor, grouped partly in accordance with Chapman‟s organization.A. One type of sensory perception is expressed in terms of another.B. A non-human referent is given human attributesC. A non-animate referent is given animate characteristicsD. An abstraction is treated as if it were animateE. A human referent is treated either as an inanimate being or an animal or a bird.----the extended metaphor.4.3 Deception4.3.1 Overstatement is termed hyperbole in traditional rhetoric. It distorts the truth by great exaggeration. It is usually used to emphasize strong feeling and to create a sentimental, satiric or comic effect. An overstatement is often metaphorical.4.3.2 Understatement is the opposite of overstatement in that it misrepresents the truth by delibera tely understating it as opposed to exaggerating it.4.3.3 IronyVerbal irony, achieves emphasis by misrepresenting the truth. It takes the form of saying the opposite of what one feels to b e case.4.4 AmbiguityWe mean the case of more than one cognitive meaning for the same piece of language.Ambiguity can be purely phonetic, resulting from homophony.Most case of ambiguity are at the level of lexis, resulting from either homonymy or polysemy.Chapter5 Phonological Overregularity5.1 Phonemic Patterning (ways in which phonemes are patterned)The most important types of patterning in English literature are:5.1.1 Alliteration is the repetition of the initial consonant cluster in stressed syllables. (In English, a syllable consists of three parts: an initia l consonant cluster, a vowel or diphthong and a final consonant cluster; it‟s the main stressed syllable of a word which generally carries the alliteration)5.1.2 Rhyme—identity of sounds between words or verse lines extending back from the end to the last fully accented vowel and not further.Masculine (one-syllable); feminine (two syllable); polysyllabic.Half-rhyme is formed by repeating either the vowel(or diphthong) or the final consonant cluster.Pararhyme, repeats the initial consonant cluster as well as the final consonant cluster.Rhymes are arranged in a pattern within a poem. This pattern is called a rhyme-scheme. The way of making it: to denote the rhyme schemes by marking the different rhymes with decapitalized letters in alphabetical order according to the sequence of their occurance.5.1.3 Assonance is the repetition of identical vowel or diphthong in stressed syllables. It is one of the important phonologi cal features of literary texts.5.1.4 Consonance is the repetition of the final consonant cluster in stressed syllable.5.1.5 Onomatopoeia5.2 Rhythmic Patterning5.2 .1 StressIn English, every word except the monosyllabic ones has one syllable that carries the stress. Some polysyllabic words may have two stresses. But one of them is stronger than the other. The stronger stress is called a primary stress, and the other a secondary stress.5.2.2 MetreAccentual syllable, it‟s a pattern of regularity both in the number of syllables and the number of stresses.The analysis of the meter of a poem usually consists of two steps. The first step is to examine the type of foot it has. The foot is actually the unit of stressed and unstressed syllables which is repeated to form a metrical pattern. The four main types of foot: Iamb, Trochee, Anapaest and Dactyl. The second step is to see how many feet there are in a line. Thus we have: Monometer, Dimeter, Trimeter, Tetrameter, Pentameter, Hexameter.。
英语词汇学——Chapter4
Chapter 4Affixation 词缀法（30%-40%）Compounding 复合构词法（28%-30%）Conversion 转类法（26%）Shortening 缩略法（8%-10%）包括（clipping 截短法acronymy 首字母拼音法）Blending 拼缀法(1%-5%)一. Affixation 词缀法Affixation, also called derivation 派生法（derivatives 派生词）,is the formation of new words by adding affixes to stems.Affixation is the formation of word by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems. Prefixation 前缀法Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems.Feature: prefixes do not generally change the word –class of the stem but only modify its meaning.Classification: we shall classify prefixes on a semantic basis into nine groups.Negative prefixes 否定意义的词缀：a-,dis-,in-(il-,ir-,im-),non-,nu-.Reversative prefixes 逆向意义的词缀：de-,dis-, un-. e.g. de-compose ,unwarp.Pejorative prefixes 贬义的词缀: mal-, mis- ,pseudo-. e.g. mistrust , pseudo-friend.Prefixes of degree or size表示程度、大小等意义的词缀: arch-, extra- ,hyper- ,macro- ,micro- , mini- ,out- ,over- ,sub- ,super-,sur-, ultra- ,under- . e.g. archbishop , hyperactive ,superfreeze. Prefixes of orientation and attitude 表示倾向和态度等意义的前缀：anti-, contra- ,counter- pro- . e.g. anti-government,Locative prefixes 方位意义的词缀：extra-,fore- ,inter- ,intra- ,tele-, trans-. E.g. extraordinary, telecommunication,Prefixes of time and order 表示时间和顺序的词缀:ex-,fore-, post- ,pre- ,re- . e.g. ex-professor , foretell ,post-election.Number prefixes 数字的前缀: bi- ,multi- , poly- ,semi-, hemi- ,tri- ,uni- ,mono-. E.g. multi-purpose ,semi-naked, tricycle, monorail.Miscellaneous prefixes 其他种类意义的前缀: auto- ,neo- ,pan- , vice- . e.g. autobiography ,vice-chairman.Suffixation 后缀法Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems.Feature: suffixes mainly change the word class.Classification: we shall group suffixes on a grammatical basis into noun suffixes , verb suffixes, adjective suffixes, adverb suffixes.Adjective suffixes: It is worth noting that both –ic and –ical can be affixed to the same stem in some cases , but differ in meaning . e.g. economic \economical二. Compounding 复合构词法Compounding , also called composition（compounds 复合词）,is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems.Words produced through compounding yields 28%-30% of all the new words.The differences between compounds and free phrases show in three aspects:1) Phonetic features.2) Semantic features.3) Grammatical features.Formation of compounds1) Noun compoundse.g. Sit-in ，stockholder , up-bringing2) Adjective compoundse.g. law-abiding , record-breaking ,town-bred , four-leg.3) Verb compoundsThe limited number of verb compounds are created either through conversion or backformation . Verb compounds in the way of back-formation are formed mainly by dropping the suffixes:-er, -ing, -ion , etc.三. Conversion 转类法Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. Conversion is a method of turning words of one part of speech to those of a different part of speech.1. An alternative for conversion is functional shift .2. The derivational process , in which an item is converted to a new word class without theaddition of an affix , is called zero-derivation .3. Words produced by conversion are primarily nouns , adjectives ,and verbs .The most productive conversion is the conversion that takes place between nouns and verbs.4. Full conversion and partial conversion are concerned with adjectives when converted tonouns.1) Full conversion: A noun fully converted from an adjective has all the characteristics ofnouns . It can take an indefinite article or –(e)s to indicate singular or plural number.2) partial conversion: nouns partially converted from adjectives do not possess all thequalities a noun does. They must be used together with definite articles .3) Such words as “the poor ”,”the richer ”,”the most corrupt ”are all examples of partial. 5.The conversion of two syllable nouns into verbs involves a change of stress.双音节的名词转化成动词会有重音的变化。
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the bird becomes an emblem for the quick, lively, ungraspable wild essence that distances nature from the human beings who desire to appropriate or tame it. •But the most remarkable feature of this poem is the imagery of its final stanza, in which Dickinson provides one of the most breath-taking descriptions of flying in all of poetry. Simply by offering two quick comparisons of flight and by using aquatic motion (rowing and swimming), she evokes the delicacy and fluidity of moving through air. •
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Song •Morning opened •Like a rose, •And the snow on the roof •Rose-color took •Oh, how the street toward light did leap! •And the lamps went out. •Brightness fell down •From the steeple clock •To the row of shops •And rippled the bricks
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Like the scales of a fish, •And all that day •Was a fairy tale •Told once in a while •To a good child. •Explain: •Most instance of assonance in this poem chiefly function to unify words and ideas. •/әu/ sound at the end of the first two lines connects the two lines together which express an independent idea: the way morning opened resembles the way that a rose unfolds itself. • •
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•e.g. Long alliterates with unlovely •Purpose: to convey the combination of sense and sound; to emphasize to these words; to form a connection of similarity or contrast. •Example •A tutor who tooted a flute •Tried to tutor two tutors to toot •Said the two to the tutor •“Is it harder to toot or •To tutor two tutors to toot?” • •
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Functions of consonance
•Make the text organized and add music quality of the poem, •Unite the key words of the stanza. The sound of the quoted lines has the lingering, almost echoing effect, which reinforces the tone of the poem. •More example:
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Syllable and Related knowledge
•The repetition of an element in a stressed syllable form the Phonemic Patterning of a line or beyond a line • •The combination of stressed syllables and unstressed syllables forms the Rhythmic Patterning of LINE within a poem.
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The image of butterflies leaping "off Banks of Noon," splashlessly swimming though the sky, is one of the most memorable in all Dickinson's writing. •
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3 Assonance（腹韵）
Definition: the repetition of identical vowel or diphthong in stressed syllables, e.g. •Think from how many trees •Dead leaves are brought •To earth on seed or wing •Explanation: •Interestingly, the meaning of these words are already associated. They represent the cycle of life: from the organic to the inorganic and from the inorganic to the organic. •Thus, the assonance not only can contribute to music quality of a literary text, but its meaning. • •
4. Consonance（假韵）
Definition: the repetition of the final consonant cluster in stressed syllables. •Example: •Like one in danger, Cautious, •I offered him a Crumb •And he unrolled his features •And row him softer home— • •Than Oars divide the Ocean. •Too silver for a seam— •Or Butterflies, off Banks of Noon •Leap, plashless as they swim. （Emily Dickenson: A Bird） •
Chapter 4 Phonological Overregularity
•Main topics: •Part A: Phonemic Patterning •Part B: Rhythmic Patterning •Five types of Phonemic Patterning: • alliteration, rhyme, assonance, consonance, and onomatopoeia. •
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A) Alliteration
•Definition: the repetition of the initial consonant cluster in stressed syllables. •Two points needs mentioning: •In English, a syllable consists of three parts: in initial consonant cluster, a vowel or diphthong and a final consonants cluster. •Secondly, some students have misconception that it is the initial syllable of a word that carries the alliteration. It should be stressed that it is the main stressed syllable of a word which greatly carries the alliteration, not necessarily its initial syllable.
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Assonance within the lines
For example,/әu/sound is repeated in such words as snow, rose-color and oh. When we produce the diphthong, our mouth must open—just as morning light spreads or a rose unfolds. The word “oh” express the wonder at the scenes of color and beauty. Furthermore, since the sound /әu/as the diphthong takes longer duration to produce than monophthongs, it may suggest the way morning slowly unfolds in the poem. More example:
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Functions of alliteration
To link together words that are similar in feeling and thought, e.g. (1) •To echo the sense or meaning conveyed by the two lines and to help to create a heavy and depressed mood, e.g. (2) •To give great emphasis to these words, only through hard and intense struggle can freedom and liberty be won, e.g. (3) •To form a connection of both similarity and contrast, e.g. (4)