道路规划外文文献1
二级公路设计英文参考文献
二级公路设计英文参考文献1. Manzini, R., & Sampath, A. (2015). Design of Rural Road Drainage Systems: A Simple and Effective Analysis Method. Journal of Transportation Engineering, 141(6), 04015014.This paper presents a simple and effective analysis method for designing drainage systems for rural roads. The authors propose a step-by-step approach that includes the determination of catchment areas, estimation of runoff volume, and evaluation of design criteria for culverts and ditches. The method is demonstrated through a case study in a rural area, highlighting its applicability and effectiveness.2. Gupta, A. K., & Kaul, S. K. (2012). Geometric Design of Rural Roads: A Case Study of Jammu & Kashmir in India. International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering, 2(6), 263-269.This case study focuses on the geometric design of rural roads in the Jammu & Kashmir region of India. The authors discuss the design considerations, such as road alignment, cross-section elements, sight distance, and horizontal and vertical curves. They also evaluate the current road design practices in the region and propose improvements based on internationally recognized standards.3. Pathak, N. C., & Das, L. P. (2010). Rural Road Design Guidelines for India. Journal of Transportation Engineering, 136(4), 342-351.This research article presents rural road design guidelines specifically tailored for India. The authors cover various aspects of road design, including alignment, cross-section elements, grading, drainage, and roadside development. The guidelines aim to improve safety and efficiency in the design of rural roads in India and are supported by extensive research and case studies.4. Qi, Y., Song, R., & Xu, W. (2014). Design of Pavement Structure for Rural Roads in Cold, High-Altitude Plateau Regions. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, 26(12), 04014065.This study focuses on the design of pavement structures for rural roads in cold, high-altitude plateau regions. The authors investigate the influence of climate, soil conditions, and traffic loads on pavement performance and propose a design method considering these factors. The research provides valuable insights for designing durable andcost-effective pavement structures in challenging environments.5. Thomet, M., Reutter, F., & Betz, F. (2017). Assessment of Safety Measures for Rural Roads: A Case Study in Switzerland. Transportation Research Procedia, 23, 551-558.This case study evaluates safety measures for rural roads in Switzerland. The authors analyze different road design elements, such as geometric design, signage, and delineation, in order to assess their impact on road safety. The findings contribute to the understanding of effective safety measures for rural roads and can inform future design decisions.。
公路路线设计毕业论文外文
公路路线设计毕业论文外文Design of Highway RouteIntroductionHighway transportation plays a vital role in modern society, enabling the efficient movement of goods and people. The design of a highway route is a crucial aspect that ensures safe and convenient travel for users. This paper aims to explore the key elements involved in the design of a highway route and provide an overview of the international practices and guidelines inthis field.Key Elements in Highway Route DesignInternational Practices and GuidelinesDifferent countries have developed their own practices and guidelines for highway route design. The United States, for example, follows the standards outlined in the "A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets" manual, also known as the Green Book. This manual provides detailed guidance on various design elements, such as alignment, cross-section, and geometrics. It emphasizes the importance of considering safety, mobility, and economic factors in the design process.The European Union has developed the "Eurocodes," a set of European standards for highway design. These codes provide guidelines for the design of various aspects, includingalignment, cross-section, and slope. They also emphasize the consideration of sustainability and environmental impact in the design process.ConclusionThe design of a highway route involves various key elements, including alignment, cross-section, slope, and geometrics. International practices and guidelines, such as the Green Book, Eurocodes, and Austroads design guidelines, provide valuable guidance in this field. It is essential for highway route designers to consider factors such as safety, environmental impact, and economic factors in the design process. By following these practices and guidelines, highway routes can be designed to ensure safe and convenient travel for users.。
道路工程毕业设计外文文献翻译
外文文献翻译原文:Asphalt Mixtures-Applications, Theory and Principles1 、ApplicationsAsphalt materials find wide usage in the construction industry、The use of asphalt as a cementing agent in pavements is the most common of its applications, however, and the one that will be consid ered here、Asphalt products are used to produce flexibl e pavements for highways and airports、The term “fl exible” is used to distinguish these pavements from those made with Portland cement, which are classified as rigid pavements, that is, having beam strength、This distinction is important because it provid es they key to the design approach which must be used for successful flexibl e pavement structures、The flexibl e pavement classification may be further broken d own into high and l ow types, the type usually depending on whether a solid or liquid asphalt product is used、The l ow types of pavement are mad e with the cutback, or emulsion, liquid products and are very widely used throughout this country、Descriptive terminol ogy has been developed in various sections of the country to the extent that one pavement type may have several names、However, the general process foll owed in construction is similar for most l ow-type pavements and can be described as one in which the aggregate and the asphalt product are usually applied to the roadbed separately and there mixed or all owed to mix, forming the pavement、The high type of asphalt pavements is made with asphalt cements of some sel ected penetration grad e、Fig、·1 A modern asphalt concrete highway、Shoul der striping is used as a safely feature、Fig、·2 Asphalt concrete at the San Francisco International Airport、They are used when high wheel l oads and high volumes of traffic occur and are, therefore, often designed for a particular installation、2 、Theory of asphalt concrete mix designHigh types of flexible pavement are constructed by combining an asphalt cement, often in the penetration grad e of 85 to 100, with aggregates that are usually divided into three groups, based on size、The three groups are coarse aggregates, fine aggregates, and mineral filler、These will be discussed in d etail in later chapter、Each of the constituent parts mentioned has a particular function in the asphalt mixture, and mix proportioning or d esign is the process of ensuring that no function is negl ected、Before these individual functions are examined, however, the criteria for pavement success and failure should be consid ered so that d esign objectives can be established、A successful fl exible pavement must have several particular properties、First, it must be stable, that is to resistant to permanent displacement under l oad、Deformation of an asphaltpavement can occur in three ways, two unsatisfactory and one desirable、Plastic deformation of a pavement failure and which is to be avoid ed if possible、Compressive deformation of the pavement results in a dimensional change in the pavement, and with this change come a l oss of resiliency and usually a d egree of roughness、This d eformation is less serious than the one just described, but it, too, leads to pavement failure、The desirable type of deformation is an elastic one, which actually is beneficial to flexibl e pavements and is necessary to their long life、The pavement should be durable and should offer protection to the subgrade、Asphalt cement is not impervious to the effects of weathering, and so the design must minimize weather susceptibility、A durable pavement that d oes not crack or ravel will probably also protect the roadbed、It must be remembered that flexible pavements transmit loads to the subgrad e without significant bridging action, and so a dry firm base is absolutely essential、Rapidly moving vehicl es d epend on the tire-pavement friction factor for control and safety、The texture of the pavement surfaces must be such that an adequate skid resistance is developed or unsafe conditions result、The design procedure shoul d be used to select the asphalt material and aggregates combination which provid es a skid resistant roadway、Design procedures which yield paving mixtures embodying all these properties are not available、Sound pavements are constructed where materials and methods are selected by using time-tested tests and specifications and engineering judgments al ong with a so-call ed design method、The final requirement for any pavement is one of economy、Economy, again, cannot be measured directly, since true economy only begins with construction cost and is not fully determinable until the full useful life of the pavement has been record ed、If, however, the requirements for a stable, durable, and safe pavement are met with a reasonable safety factor, then the best interests of economy have probably been served as well、With these requirements in mind, the functions of the constituent parts can be examined with consideration give to how each part contributes to now-established objectives or requirements、The functions of the aggregates is to carry the load imposed on the pavement, and this is accomplished by frictional resistance and interl ocking between the individual pieces of aggregates、The carrying capacity of the asphalt pavement is, then, related to thesurface texture (particularly that of the fine aggregate) and the density, or “compactness,”, of the aggregates、Surface texture varies with different aggregates, and while a rough surface texture is desired, this may not be available in some l ocalities、Dense mixtures are obtained by using aggregates that are either naturally or artificially “well graded”、This means that the fine aggregate serves to fill the voids in the coarser aggregates、In addition to affecting density and therefore strength characteristics, the grading also influences workability、When an excess of coarse aggregate is used, the mix becomes harsh and hard to work、When an excess of mineral filler is used, the mixes become gummy and difficult to manage、The asphalt cement in the fl exibl e pavement is used to bind the aggregate particl es together and to waterproof the pavements、Obtaining the proper asphalt content is extremely important and bears a significant influence on all the items marking a successful pavement、A chief objective of all the design methods which have been devel oped is to arrive at the best asphalt content for a particular combination of aggregates、3 、Mix design principl esCertain fundamental principles underlie the design procedures that have been developed、Before these procedures can be properly studied or applied, some consid eration of these principles is necessary、Asphalt pavements are composed of aggregates, asphalt cement, and voids、Considering the aggregate alone, all the space between particles is void space、The volume of aggregate voids depends on grading and can vary widely、When the asphalt cement is add ed, a portion of these aggregate voids is filled and a final air-void volume is retained、The retention of this air-void volume is very important to the characteristics of the mixture、The term air-void volume is used, since these voids are weightless and are usually expressed as a percentage of the total volume of the compacted mixture、An asphalt pavement carries the applied load by particl e friction and interlock、If the particl es are pushed apart for any reason , then the pavement stability is d estroyed、This factor indicates that certainly no more asphalt shoul d be ad ded than the aggregate voids can readily hold、However ,asphalt cement is susceptibl e to volume change and the pavement is subject to further compaction under use、If the pavement has no air voids when placed, or if it loses them under traffic, then the expanding asphalt will overfl ow in a condition known asbleeding、The l oss of asphalt cement through bleeding weakens the pavement and also reduces surface friction, making the roadway hazard ous、Fig、·3 Cross section of an asphalt concrete pavement showing the aggregate framework bound together by asphalt cement、The need for a minimum air-void volume (usually 2 or 3 per cent ) has been established、In addition, a maximum air-void volume of 5 to 7 per cent shoul d not be exceed、An excess of air voids promotes raveling of the pavement and also permits water to enter and speed up the deteriorating processes、Also, in the presence of excess air the asphalt cement hardens and ages with an accompanying loss of durability and resiliency、The air-void volume of the mix is determined by the d egree of compaction as well as by the asphalt content、For a given asphalt content, a lightly compacted mix will have a large voids volume and a l ower d ensity and a greater strength will result、In the laboratory, the compaction is controlled by using a specified hammer and regulating the number of bl ows and the energy per blow、In the field, the compaction and the air voids are more difficult to control and tests must be made no specimens taken from the compacted pavement to cheek on the d egree of compaction being obtained、Traffic further compact the pavement, and all owance must be mad e for this in the design、A systematic checking of the pavement over an extended period is need ed to given factual information for a particular mix、A change in density of several per cent is not unusual, however、Asphalt content has been discussed in connection with various facets of the ix design problem、It is a very important factor in the mix design and has a bearing an all the characteristics ld a successful pavement: stability, skid resistance, durability, and economy、As has been mentioned, the various d esign procedures are intended to provide a means for selecting the asphalt content 、These tests will be considered in detail in a future chapter ,but the relationship between asphalt content and the measurable properties of stability, unit weight, and air voids will be discussed here、Fig、4 Variations in stability, unit weight, and air-void content with asphalt cement content、If the gradation and type of aggregate, the degree of compaction, and the type of asphalt cement are controll ed, then the strength varies in a predictable manner、The strength will increase up to some optimum asphalt content and then decrease with further additions、The pattern of strength variation will be different when the other mix factors are changed, and so only a typical pattern can be predicted prior to actual testing、Unit weight varies in the same manner as strength when all other variabl e arecontroll ed、It will reach some peak value at an asphalt content near that determined from the strength curve and then fall off with further additions、As already mentioned, the air-void volume will vary with asphalt content、However, the manner of variation is different in that increased asphalt content will d ecrease air-void volume to some minimum value which is approached asymptotically、With still greater additions of asphalt material the particles of aggregate are only pushed apart and no change occurs in air-void volume、In summary, certain principles involving aggregate gradation, air-void volume, asphalt content, and compaction mist be understood before proceeding to actual mix d esign、The proper design based on these principl es will result in sound pavements、If these principles are overlooked, the pavement may fail by one or more of the recognized modes of failure: shoving, rutting, corrugating, becoming slick when the max is too ‘rich’; raveling, cracking,having low durability when t he mix is too ‘l ean’、It should be again emphasized that the strength of flexible is, more accurately, a stability and d oes not indicate any ability to bridge weak points in the subgrade by beam strength、No asphalt mixture can be successful unless it rests on top of a properly designed and constructed base structure、This fact, that the surface is no better than the base, must be continually in the minds of those concerned with any aspect of fl exible pavement work、译文:沥青混合料的应用、理论与原则1、应用沥青材料如今在建筑行业广泛使用。
关于高速公路设计的外文文献
关于高速公路设计的外文文献本文将探讨高速公路设计的外文文献。
高速公路是一种高速公路系统，目的是在快速、安全和有效的方式下运输大量的人和货物。
高速公路建设的目的是提供一个连接城市之间的快速、高效和可靠的道路网络。
高速公路设计与交通工程、土木工程和环境工程密切相关，需要综合考虑交通流动、安全性、环保因素等问题。
下面将介绍几篇与高速公路设计相关的外文文献。
1. A study on the design of high-speed highways in China本文主要介绍了中国高速公路设计的历史和现状。
作者在研究中发现，中国高速公路建设起步较晚，在技术和管理上仍存在一些困难和挑战。
作者提出了一些改进措施，包括加强高速公路设计的科学性、规范化和现代化管理。
2. Design and construction of high-speed highways in the United States本文介绍了美国高速公路设计和建设的经验。
作者指出，美国在高速公路建设方面拥有丰富的经验，包括道路设计、材料选择、施工技术等方面。
文章还介绍了美国高速公路建设的资金来源和管理模式。
3. The impact of high-speed highways on the environment本文研究了高速公路对环境的影响。
作者认为，高速公路建设会对土地利用、水资源、大气污染等环境因素产生影响。
为了减少这些影响，需要在高速公路设计和建设中考虑环保因素，采用环保材料和技术。
4. Safety design of high-speed highways本文讨论了高速公路的安全设计问题。
作者认为，高速公路的安全设计应考虑交通流动、路面材料、标志标线、交通安全设施等因素。
文章还介绍了在高速公路设计中采用的安全评估方法和技术。
总之，高速公路的设计需要综合考虑交通、安全和环保等因素。
通过研究这些外文文献，可以帮助我们更好地了解高速公路设计和建设的相关问题。
交通工程公路建设中英文对照外文翻译文献
中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)英文原文：The Basics of a Good RoadWe have known how to build good roads for a long time. Archaeologists have found ancient Egyptian roadsthat carried blocks to the pyramids in 4600 BCE. Later,the Romans built an extensive road system, using the same principles we use today. Some of these roads are still in service.If you follow the basic concepts of road building, you will create a road that will last. The ten commandments of a good road are:（1）Get water away from the road（2）Build on a firm foundation（3）Use the best materials（4）Compact all layers properly（5）Design for traffic loads and volumes（6）Design for maintenance（7）Pave only when ready（8）Build from the bottom up（9）Protect your investment（10）Keep good records1．Get water away from the roadWe can’t overemphasize the importance of good drainage.Engineers estimate that at least 90% of a road’s problems can be related to excess water or to poor waterdrainage. Too much water in any layer of a road’sstructure can weaken that layer, leading to failure.In the surface layer, water can cause cracks and potholes. In lower layers it undermines support, causing cracks and potholes. A common sign of water in an asphalt road surface is alligator cracking — an interconnected pattern of cracks forming small irregular shaped pieces that look like alligator skin. Edge cracking, frost heaves, and spring breakup of pavements also point to moisture problems.To prevent these problems remember that water:• flows downhill• needs to flow someplace• is a problem if it is not flowingEffective drainage systems divert, drain and dispose of water. To do this they use interceptor ditches and slopes,road crowns, and ditch and culvert systems.Divert —Interceptor ditches, located between the road and higher ground along the road, keep the water from reaching the roadway. These ditches must slope so they carry water away from the road.Drain —Creating a crown in the road so it is higher along the centerline than at the edges encourages water to flow off the road. Typically a paved crown should be 1⁄4" higher than the shoulder for each foot of width from the centerline to the edge. For gravel surfaces the crown should be 1⁄2" higher per foot of width. For this flow path to work, the road surface must be relatively water tight. Road shoulders also must be sloped away from the road to continue carrying the flow away. Superelevations (banking) at the outside of curves will also help drainthe road surface.Dispose —A ditch and culvert system carries water away from the road structure. Ditches should be at least one foot lower than the bottom of the gravel road layer that drains the roadway. They must be kept clean and must be sloped to move water into natural drainage. If water stays in the ditches it can seep back into the road structure and undermine its strength. Ditches should also be protected from erosion by planting grass, or installing rock and other erosion control measures. Erosion can damage shoulders and ditches, clog culverts, undermine roadbeds, and contaminate nearby streams and lakes. Evaluate your ditch and culvert system twice a year to ensure that it works. In the fall, clean out leaves and branches that can block flow. In spring, check for and remove silts from plowing and any dead plant material left from the fall.2．Build on a firm foundationA road is only as good as its foundation. A highway wears out from the top down but falls apart from the bottom. The road base must carry the entire structure and the traffic that uses it.To make a firm foundation you may need to stabilize the roadbed with chemical stabilizers, large stone called breaker run, or geotextile fabric. When you run into conditions where you suspect that the native soil is unstable, work with an engineer to investigate the situation and design an appropriate solution.3．Use the best materialsWith all road materials you “pay now or pay later.” Inferior materials may require extensive maintenance throughout the road’s life. They may also force you to replace the road prematurely.Crushed aggregate is the best material for the base course. The sharp angles of thecrushed material interlock when they are compacted. This supports the pavement and traffic by transmitting the load from particle to particle. By contrast, rounded particles act like ballbearings, moving under loads.Angular particles are more stable than rounded particles.Asphalt and concrete pavement materials must be of the highest quality, designed for the conditions, obtained from established firms, and tested to ensure it meets specifications. 4．Compact all layersIn general, the more densely a material is compacted, the stronger it is. Compaction alsoshrinks or eliminates open spaces (voids) between particles. This means that less water can enter the structure. Water in soil can weaken the structure or lead to frost heaves. This is especially important for unsurfaced (gravel) roads. Use gravel which has a mix of sizes (well-graded aggregate) so smaller particles can fill the voids between larger ones. Goodcompaction of asphalt pavement lengthens its life.5．Design for traffic loads and volumesDesign for the highest anticipated load the road will carry. A road that has been designed only for cars will not stand up to trucks. One truck with 9 tons on a single rear axle does as much damage to a road as nearly 10,000 cars.Rural roads may carry log trucks, milk trucks, fire department pumper trucks, or construction equipment. If you don’t know what specific loads the road will carry, a good rule of thumb is to design for the largest piece of highway maintenance equipment that will be used on the road.A well-constructed and maintained asphalt road should last 20 years without major repairs or reconstruction. In designing a road, use traffic counts that project numbers and sizes of vehicles 20 years into the future. These are only projections, at best, but they will allow you to plan for traffic loadings through a road’s life.6．Design for maintenanceWithout maintenance a road will rapidly deteriorate and fail. Design your roads so they can be easily maintained. This means:• adequate ditches that can be cleaned regularly• culverts that are marked for easy locating in the spring• enough space for snow after it is plowed off the road• proper cross slopes for safety, maintenance and to avoid snow drifts• roadsi des that are planted or treated to prevent erosion• roadsides that can be mowed safelyA rule of thumb for adequate road width is to make it wide enough for a snowplow to pass another vehicle without leaving the travelled way.Mark culverts with a post so they can be located easily.7．Pave only when readyIt is not necessary to pave all your roads immediately. There is nothing wrong with a well-built and wellmaintained gravel road if traffic loads and volume do not require a paved surface. Three hundred vehicles per day is the recommended minimum to justify paving.Don’t assume that laying down asphalt will fix a gravel road that is failing. Before you pave, make sure you have an adequate crushed stone base that drains well and is properly compacted. The recommended minimum depth of crushed stone base is 10" depending on subgrade soils. A road paved only when it is ready will far outperform one that is constructed too quickly.8．Ê Build from the bottom upThis commandment may seem obvious, but it means that you shouldn’t top dress or resurface a road if the problem is in an underlying layer. Before you do any road improvement, locate the cause of any surface problems. Choose an improvement technique that will address the problem. This may mean recycling or removing all road materials down to the native soil and rebuilding everything. Doing any work that doesn’t solve the problem is a waste of money and effort.9．Ê Protect your investmentThe road system can be your municipality’s biggest investment. Just as a home needs painting or a new roof, a road must be maintained. Wisconsin’s severe climate requires more road maintenance than in milder places. Do these important maintenance activities: Surface —grade, shape, patch, seal cracks, control dust, remove snow and iceDrainage —clean and repair ditches and culverts; remove all excess materialRoadside —cut brush, trim trees and roadside plantings, control erosionTraffic service —clean and repair or replace signsDesign roads with adequate ditches so they can be maintained with a motor grader. Clean and grade ditches to maintain proper pitch and peak efficiency. After grading, remove all excess material from the shoulder.10．Keep good recordsYour maintenance will be more efficient with good records. Knowing the road’s construction, life, and repair history makes it much easier to plan and budget its future repairs. Records can also help you evaluate the effectiveness of the repair methods and materials you used.Good record keeping starts with an inventory of the system. It should include the history andsurface condition of the roadway, identify and evaluate culverts and bridges, note ditch conditions, shoulders, signs, and such structures as retaining walls and guardrails.Update your inventory each year or when you repair or change a road section. A formal pavement management system can help use these records and plan and budget road improvements.ResourcesThe Basics of a Good Road#17649, UW-Madison, 15 min. videotape. Presents the Ten Commandments of a Good Road. Videotapes are loaned free through County Extension offices.Asphalt PASER Manual(39 pp), Concrete PASER Manual (48 pp), Gravel PASER Manual (32 pp). These booklets contain extensive photos and descriptions of road surfacesto help you understand types of distress conditions and their causes. A simple procedure for rating the condition helps you manage your pavements and plan repairs.Roadware, a computer program which stores and reports pavement condition information. Developed by the Transportation Information Center and enhanced by the Wisconsin Department of Transportation, it uses the PASER rating system to provide five-year cost budgets and roadway repair/reconstruction priority lists.Wisconsin Transportation Bulletin factsheets, available from the Transportation Information Center (T.I.C.).Road Drainage, No. 4. Describes drainage for roadways, shoulders, ditches, and culverts.Gravel Roads, No. 5. Discusses the characteristics of a gravel road and how to maintain one.Using Salt and Sand for Winter Road Maintenance,No. 6. Basic information and practical tips on how to use de-icing chemicals and sand.Culverts—Proper Use and Installation, No. 15. Selecting and sizing culverts, designing, installing and maintaining them.Geotextiles in Road Construction/Maintenance andErosion Control, No. 16. Definitions and common applications of geotextiles on roadways and for erosion control.T.I.C. workshops are offered at locations around the state.Crossroads,an 8-page quarterly newsletter published by the T.I.C. carries helpful articles, workshop information, and resource lists. For more information on any of these materials, contact the T.I.C. at 800/442-4615.译文：一个良好的公路的基础长久以来我们已经掌握了如何铺设好一条道路的方法，考古学家发现在4600年古埃及使用建造金字塔的石块铺设道路，后来，罗马人使用同样的方法建立了一个庞大的道路系统，这种方法一直沿用到今天。
交通工程专业外文翻译外文文献英文文献
土木工程学院交通工程专业中英文翻译Road Design专业：交通工程英文原文The Basics of a Good RoadWe have known how to build good roads for a long time. Archaeologists have found ancient Egyptian roadsthat carried blocks to the pyramids in 4600 BCE. Later,the Romans built an extensive road system, using the same principles we use today. Some of these roads are still in service.If you follow the basic concepts of road building, you will create a road that will last. The ten commandments of a good road are:（1）Get water away from the road（2）Build on a firm foundation（3）Use the best materials（4）Compact all layers properly（5）Design for traffic loads and volumes（6）Design for maintenance（7）Pave only when ready（8）Build from the bottom up（9）Protect your investment（10）Keep good records1．Get water away from the roadWe can’t overemphasize the importance of good drainage.Engineers estimate that at least 90% of a road’s problems can be related to excess water or to poor waterdrainage. Too much water in any layer of a road’sstructure can weaken that la yer, leading to failure.In the surface layer, water can cause cracks and potholes. In lower layers it undermines support, causing cracks and potholes. A common sign of water in an asphalt road surface is alligator cracking — an interconnected pattern of cracks forming small irregular shaped pieces that look like alligator skin. Edge cracking, frost heaves, and spring breakup of pavements also point to moistureproblems.To prevent these problems remember that water:• flows downhill• needs to flow somepla ce• is a problem if it is not flowingEffective drainage systems divert, drain and dispose of water. To do this they use interceptor ditches and slopes,road crowns, and ditch and culvert systems.Divert —Interceptor ditches, located between the road and higher ground along the road, keep the water from reaching the roadway. These ditches must slope so they carry water away from the road.Drain —Creating a crown in the road so it is higher along the centerline than at the edges encourages water to flow off the road. Typically a paved crown should be 1⁄4" higher than the shoulder for each foot of width from the centerline to the edge. For gravel surfaces the crown should be 1⁄2" higher per foot of width. For this flow path to work, the road surface must be relatively water tight. Road shoulders also must be sloped away from the road to continue carrying the flow away. Superelevations (banking) at the outside of curves will also help drainthe road surface.Dispose —A ditch and culvert system carries water away from the road structure. Ditches should be at least one foot lower than the bottom of the gravel road layer that drains the roadway. They must be kept clean and must be sloped to move water into natural drainage. If water stays in the ditches it can seep back into the road structure and undermine its strength. Ditches should also be protected from erosion by planting grass, or installing rock and other erosion control measures. Erosion can damage shoulders and ditches, clog culverts, undermine roadbeds, and contaminate nearby streams and lakes. Evaluate your ditch and culvert system twice a year to ensure that it works. In the fall, clean out leaves and branches that can block flow. In spring, check for and remove silts from plowing and any dead plant material left from the fall.2．Build on a firm foundationA road is only as good as its foundation. A highway wears out from the top down but falls apart from the bottom. The road base must carry the entire structure and the traffic that uses it.To make a firm foundation you may need to stabilize the roadbed with chemical stabilizers, large stone called breaker run, or geotextile fabric. When you run into conditions where you suspect that the native soil is unstable, work with an engineer to investigate the situation and design an appropriate solution.3．Use the best materialsWith all road materials you “pay now or pay later.” Inferior materials may require extensive maintenance throughout the road’s life. They may also force you to replace the road prematurely.Crushed aggregate is the best material for the base course. The sharp angles of thecrushed material interlock when they are compacted. This supports the pavement and traffic by transmitting the load from particle to particle. By contrast, rounded particles act like ballbearings, moving under loads.Angular particles are more stable than rounded particles.Asphalt and concrete pavement materials must be of the highest quality, designed for the conditions, obtained from established firms, and tested to ensure it meets specifications.4．Compact all layersIn general, the more densely a material is compacted, the stronger it is. Compaction also shrinks or eliminates open spaces (voids) between particles. This means that less water can enter the structure. Water in soil can weaken the structure or lead to frost heaves. This is especially important for unsurfaced (gravel) roads. Use gravel which has a mix of sizes (well-graded aggregate) so smaller particles can fill the voids between larger ones. Goodcompaction of asphalt pavement lengthens its life.5．Design for traffic loads and volumesDesign for the highest anticipated load the road will carry. A road that has been designed only for cars will not stand up to trucks. One truck with 9 tons on a single rear axle does as much damage to a road as nearly 10,000 cars.Rural roads may carry log trucks, milk trucks, fire department pumper trucks, or construction equipment. If you don’t know what specific loads the road will carry, a good rule of thumb is to design for the largest piece of highway maintenance equipment that will be used on the road.A well-constructed and maintained asphalt road should last 20 years without major repairs or reconstruction. In designing a road, use traffic counts that project numbers and sizes of vehicles 20 years into the future. These are only projections, at best, but they will allow you to plan for traffic loadings through a road’s life.6．Design for maintenanceWithout maintenance a road will rapidly deteriorate and fail. Design your roads so they can be easily maintained. This means:• adequate ditches that can be cleaned regularly• culverts that are marked for easy locating in the spring• enough space for snow after it is plowed off the road• proper cross slopes for safet y, maintenance and to avoid snow drifts• roadsides that are planted or treated to prevent erosion• roadsides that can be mowed safelyA rule of thumb for adequate road width is to make it wide enough for a snowplow to pass another vehicle without leaving the travelled way.Mark culverts with a post so they can be located easily.7．Pave only when readyIt is not necessary to pave all your roads immediately. There is nothing wrong with a well-built and wellmaintained gravel road if traffic loads and volume do not require a paved surface. Three hundred vehicles per day is the recommended minimum to justify paving.Don’t assume that laying down asphalt will fix a gravel road that is failing. Before you pave, make sure you have an adequate crushed stone base that drains well and is properly compacted. The recommended minimum depth of crushed stone base is 10" depending on subgrade soils. A road paved only when it is ready will far outperform one that is constructed too quickly.8．Ê Build from the bottom upThis commandment may seem obvious, but it means that you shouldn’t top dress or resurface a road if the problem is in an underlying layer. Before you do any road improvement, locate the cause of any surface problems. Choose an improvement technique that will address the problem. This may mean recycling or removing all road materials down to the native soil and rebuilding everything. Doing any work that doesn’t solve the problem is a waste of money and effort.9．Ê Protect your investmentThe road system can be your municipality’s biggest investment. Just as a home needs painting or a new roof, a road must be maintained. Wisconsin’s severe climate requires more road maintenance than in milder places. Do these important maintenance activities: Surface —grade, shape, patch, seal cracks, control dust, remove snow and iceDrainage —clean and repair ditches and culverts; remove all excess materialRoadside —cut brush, trim trees and roadside plantings, control erosionTraffic service —clean and repair or replace signsDesign roads with adequate ditches so they can be maintained with a motor grader. Clean and grade ditches to maintain proper pitch and peak efficiency. After grading, remove all excess material from the shoulder.10．Keep good recordsYour maintenance will be more efficient with good records. Knowing the road’s construction, life, and repair history makes it much easier to plan and budget its future repairs. Records can also help you evaluate the effectiveness of the repair methods and materials you used.Good record keeping starts with an inventory of the system. It should include the history and surface condition of the roadway, identify and evaluate culverts and bridges, note ditch conditions, shoulders, signs, and such structures as retaining walls and guardrails.Update your inventory each year or when you repair or change a road section. A formal pavement management system can help use these records and plan and budget road improvements.ResourcesThe Basics of a Good Road#17649, UW-Madison, 15 min. videotape. Presents the Ten Commandments of a Good Road. Videotapes are loaned free through County Extension offices.Asphalt PASER Manual(39 pp), Concrete PASER Manual (48 pp), Gravel PASER Manual (32 pp). These booklets contain extensive photos and descriptions of road surfacesto help you understand types of distress conditions and their causes. A simple procedure for rating the condition helps you manage your pavements and plan repairs.Roadware, a computer program which stores and reports pavement condition information. Developed by the Transportation Information Center and enhanced by the Wisconsin Department of Transportation, it uses the PASER rating system to provide five-year cost budgets and roadway repair/reconstruction priority lists.Wisconsin Transportation Bulletin factsheets, available from the Transportation Information Center (T.I.C.).Road Drainage, No. 4. Describes drainage for roadways, shoulders, ditches, and culverts.Gravel Roads, No. 5. Discusses the characteristics of a gravel road and how to maintain one.Using Salt and Sand for Winter Road Maintenance,No. 6. Basic information and practical tips on how to use de-icing chemicals and sand.Culverts—Proper Use and Installation, No. 15. Selecting and sizing culverts, designing, installing and maintaining them.Geotextiles in Road Construction/Maintenance andErosion Control, No. 16. Definitions and common applications of geotextiles on roadways and for erosion control.T.I.C. workshops are offered at locations around the state.Crossroads,an 8-page quarterly newsletter published by the T.I.C. carries helpful articles, workshop information, and resource lists. For more information on any of these materials, contact the T.I.C. at 800/442-4615.中文译文一个良好的公路的基础长久以来我们已经掌握了如何铺设好一条道路的方法，考古学家发现在4600年古埃及使用建造金字塔的石块铺设道路，后来，罗马人使用同样的方法建立了一个庞大的道路系统，这种方法一直沿用到今天。
道路路桥工程中英文对照外文翻译文献
道路路桥工程中英文对照外文翻译文献Asphalt Mixtures: ns。
Theory。
and Principles1.nsXXX industry。
XXX。
The most common n of asphalt is in the n of XXX "flexible" XXX them from those made with Portland cement。
XXX2.XXXXXX the use of aggregates。
XXX。
sand。
or gravel。
and a binder。
XXX for the pavement。
XXX。
The quality of the asphalt XXX to the performance of the pavement。
as it must be able to XXX。
3.PrinciplesXXX。
with each layer XXX layers typically include a subgrade。
a sub-base。
a base course。
and a surface course。
The subgrade is the natural soil or rock upon which the pavement is built。
while the sub-base and base courses provide nal support for the pavement。
The surface course is the layer that comes into direct contact with traffic and is XXX。
In n。
the use of XXX.The n of flexible pavement can be subdivided into high and low types。
二级公路毕业设计外文文献
外文资料及翻译Effects of Design Features on Rigid Pavement PerformanceThe performance of rigid pavements is affected by a variety of design features, including slab thickness, base type, joint spacing, reinforcement, joint orientation, load trans fer, dowel bar coatings, longitudinal joint design, joint sealant, tied concrete shoulders ,and subdrainage . A study was made by ERES Consultants, Inc. under FHWA contract on the effects of these features on rigid pavement performance . Ninety-five pavemen tsections located in four major climatic regions were thoroughly evaluated . The following conclusions, which provide some revealing insights into pavement performance, are abstracted from the report (Smith et al., 1990a).Slab Thickness The effect of slab thickness on pavement performance was significant.It was found that increasing slab thickness reduced transverse and longitudinal cracking in all cases. This effect was much more pronounced for thinner slabs than fo rthicker slabs . It was not possible to compare the performance of the thinner slabs and the thicker slabs directly, because the thick slabs were all constructed directly on th esubgrade and the thinner slabs were all constructed on a base course .Increasing the thickness of slab did not appear to reduce joint spalling or join tfaulting . Thick slabs placed directly on the subgrade, especially in wet climates an dexposed to heavy traffic, faulted as much as thin slabs constructed on a base course .Base Type Base types, including base/slab interface friction, base stiffness, base erodibility, and base permeability, seemed to have a great effect on the performance of jointed concrete pavements . The major performance indicators, which were affected by variations in base type, were transverse and longitudinal cracking, joint spalling, and faulting .The worst performing base type, consisted of the cement-treated or soil cement bases, which tended to exhibit excessive pumping, faulting, and cracking. This is most likely due to the impervious nature of the base, which traps moisture and yet can brea- k down and contribute to the movement of fines beneath the slab .The use of lean concrete bases generally produced poor performance . Large curl -ing and warping stresses have been associated with slabs constructed over lean concrete bases. These stresses result in considerable transverse and longitudinal cracking of the slab . The poor performance of these bases can also be attributed to a bathtub design, in which moisture is trapped within the pavement cross section .Dense-graded asphalt-treated base courses ranged in performance from very poor to good. The fact that these types of bases were often constructed as a bathtub design contributed to their poor performance . This improper design often resulted in severe cracking, faulting, and pumping.The construction of thicker slabs directly on the subgrade with no base resulted In a pavement that performed marginally. These pavements were especially susceptible to faulting, even under low traffic levels.Pavements constructed over aggregate bases had varied performance, but were generally in the fair to very good category. In general, the more open-graded the aggregate,the better the performance . An advantage of aggregate bases is that they contribute the least to the high curling and warping stresses in the slab . Even though aggregate bases are not open-graded, they are more permeable and have a lower friction factor than stabilized bases .The best bases in terms of pavement performance were the permeable bases . Typical base courses have permeabilities ranging from 0 to less than 1 ft/day (0 .3 m/day) ; good permeable bases have permeabilities up to 1000 ft/day (305 m/day) . Specific areas of concern were the high corner deflections and the low load transfer exhibited by the permeable bases . These can affect their long-term performance, so the use of dowel bars might be required . An unexpected benefit of using permeable bases was the reduction in "D" cracking on pavements susceptible to this type of distress .Slab Length For JPCP, the length of slabs investigated ranged from 7 .75 to 30 ft(2.4to9.1m). It was found that reducing the slab length decreased both the magnitude of the joint faulting and the amount of transverse cracking. On pavements with random joint spacings, slabs with joint spacings greater than 18 ft (5.5 m) experienced more transverse cracking than did the shorter slabs .For JRCP, the length of slabs investigated ranged from 21 to 78 ft (6 .4 to 23 .9 m) .Generally, shorter joint spacings performed better, as measured by the deteriorated transverse cracks, joint faulting, and joint spalling . However, several JRCP with long joint spacings performed quite well . In particular, the long jointed pavements in New Jersey, which were constructed with expansion joints, displayed excellent performance .An examination of the stiffness of foundation was made through the use of the radius of relative stiffness, f . Generally speaking, when the ratio L/E, where L is the length of slab, was greater than 5, transverse cracking occurred more frequently . Thisfactor was further examined for different base types . It was found that stiffer base courses required shorter joint spacings to reduce or eliminate transverse cracking .Reinforcement The amount of steel reinforcement appeared to have an effect in controlling the amount of deteriorated transverse cracking . Pavement sections with less than 0.1% reinforcing steel often displayed significant deteriorated transverse cracking.A minimum of 0 .1% reinforcing steel is therefore recommended, with larger amounts required for more severe climate and longer slabs.Joint Orientation Conventional wisdom has it that skewed joints prevent the application of two wheel loads to the joint at the same time and thus can reduce load-associated distresses . The results from the limited sample size in this study were ambiguous, but all of the nondoweled sections with skewed joints had a lower PSR than similar designs with perpendicular joints . The available data provide no definite conclusions on the effectiveness of skewing transverse joints for nondoweled slabs . Skewed joints are not believed to provide any benefit to doweled slabs.Load Transfer Dowel bars were found to be effective in reducing the amount of joint faulting when compared with nondoweled sections of comparable designs. The diameter of dowels had an effect on performance, because larger diameter bars provided better load transfer and control of faulting under heavy traffic than did smaller dowels.It appeared that a minimum dowel diameter of 1 .25 in . (32 mm) was necessary to provide good performance .Nondoweled JPCP slabs generally developed significant faulting, regardless of pavement design or climate . This effect was somewhat mitigated by the use of permeable bases. However, the sections in this group had a much lower number of accumulated ESAL, so no definite conclusions can be drawn yet .Dowel Bar Coatings Corrosion-resistant coatings are needed to protect dowels from the adverse effects of moisture and deicing chemicals .While most of the sections in this study did not contain corrosion-resistant dowel bars, those that did generally exhibited enhanced performance. Very little deteriorated transverse cracking was identified on these sections. In fact, one section in New Jersey with stainless steel-clad dowel bars was performing satisfactorily after 36 years of service .Longitudinal Joint Design The longitudinal joint design was found to be a critical design element.Both inadequate forming techniques and insufficient depths of joint can contribute to the development of longitudinal cracking . There was evidence of the ad vantage of sawing the joints over the use of inserts . The depth of longitudinal joints is generally recommended to be one-third of the actual, notdesigned, slab thickness, but might have to be greater when stabilized bases are used .Joint Sealant Joint sealing appeared to have a beneficial effect on performance . This was particularly true in harsh climates with excessive amounts of moisture . Preformed compression sealants were shown to perform well for more than 15 years under heavy traffic.Except where "D" cracking occurred, pavement sections containing preformed sealants generally exhibited little joint spalling and were in good overall conditions.Rubberized asphalt joint sealants showed good performance for 5 to 7 years.Tied Concrete Shoulders It is generally believed that tied concrete shoulders can reduce edge stresses and corner deflections by providing more lateral supports to the mainline pavement, thus improving pavement performance . Surprisingly, this study showed that, although tied concrete shoulders performed better than asphalt shoulders,many of the tied shoulders were not designed properly and actually contributed to poor performance of the mainline pavement . The tiebars were spaced too far apart ,sometimes at a spacing of 40 in.(1016 mm), and were not strategically located near slab corners to provide adequate support . In some cases, tied concrete shoulders were constructed over a stabilized dense-graded base in a bathtub design, resulting in the poor performance of mainline pavement.Subdrainage The provision of positive subdrainage, either in the form of longitudinal edge drains or the combination of a drainage layer and edge drains, generally reduced the amount of faulting and spalling related to "D" cracking . With few exceptions, the load-associated distresses, especially faulting and transverse cracking, decreased as the drainage characteristics improved . The overall pavement performance can be improved by using an open-graded base or restricting the percentage of fines . A filter layer must be placed below the permeable base, and regular maintenance of the outlets must be provided .译文结构特点对刚性路面性能的影响刚性路面的性能受种种结构特点的影响，如板厚、基层类型、接缝间距、钢筋用量、接风方向、荷载传递、传力杆涂层、纵缝设计、接缝填封料、有拉杆混凝土道肩和地下排水等。
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道路设计
1.道路设计的历史
首先，本文主要依靠大量的文字叙述，若对您造成理解上的困难，敬请谅解。
由于本文所涵盖的资料单一，本文是此系列中唯一的一篇文章。
本文不像其他文章
一样有大量图片说明。
其次，本文主要内容是关于欧洲公路修筑的历史。
在西欧，罗马人是具有重大意义的公路修筑的开创者。
他们看到了修筑公路能
使人较快的移动地理位置的作用，这一作用对军用和民用都是极其重要的。
罗马人
率先指出，要使公路发展为主要道路，就必须把地坪线提高一米。
公路的最大特点
就是没有角落，这是为了降低埋伏的风险。
罗马人对道路的耐久性设定了标准，这
一成就远超过了罗马帝国灭亡后所取得的其它成就。
罗马人设计公路的方法本质上与现代使用的是相同。
公路由几个不同层次构成，这从基层增加了公路的强度。
最底层的通常是碎石子，中间层是掺加了石灰的混凝土，而上层则是铺路石或者掺有石灰的厚石板。
每一层的厚度由当地的地质条件决定。
罗马帝国消亡后，它的道路系统一直处于无人修善的状态。
到了中世纪末期，
全国的道路系统几乎处于瘫痪状态，唯一的路途就是没有铺石板的路。
一到冬季就
泥泞不堪，夏天则尘土飞扬，根本无法通行。
同时为了绕开贫穷的地区，更是导致
了道路弯弯曲曲，加大了通行难度。
这种路况加上法律监管不严，意味着除非是疯
子或者是无可奈何的情况，没人愿意去走这些路。
这种情况直到1555年国会通过了所有地方政府有责任维修损坏道路的行动后有
所改善。
这次行动还包括建立高速公路拯救员职位。
没有薪金和材料再加上技术匮乏，所以这个告示明显地无人理睬且效率低下也就不怎么奇怪了。
……
2.交通量分析
2.1、交通密度：
2.2、交通负荷：
3.交通密度
4.交通负载
5.土方工程
6.开挖
History of Road Design
Firstly let me apologise for this page. It is largely text based due to the nature of it and if reading is difficult then I am sorry. This is due solely to the material covered and is the only page in the series. This is not typical as the rest have graphics or images to keep you amused. Secondly this page is very much a history of road building in the United Kingdom．
The first road builders of any significance in Western Europe were the Romans, who saw the ability to move quickly as essential for both military and civil reasons. It is from the Romans that the term highway comes as all their roads were elevated 1m above the local level of the land. This was to minimise the risk of an ambush, as was the best known characteristic of the roads, their lack of corners. The standards set by the Romans in terms of durability far exceeded anything achieved after the fall of the empir e.
The Roman approach to road design is essentially the same as that in current use. The roads were constructed of several different layers, increasing in strength from the bottom. The lowest layer was normally a rubble, intermediate layers were made of li me bound concrete and the upper layer was a flag or lime grouted stone slabs. The thickness of the layers was varied according to the local ground conditions.
After the fall of the Roman Empire the road system fell into a state of disrepair and by the end of the middle ages, there was in effect no road
system in the country. The only routes available were unpaved tracks, muddy and impassable in winter and dusty and impassable in summer. Diversions around particularly poor stretches resulted in sinuous align ments. The state of the roads combined with the general lawlessness at the time meant only the determined or insane traveled.
The first change in this attitude。