3The Continuing Evolution of ICT Capacity The Implications for Education Introduction Gener
共赴新赛道,突破卡脖子作文

共赴新赛道,突破卡脖子作文英文回答:In the dynamic landscape of innovation and technological advancements, collaborations are key to unlocking new frontiers and overcoming potential obstacles. Embracing joint ventures, strategic alliances, and cross-disciplinary partnerships can pave the way for groundbreaking discoveries and pave the way for shared success.One prime example of such collaborations is the advent of artificial intelligence (AI). By pooling together the expertise of computer scientists, mathematicians, and engineers, AI technology has witnessed exponential growth, revolutionizing industries such as healthcare, finance, and manufacturing. These collaborations have enabled the development of cutting-edge algorithms, enhanced data analysis capabilities, and the creation of intelligent systems that are transforming our world.Another area where collaborative efforts have made a profound impact is the field of renewable energy. The urgency to transition to sustainable energy sources has driven scientists, engineers, and policymakers to work together. This collaboration has resulted in significant advancements in solar, wind, and geothermal technologies, contributing to a cleaner and more sustainable future.Moreover, fostering interdisciplinary research and combining diverse perspectives can lead to groundbreaking breakthroughs. By bridging the gap between different fields of study, researchers can explore uncharted territories and challenge conventional wisdom. This approach has proven successful in advancements such as bioengineering, nanotechnology, and quantum computing, opening up new possibilities for scientific discovery and technological innovation.中文回答:携手共赴新赛道,共克卡脖子难题。
英语作文inventions

Inventions have played a pivotal role in shaping the world we live in today.They have transformed the way we communicate,work,and even think.Here is an exploration of some of the most significant inventions that have left an indelible mark on human history.The Wheel:Often considered one of the earliest and most fundamental inventions,the wheel revolutionized transportation.It allowed for the creation of carts,chariots,and later, various forms of vehicles,facilitating trade and travel.Printing Press:Invented by Johannes Gutenberg in the15th century,the printing press democratized knowledge by making books more accessible and affordable.This invention was instrumental in spreading literacy and ideas,contributing to the Renaissance and the Reformation.Steam Engine:The steam engine,developed by James Watt in the18th century,was a key driver of the Industrial Revolution.It powered locomotives,ships,and factories, increasing production capabilities and altering the economic landscape.Electricity:Harnessing the power of electricity was a monumental achievement that led to the invention of countless electrical devices.From light bulbs to computers,electricity has become an essential part of modern life.Telephone:Alexander Graham Bells invention of the telephone in1876transformed communication,allowing people to speak to one another over long distances.This invention laid the groundwork for todays telecommunications infrastructure.Airplane:The Wright brothers successful flight in1903marked the beginning of aviation. Air travel has since become a common mode of transportation,connecting people across the globe in a matter of hours.Antibiotics:The discovery of penicillin by Alexander Fleming in1928and subsequent development of various antibiotics have saved countless lives by combating bacterial infections.Internet:The creation of the internet in the late20th century has arguably had the most profound impact on society.It has revolutionized information sharing,commerce, education,and social interaction,making the world more interconnected than ever before.Smartphones:Combining the functionalities of a mobile phone and a computer, smartphones have become an extension of our daily lives.They allow for instantcommunication,access to information,and a myriad of applications that cater to various needs.Renewable Energy Technologies:Solar panels,wind turbines,and other forms of renewable energy are inventions that address the need for sustainable power sources. They are crucial in the fight against climate change and the pursuit of a greener future. Each of these inventions has not only solved specific problems but also opened up new possibilities for human endeavor.They have collectively contributed to the advancement of civilization,making life more comfortable,efficient,and connected.As we look to the future,the potential for new inventions to shape our world remains limitless.。
中英互译专升本练习题

中英互译专升本练习题# 中英互译专升本练习题## 一、词汇翻译1. 经济全球化 - Economic globalization2. 可持续发展 - Sustainable development3. 人工智能 - Artificial Intelligence (AI)4. 环境保护 - Environmental protection5. 教育改革 - Educational reform## 二、短语翻译1. 与时俱进 - Keep pace with the times2. 知识改变命运 - Knowledge changes fate3. 科技是第一生产力 - Science and technology are the primary productive forces4. 一带一路倡议 - The Belt and Road Initiative5. 绿色发展 - Green development## 三、句子翻译1. 随着科技的快速发展,我们的生活变得越来越便利。
- With the rapid development of technology, our lives are becoming more and more convenient.2. 教育是提高一个国家整体素质的关键。
- Education is the key to improving a country's overallquality.3. 我们应该采取有效措施来应对全球气候变化。
- We should take effective measures to deal with global climate change.4. 人工智能在医疗领域的应用前景广阔。
- The application of artificial intelligence in the medical field has broad prospects.5. 保护环境,人人有责。
科技和创新的英语作文

In the contemporary world,the role of technology and innovation is paramount. Here is a detailed essay on the subject:Introduction:The essence of human progress has always been intertwined with the development of technology and the spirit of innovation.From the invention of the wheel to the creation of the internet,each leap in technological advancement has marked a significant shift in the way we live,work,and communicate.The Impact of Technology:Technology has revolutionized various sectors,including healthcare,education, transportation,and communication.For instance,medical technology has enabled the development of advanced diagnostic tools and treatments,improving patient outcomes and extending life expectancy.In education,digital platforms and online learning have made knowledge accessible to a global audience,breaking geographical barriers. Innovation as a Catalyst:Innovation is the driving force behind technological progress.It is the process of translating an idea or invention into a good or service that creates value or for which customers will pay.Innovations such as smartphones,electric cars,and renewable energy technologies have not only created new markets but have also spurred economic growth and job creation.The Role of Research and Development:Investment in research and development RD is crucial for fostering innovation. Governments and private sectors alike must allocate resources to support RD activities in various fields.This not only leads to the creation of new technologies but also encourages a culture of creativity and problemsolving.Challenges and Ethical Considerations:While technology and innovation bring numerous benefits,they also present challenges. Issues such as privacy,cybersecurity,and the digital divide are pressing concerns that need to be addressed.Moreover,ethical considerations must guide the development and application of new technologies to ensure they are used responsibly and for the greater good.The Future of Technology and Innovation:Looking ahead,the integration of artificial intelligence,machine learning,and quantum computing is expected to bring about unprecedented changes.These technologies hold the potential to solve complex problems,from climate change to personalized medicine,but they also require careful stewardship to navigate the ethical and societal implications. Conclusion:In conclusion,technology and innovation are the cornerstones of modern society.They have the power to transform lives,economies,and the world at large.It is imperative that we continue to invest in and support these areas,while also ensuring that we address the challenges and ethical dilemmas they present.By doing so,we can harness the full potential of technology and innovation for the benefit of all.。
The evolution of inefficiency in a simulated stag hunt

I thank Jason Arndt, Amanda Brown, Thomas S. Wallsten, Jonathan Vaughan, and two anonymous reviewers for their comments on an earlier draft of this paper. Their input improved the paper dramatically. Matlab.m files for simple genetic algorithms are available from the author by request. Correspondence regarding this article should be addressed to J. N. Bearden, Department of Psychology, The University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27514 (e-mail: neil@).
have enough food for one day and the other will go hungry. If both follow the rabbit, each will get only a small amount of food. Clearly, it is in the players’ best interests to coordinate their actions and wait for the deer; however, a player is guaranteed food by following the rabbit. Thus, the players have a dilemma: Each must choose between potential efficiency and security. We are interested in the evolution of reinforcement learning agents that play repeated stag hunt games with one another.1 Our questions are: Will the populations evolve to choose the efficient outcome or will they evolve to choose the secure outcome? What behavioral characteristics will emerge in the evolving populations and how will these be shaped by the characteristics of the game? We will explore the process of evolution in two different risky environments. The environments differ in their penalties to the players for not coordinating their actions on an equilibrium. The two stag hunt payoff matrices that are used in this study are shown in Table 1. The cell entries correspond to the utilities that obtain for the players for each possible outcome of the one-shot game. For example, in the top payoff matrix, when player 1 chooses C and player 2 chooses D, player 1 earns .00 utiles and player 2 earns .40 utiles; and when both choose D, both earn .20 utiles, and so on. The difference between the matrices is explained below. Game Analysis The payoff matrices shown in Table 1 each have two pure strategy equilibria, CC and DD. Each also has a mixed strategy equilibrium in which both players play C with probability .80. However, the latter strategy is unstable, and hence not very important; thus, we focus on the two pure strategy equilibria in this paper.2,3 In both games, CC yields payoffs higher than DD and is the efficient ( payoff dominant) equilibrium outcome. DD is said to be the risk dominant (and inefficient) equilibrium point.4 Intuitively we can understand risk dominance by observing that D offers a higher minimum payoff than C; that is, the worst case outcome is better when one selects D than when one selects C, regardless of what the other player does. The bottom line is that CC offers the players the
伟大的发明英语作文

In the realm of human innovation,there have been countless inventions that have shaped the course of history and transformed the way we live.These inventions,ranging from the wheel to the internet,have not only made our lives easier but have also opened up new horizons for exploration and understanding.The Wheel:A Symbol of ProgressThe wheel is often regarded as one of the most fundamental inventions in human history. Its invention dates back to around3500BC in Mesopotamia.The wheel revolutionized transportation,enabling the movement of goods and people over long distances with greater ease and speed.This invention laid the groundwork for the development of various forms of vehicles,from chariots to modern cars and airplanes.The Printing Press:Spreading KnowledgeThe invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg in the15th century was a pivotal moment in the dissemination of knowledge.Before the printing press,books were handcopied,which was a timeconsuming and expensive process.Gutenbergs press allowed for the mass production of books,making them more accessible to the general public and contributing to the spread of literacy and education.The Steam Engine:Powering the Industrial RevolutionThe steam engine,developed in the18th century,was instrumental in the Industrial Revolution.It provided a reliable and efficient source of power,which led to the mechanization of various industries.This invention not only increased production but also changed the landscape of work,leading to the growth of factories and urbanization. The Telephone:Connecting the WorldAlexander Graham Bells invention of the telephone in1876revolutionized communication.It allowed people to converse over long distances without the need for physical presence.This invention has since evolved into various forms of telecommunication,including mobile phones and the internet,which have made the world more interconnected than ever before.The Internet:A Global NetworkThe internet,a network of networks,has arguably had the most profound impact on modern society.Developed in the late20th century,it has transformed how wecommunicate,access information,and conduct business.The internet has democratized information,allowing anyone with access to explore and learn about virtually any subject.ConclusionEach of these inventions represents a leap forward in human capability and understanding. They have not only improved our daily lives but have also expanded our horizons, allowing us to dream bigger and reach further.As we continue to innovate and create,it is important to remember the legacy of these great inventions and the impact they have had on shaping our world.。
看待数字技能的发展英语作文

看待数字技能的发展英语作文The rapid advancement of technology has transformed the way we live our lives in the 21st century. From the ubiquity of smartphones to the increasing integration of artificial intelligence in our daily routines, digital skills have become an essential component of modern life. As we navigate this ever-evolving digital landscape, it is crucial to understand the significance and implications of the development of digital skills.At the heart of this transformation is the growing importance of digital literacy. In the past, traditional literacy, encompassing the ability to read and write, was the primary measure of an individual's educational and professional competence. However, in the digital age, the scope of literacy has expanded to include the proficient use of digital tools and the effective management of information in various online platforms. This shift has profound implications for education, employment, and social engagement.In the realm of education, the integration of digital technologies has revolutionized the learning experience. Students today are exposedto a vast array of digital resources, from interactive learning platforms to virtual classrooms. The ability to navigate these digital environments and effectively utilize the available tools has become a crucial skill for academic success. Educators must not only impart subject-specific knowledge but also equip their students with the necessary digital skills to thrive in the 21st-century classroom and beyond.Moreover, the job market has undergone a significant transformation, with many industries increasingly relying on digital technologies. Employers now seek candidates who possess not only subject-matter expertise but also the ability to leverage digital tools and platforms to enhance productivity, collaboration, and problem-solving. The demand for digital skills is particularly pronounced in fields such as information technology, data analysis, and digital marketing, where proficiency in specific software and programming languages is often a prerequisite for employment.Beyond the realms of education and employment, the development of digital skills also has implications for social engagement and civic participation. In an era of ubiquitous social media and online communication, the ability to navigate these digital spaces effectively is essential for maintaining social connections, accessing information, and engaging in civic discourse. Digital skills enable individuals to critically evaluate online content, protect their privacy,and participate in online communities in a meaningful and responsible manner.However, the development of digital skills is not without its challenges. The rapid pace of technological change can create a digital divide, where certain segments of the population, such as the elderly or those from low-income backgrounds, may struggle to keep up with the evolving digital landscape. Bridging this divide and ensuring equitable access to digital resources is a crucial societal challenge that must be addressed.Furthermore, the development of digital skills must be accompanied by a heightened awareness of digital ethics and cybersecurity. As we increasingly rely on digital technologies, the risks of data breaches, online fraud, and the spread of misinformation have also escalated. Individuals must be equipped with the knowledge and skills to navigate these challenges, protecting their personal information and critically evaluating the information they encounter online.In conclusion, the development of digital skills is a multifaceted and essential aspect of modern life. From the transformative impact on education and employment to the implications for social engagement and civic participation, the ability to effectively utilize digital technologies has become a fundamental requirement for success and participation in the 21st century. As we continue tonavigate the digital landscape, it is crucial that we invest in the development of digital skills, address the challenges of the digital divide, and promote digital ethics and cybersecurity awareness. Only then can we fully harness the potential of digital technologies and ensure a more equitable and inclusive digital future.。
大国间科技竞争英语作文

In the contemporary era,the competition among nations is not only limited to economic and military spheres but has also extended significantly into the realm of technology.The race for technological supremacy is a critical aspect of global power dynamics,as technological advancements can provide a competitive edge in various fields,from defense to healthcare,and from communication to space exploration.The Importance of Technological AdvancementTechnological progress is essential for a nations development and its ability to maintain a strong position in the global arena.It drives economic growth,improves living standards, and enhances a countrys strategic capabilities.For instance,advancements in artificial intelligence,robotics,and automation can lead to increased productivity and innovation, which in turn can boost a nations competitiveness in the global market.Key Areas of Technological Competition1.Artificial Intelligence AI:AI has become a battleground for technological dominance. Nations are investing heavily in AI research and development to improve decisionmaking processes,automate complex tasks,and develop intelligent systems for various applications,including defense and healthcare.2.Cybersecurity:With the increasing reliance on digital infrastructure,cybersecurity has become a critical area of focus.Nations are competing to develop robust systems to protect their digital assets and counter cyber threats effectively.3.Space Technology:The exploration of space and the development of satellite technology are significant for both scientific discovery and strategic surveillance.Nations are vying to establish a presence in space,with missions to the Moon,Mars,and beyond.4.Renewable Energy:As the world moves towards sustainable development,the development of renewable energy technologies is a key area of competition.Nations are investing in solar,wind,and other renewable energy sources to reduce their carbon footprint and ensure energy security.5.Biotechnology:Advances in biotechnology have the potential to revolutionize healthcare,agriculture,and environmental management.Nations are competing to develop new therapies,genetically modified crops,and bioremediation techniques.Challenges and Ethical ConsiderationsWhile the race for technological superiority is on,it also brings about several challenges and ethical considerations.The rapid pace of technological change can lead to a digital divide,where some segments of the population are left behind.Additionally,the development and use of certain technologies,such as AI and biotechnology,raise ethical questions about privacy,surveillance,and the potential for misuse.International CollaborationDespite the competitive nature of technological development,international collaboration is crucial.Sharing knowledge and resources can lead to more efficient and effective technological advancements that benefit all nations.Collaborative efforts can also help in addressing global challenges such as climate change and public health crises.ConclusionThe competition among nations in the field of technology is a testament to the importance of innovation in shaping the future.While this competition can drive progress,it is also essential to ensure that it is conducted ethically and with consideration for the wellbeing of all people and the planet.The balance between competition and cooperation will be key in navigating the complex landscape of global technological development.。
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3The Continuing Evolution of ICT Capacity: The Implicationsfor EducationD R . T ONY B ATESIntroduction: General Trends in ICT CapacityThe capacity for information and communica-tions technology (ICT) has been growing exponentially over the last 10 to 15 years. Com-puters have become more powerful; satellite, fi-bre optic and wireless technology has increased transmission capacity; and software develop-ments such as multimedia authoring systems have made it easier to create digital materials such as electronic games, computer simulations and edu-cational materials.The increased capacity and supply has resulted in plunging prices for computer functionality, tele-phone services and software. Nowhere has the impact been greater than on the telephone in-dustry. Long distance charges in North America and between major developed countries have dropped by 90% in the last 15 years. Some ana-lysts believe that the Internet will transform the pricing structure for telecommunications from charges by distance and time to a flat charge by capacity. Thus a client will pay according to the size of the “pipe,” not by the distance or length of time for which it is used. It should be noted that while the growth of the Internet is one of the major drivers for change, it is only one of several different but converging technologies that are resulting in widespread capacity growth.The rapid growth in satellite and wireless tech-nology, and in particular the growth in mobile phone technology, is resulting in some countries attempting to leap beyond previous or interme-diate technologies. For instance, telephone capacity in China had been limited by lack of hard-wired networks. Mobile phone technology is allowing for a rapid expansion of telephone access in China. It is the last link to the end-user that has previously made hard-wired networks expensive to install on a widespread basis. Wireless tech-nology avoids the need for hard-wired circuits into homes and offices.However, there are several conditions sur-rounding this rapid growth in ICT, which can be summarised as follows:•Despite the recent adjustments to world stock markets, capacity in ICT is forecast to con-tinue to grow rapidly. For instance, while both Cisco and Nortel, the main providers of network hardware for the Internet, have re-vised downwards their growth forecasts this year (2001), both anticipate continued growth of 15% or more annually for the next five years. This suggests that access, bandwidth and applications will all continue to increase into the foreseeable future.•The technical capacity has far exceeded the capacity of governments, commercialorganisations and educational communities to respond fully to the opportunities and challenges this rapid change has brought.•ICT growth is not equal between different countries, between different socio-economic groups within countries or within different economic and social sectors of society. This inequality is often referred to as the digital divide: the gap between those with access and with the skills to use ICT appropriately, and those who do not have this capacity.•Free trade and lower labour costs in devel-oping countries in manufacturing and in re-source-based industries such as agriculture and forestry have forced many former industrial nations, as well as some newly emerging “eco-nomic tigers” such as Malaysia and India, to move more aggressively into knowledge-based businesses heavily dependent on ICT technologies. Thus there has been a rapid growth in e-commerce, software develop-ment, hi-tech design (such as micro-proces-sors, digital routers, computers and digital tel-ephone switches), entertainment (video and computer games, film and television) and fi-nancial industries in developed countries. Such knowledge-based businesses both exploit the advantage of a highly educated workforce and, at the same time, drive the demand for an even more highly educated workforce. Much of this growth has occurred in smaller, more dynamic companies that avoid hierarchical management structures. The development of alternative organisational and management structures for the new knowledge-based in-dustries is also relevant to virtual education, which is not only dependent on an extensive and reliable ICT infrastructure, but also re-quires a post-industrial approach to organisa-tion and management.•Technologies such as wireless and the Internet are disruptive in the sense that they bring aboutradical change to previously stable sectors.Companies such as Apple, Netscape, and have helped revolutionise cer-tain industry sectors, forcing previously domi-nant corporations either to radically change their operations or to close down. These same forces have the potential to bring about simi-lar changes in the education sector.Given the impact of ICT on many businesses and industries, it is not surprising that many com-mentators have seen education as being poten-tially revolutionised by it. Hence, there is great interest in virtual education, which is based on the idea of a widespread and significant applica-tion of ICT to the core activities of education.However, despite a great deal of hyperbole about the potential of ICT for education, real growth and change has been slow and marginal. This is due not only to lack of vision or commit-ment by educators and policy-makers; there are significant structural and cultural barriers or restric-tions that have slowed the potential for change in education compared with other sectors.These issues are discussed below, first look-ing at some case studies, then examining what kinds of technology are being used and why. Following that is a brief examination of some key emerging technologies and how they may have an impact on the education sector. Brief Case Studies of Major ICT Applications in Education and TrainingAs there is a very wide range of different appli-cations of ICT in education, any choice of case studies is somewhat arbitrary. For example, the Open University in the U.K. (UKOU) has been using communications technologies such as broadcast television and radio for educational delivery since the early 1970s, and in recent years it has also moved into online programming.However, print still remains the core delivery medium for the UKOU, even though it has ex-panded its programming into Europe and other areas of the world.Similar “dedicated” national open universities, such as Indira Ghandi National Open University in India, the Chinese Central and State Radio and Television Universities, and the Korean National Open University, have operated for many years, primarily on a mix of broadcasting and printed materials. Other dedicated open universities, such as Athabasca University in Canada, have moved more aggressively into Web-based delivery.At the same time, many institutions that offer both campus-based and distance programmes, such as the University of British Columbia (UBC) in Canada, Charles Sturt University in Australia, and Penn State University in the U.S.A., have be-gun to move their former print-based distance education courses online. For instance, UBC has over half of its 110 distance courses now online. In Korea and several other countries, campus-based universities are forming consortia for the delivery of online distance learning programmes.However, the most dramatic change in the use of ICT has not been in the traditional dis-tance education market. The biggest impact has been on campus-based teaching and in the pri-vate sector training market. John Chambers, the CEO of Cisco, one of the world’s largest ICT companies, has stated that “the next big killer application for the Internet is going to be educa-tion” (Moe and Blodget, 2000). Merrill Lynch has described e-learning (the combination of the corporate learning and higher education markets) as a U.S.$18 billion market by 2003, compared with $2.3 billion market in 2000 (Moe and Blodget, 2000). Here are just a few examples:•WebCT, a course authoring software plat-form, has over three million student licences in over 1500 institutions, and it is growing ata rate faster than 500,000 new student licencesa year. However, WebCT estimates that over80% of the use of its software is to support classroom teaching rather than “pure” dis-tance education. Thus we are seeing the emer-gence of “mixed mode” teaching, combin-ing face-to-face instruction with online learn-ing. One of the best examples of this is the University of Central Florida, which has an extensive programme of Web-based courses available both to on-campus and off-campus students (see /present/ FETCpresentation030100/index.htm for de-tails of its online course strategy).• A number of universities have formed con-sortia and partnerships with the private sec-tor to commercially exploit their e-learning initiatives. Universitas 21 is a network of 17 universities in mainly Commonwealth coun-tries, including Nottingham University, Uni-versity of Edinburgh, University of Mel-bourne, Hong Kong University, National University of Singapore and the University of British Columbia. Thomson Publishing and Universitas 21 have announced a part-nership to found an “e-university.” In 1990 there were 48 million people in higher edu-cation (Moe and Blodget, 2000); by 2025, Thomson Publishing estimates that there will be 160 million.•UNext, a U.S. company, has established an e-university called Cardean (/ cgi-bin/cardean1/view/public_home.jsp) that adapts its teaching material from that of the universities of Columbia, Stanford, Chicago, Carnegie Mellon and the London School of Economics. Degrees are awarded under the Cardean name, endorsed by the state of Illinois.•The London School of Economics (LSE) is also more deeply involved in an e-learning venture called Fathom (), launched last year as a global online library link-ing institutions such as the New York PublicLibrary, the British Library, the Smithsonian, the Cambridge University Press and the LSE. Fathom’s partners participate in the running of the service, and all must approve materials be-fore they are published on the site.•The U.K. government has established one of the most ambitious joint e-university projects. It has put the Higher Education Funding Council for England (HEFCE) in charge of attempts to create an e-university with a budget of £400 million, half of which will be public sector money. At first this was intended to be an exclusive arrangement, with universities bidding to become members. But now all U.K. universities are allowed to hold shares. The only human contact in the core programme will be with “navigators” —advisers who will help new students to se-lect courses. Only those students who attend summer schools or pay for additional tuto-rial support will receive face-to-face tuition.•Oxford University is linking with Stanford, Yale and Princeton to create an online col-lege for alumni. The idea is to provide life-long learning and support to some of the world’s policy-makers and business leaders. Cambridge is exploring virtual learning in its £83 million government-backed link-up with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). The project is known as the “bridge of minds” and is principally intended to fos-ter commercial spin-offs from university re-search. It also has potential to become an e-university.• A U.S. company, Hungry Minds (), has con-tracted with Michigan State University, New York University, Penn State University, Rochester Institute of Technology, University of California Berkeley Extension and Univer-sity of California at Los Angeles Extension to provide a range of e-learning services. Thesevary from providing a common Web portal for their courses, to supporting the develop-ment of online certificates by these institutions.•Since 1996, the University of British Colum-bia (UBC) has been offering a fully online graduate level programme on technology-based distributed learning in partnership with the Monterrey Institute of Technology in Mexico (http://itesm.cstudies.ubc.ca). The core of the programme is on the Web, but UBC also participates by video-conference link from Vancouver to Monterrey in satellite tel-evision broadcasts to Monterrey Tech’s 29 campuses across Latin America. Monterrey incorporates the five courses in its own mas-ter’s degree in Educational Technology and has the rights to offer the five courses through-out Latin America. UBC has made the five courses available to both its own mainly cam-pus-based master’s students as well as to the rest of the world as a post-graduate certifi-cate programme. To date, it has recruited stu-dents from more than 30 different countries.This programme runs on a self-financing ba-sis entirely from student fees. As a result of this experiment, UBC and Monterrey plan to offer a joint master’s degree in educational technology in both Spanish and English on a global basis from January 2002.In the private sector training area, there has been a rapid expansion of “corporate universities,” pri-marily in-house training organisations in the larger multinational companies making use of video-conferencing and the Internet. In parallel, there has been the development of a whole new industry of online training contractors who provide online training services to medium- and smaller-sized companies. Almost two-thirds of Merrill Lynch’s estimated $18 billion market is in this private sec-tor training area.A number of private, for-profit organisations are trying to bridge the gap between centraliseddistribution (such as foreign Web courses or satel-lite TV) and local support. For instance, TeltecGlobal () is a “busi-ness services aggregator” offering corporations and governments “a one-stop, turn-key solution for access to 21st century technology, services and education.” The TeltecGlobal Center of Influence is a “last mile” strategy that provides customers with products and Web-enabled services available through membership in their Community and Business Centers located in developing countries. TeltecGlobal Community Centers work in con-junction with multinational corporate sponsors, designing an offering of products and services “to meet both community needs and corporate objectives.” Business Centers license operations to local entrepreneurs and “global government-backed entities” in emerging markets. As with the Community Centers, TeltecGlobal works with the licensees to tailor the products and services to market needs and licensees’ goals. TeletecGlobal is a good example of the increasing synergy between technology, education and business.These developments are not so different from the chaotic, diverse and excessively optimistic developments in the business sector. Indeed, especially in the U.S.A., e-learning is seen as just another branch of e-business. However, a more careful analysis of these developments will indicate that there are many barriers and chal-lenges that need to be overcome before such ini-tiatives can operate on a sustainable basis. What Kinds of Technology Are Being Used?W ORLD W IDE W EBThe predominant technology being used for e-learning in the developed world is the World Wide Web, which in turn relies on the Internet. At the end of 1999, more than 196 million people glo-bally were using the Internet; by the end of 2004,the number is expected to rise to 638 million (Moe and Blodget, 2000).There are many reasons for the rapid appli-cation of the Web in education:•Through the use of browsers and a relatively simple programming language (HTML), the Web provides universal standards and interoperability between different machines and operating systems, which allows for glo-bal reach and access.•The Web can be transmitted both through already-existing infrastructure, such as ana-logue telecommunications networks, as well as through high-speed digital networks, giv-ing it a wide range of technical flexibility.•The Web is a low-cost technology for edu-cation for several reasons:•There is a relatively low cost of entry for educational suppliers. The cost ofthe technology needed for onlinecourses (such as a server and courseauthoring software) is marginal com-pared with already-existing infrastruc-ture costs for business and administra-tive purposes (computers, communica-tions network, etc.).•Development of materials is relatively low cost because of a simple comput-ing language (HTML) for creating ma-terials and the development of interme-diary course authoring software (such asWebCT and Blackboard) that enablesWeb sites to be easily constructed.•Through its use of the Internet, there is no direct charge for independent pack-ets of information (as is the case withvoice telephone calls); pricing is by vol-ume (the size of the pipe into the insti-tution), not by time or distance. Sincemost current applications use narrowbandwidths, the transmission costs percourse for the supplier are virtually zero.•The Web’s ability to combine text, graphics and a limited amount of multimedia gives ita wide range of applications in education.•The Web enables free and global access to a very wide range of high quality (as well as low quality) learning resources located on Web sites.•The Web offers opportunities for international, cross-cultural and collaborative learning.•The Web enables learners to study at any time and, increasingly, from any place.•The Web allows asynchronous (time-delayed) interpersonal communication, not just be-tween instructor and student, but more im-portantly, between learners and other learn-ers, through e-mail, bulletin boards and online discussion forums.This last point cannot be stressed too strongly. The ability to enable students to communicate with each other independent of time and dis-tance moves distance education away from a transmissive, teacher-dominated model of edu-cation to a more interactive form of learning where students can adapt and apply learning to their own needs. In a knowledge-based society where information and knowledge are rapidly increasing, it is essential for students to be able to question, discuss and analyse their learning in a social context.However, there are several constraints that limit even greater expansion of the Web as a learning technology, particularly in developing countries:•In many developing countries, and in a small but significant number of communities and homes in developed countries, the necessary minimal technology infrastructure needed to support the Web — a computer and a tel-ephone — simply do not exist.•Even where the minimal infrastructure is in place, many people do not have the neces-sary computer, keyboarding and literacy skills to make effective use of the Web.•Most applications of the Web still have to fit into narrow bandwidths, limiting educational materials to text and static graphics.•To fully exploit the educational advantages of the Web, teachers need to adapt and change their teaching methods. Without ad-equate support and instruction, teachers will merely add cost to the current system by bolting on the technology to traditional class-room methods.•Teachers also need technical support, both in terms of ensuring the networks, software and equipment work properly and are ad-equately maintained, but also in the design and development of Web sites. This require-ment adds substantially to costs.•The interactive, participatory form of learn-ing that has developed around the use of the Web is culturally unsuited to the predomi-nant mode of teaching and learning in tradi-tional societies, which give great respect to the teacher, and where students are not ex-pected to question the wisdom of elders.•To justify the expense and stress of major changes in work methods, Web-based learning needs to be used strategically and be ad-equately resourced. However, many admin-istrations lack both the vision to use it for strategic change and the willingness to real-locate sufficient resources to ensure success. S ATELLITE B ROADCASTINGAnother technology that is being used extensively in education is satellite broadcasting. Satellite tel-evision for educational purposes has a long his-tory dating back to the early 1980s. India was one of the first countries to use satellite televi-sion through the INSAT project, and today Indira Ghandi National Open University is still a major satellite user. The Chinese Central Radio and Tel-evision University is another major user, with over800,000 students. Monterrey Tech in Mexico (www.itesm.mx) has four satellite TV channels operating 24 hours a day, seven days a week, covering large parts of Latin America. It is used primarily to deliver lectures from its headquar-ters in Monterrey, and it provides two-way com-munication through e-mail questions from stu-dents to the studio host in Monterrey.In North America, satellite transmission has become more and more integrated into a broader range of communications technologies, combin-ing television, telephony and data transmission. There, satellite TV is now mainly used for edu-cational purposes to cover relatively sparsely populated areas (e.g., The Knowledge Network in British Columbia), or for special educational events, such as forums on topics of interest with highly respected speakers. It is rarely used as the main technology for formal education courses, although the National Technological University () in the U.S.A. uses satellite TV to provide graduate engineering and business courses to corporations.One satellite application of particular relevance to poor developing countries is WorldSpace (). Headquartered in Wash-ington, D.C., the WorldSpace business was founded in 1990 to provide direct satellite deliv-ery of digital audio communications to the three-quarters of the world population that lacks ra-dio reception and programme choice. New dig-ital technology combines low-cost radios with direct satellite reception using small, portable sat-ellite receivers developed specially for the project by some of the world’s leading electronic com-panies (e.g., Hitachi, JVC, Panasonic and Sanyo). WorldSpace obtains programmes from regular broadcasters such as the BBC. It started opera-tions in Africa but has recently extended its serv-ices to Asia. Its potential audience is now ap-proximately three billion.The African Virtual University (AVU), ini-tially developed by the World Bank, is another initiative using satellite television broadcasting (/knowledgebank/facts/ avu.html). A VU uses ICT to give the countries of sub-Saharan Africa direct access to high-qual-ity academic faculty and learning resources in Af-rica and throughout the world. Professors from universities around the globe deliver classes in a studio classroom. The course is then beamed by satellite to A VU’s learning centres all across Africa, each of which is equipped with an inexpensive satellite dish to receive the signal. During the class, students have an opportunity for real-time inter-action with the instructor using phone lines or e-mail. At each participating A VU learning centre, on-site moderators guide the students through the materials and act as liaison with course instructors. All learning centres are equipped with Internet ac-cess and at least 50 computers.Since the launch of its pilot phase in 1997, AVU has provided students and professionals in 15 African countries with more than 2500 hours of interactive instruction in English and French. More than 12,000 students have completed se-mester-long courses in engineering and the sci-ences, and more than 2500 professionals have attended executive and professional management seminars on topics such as Y2K, e-commerce, entrepreneurship, and strategy and innovation. AVU also provides students access to an online digital library with more than 1000 full-text jour-nals. More than 10,000 students and faculty have opened free e-mail accounts on the AVU Web site. It has established itself as an independent, non-profit organisation headquartered in Nairobi, Kenya. During the next three years, AVU will expand to more countries in Africa and reach undergraduate students, faculty and profession-als through three main avenues: learning centres in universities, private franchises and professional learning centres housed in corporations and non-governmental organisations.Satellite broadcasting has the following fea-tures relevant to education:•Because of the relatively high infrastruc-ture costs (studios, satellite transmission and receive sites), it has high fixed costs but very low variable costs; this makes it most effective when many students (usu-ally numbered in thousands) can receive a single programme.•It provides a common standard of lecture or teaching to all students, wherever they may be located.•It fits a transmissive model of education, where students are expected to remember and understand what is being taught.Satellite broadcasting suffers however from the following constraints:•It requires very high start-up costs and a high level of technical expertise to launch and maintain.•Despite the use of alternative technologies for two-way communications such as tele-phone and e-mail and the use of local teacher-supported discussion groups, it is difficult to make satellite broadcasting very interactive for learners.•Learners with Internet access have less flex-ibility in terms of time and place of study from satellite broadcasting than from study-ing through the Web, being tied either to the time of the broadcast or to a fixed location if they do not have personal access to satel-lite reception equipment.•The need to provide convenient, secure and accessible local reception sites can add sub-stantially to the cost, especially for satellite TV.•Satellite TV lacks the educational flexibility and the future potential for improvement that can be found in the Web.•Governments appear to be less willing to regulate and fund educational satellite TVinitiatives, partly because of the high cost, and partly because of a move to more deregulated communications policies. In sucha context educational users are usually un-able or unwilling to pay full commercial rates for satellite transmission costs.In short, satellite broadcasting has advantages for transmission of information to large num-bers of students at relatively low cost per stu-dent. However, satellite broadcasting needs strong local support on the ground, through local cen-tres or alternative two-way communication chan-nels such as telephone or the Internet. These ground costs and the constraints on learning con-siderably reduce the economic and educational benefits of satellite broadcasting. Furthermore, well-designed printed texts can be more educa-tionally cost-effective than real-time or even re-corded satellite lectures.V IDEO-C ONFERENCINGVideo-conferencing is also widely used for edu-cational purposes, particularly in the U.S.A. and Australia, to link multi-campus colleges and uni-versities, and for corporate training in compa-nies with multiple sites. Video-conferencing makes use of fibre-optic cable or copper-based tel-ephone networks and computerised compres-sion technology to “squeeze” the high bandwidth requirements of full motion analogue television into a narrower bandwidth.Video-conferencing is used in education for the following reasons:•It saves instructor and student travel time between dispersed campuses, making pos-sible the availability of some classes in sites away from the main campus.•Teachers do not have to make significant ad-aptations to their normal method of classroom teaching (although special efforts need to be made to ensure students at the remote site par-ticipate in discussions and class activities).。