Forthcoming in the Cambridge Journal of Economics ABSTRACT Suppliers ’ Associations in the

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免费资源丨想问鼎牛剑？3本书帮你搞定最难的入学试题！

免费资源丨想问鼎牛剑？3本书帮你搞定最难的入学试题！如果你要问鼎牛剑以及UCL这样的英国顶级学府，就得做好迎考TSA的准备。

TSA全称Thinking Skills Assessment，即“思考能力测试”，是一门考批判逻辑思维的考试。

而这门考试，也是只有过了“全国统考”要求，并收到牛剑的邀请才能参加的，相当于牛剑的入门考试。

（本文附3本TSA思维逻辑书籍+近10年TSA历年真题和答案+ Specimen Test）TSA考试分为：Thinking Skills Assessment 和 Writing Task两个部分。

第一部分主要是考察学生的数字推理、空间推理和批判性思维能力，共有50道选择题，90分钟内完成；第二部分则是问答题，旨在评估考生以清晰、简洁的方式组织观点并在写作中有效沟通的能力。

学生可以从4个题目中选择一题来作答，30分钟内完成。

这个考试是牛津大学（Oxford）大部分文科专业必考的笔试，包括：✓ Economics and Management 经济与管理✓ Experimental Psychology 实验心理学✓ Human Sciences 人类科学✓ Philosophy and Linguistics 哲学和语言学✓ Philosophy, Politics and Economics (PPE) 哲学-政治-经济✓ Psychology and Linguistics 心理学和语言学✓ Psychology and Philosophy 心理学和哲学而剑桥需要TSA考试的专业包括：✓ComputerScience(计算机科学)✓Economics(经济)✓Engineering(工程)✓ History (历史)✓ Human,Social, and Political Sciences(人类，社交和政治科学)✓Land Economy(土地经济)✓Natural Sciences (Physical and Biological) 自然科学（物理和生物）✓ Psychological and Behavioural Sciences （心理和行为科学）而伦敦大学学院（UCL）需要TSA考试的专业包括：✓ EuropeanSocial and Political Studies (欧洲社交和政治研究)✓ EuropeanSocial and Political Studies: Dual Degree BA(欧洲社交和政治研究：双学位)TSA到底难不难？因为是“思维能力评估测试”，所以需要掌握的学术知识在于广泛和思考而不在于深度。

《英语语法》第十二章关系分句

第十二章关系分句限制性与非限制性关系分句分两种：限制性关系从句与非限制性关系从句。

这两种关系分句的划分非常重要，因为它们不仅形式不同，作用也不同。

①Jilian Brown.who lives next door is travelling in Scotland.吉连·布朗，住在隔壁，现在正在苏格兰旅行。

②The girl who lives next door is now travelling in Scotland.住在隔壁的那个女孩子现在正在苏格兰旅行。

③Ann e returned my book to the library by mistake, whichJ bought ata bookstore at Cambridge.安妮误把我的书错还给图书馆了，那本书是我在剑桥一个书店买的。

④This is the book(which／that) I bought at a bookstore at Cambridge.这是我在剑桥一个书店买的书。

首先，在①和③中的非限制性关系分句在书写时用逗号隔开，在口语中有轻微的停顿和前后语调的变化。

在句②和④中的限制性关系分句没有这些特征。

其他形式上的区别还包括代词的选择。

如果一个分句是象④句中那样由that来引导（或者是萋羞运贫词歹，那么这个分句一定是限制性关系分句。

但如果是象③句中那样由which引导（或其他wh-词），那么它可能是限制性也可能是非限制性关系分句。

鬯乡趸拳思王韭堡型关系分句中。

其次，两种关系分句作用不同。

限制性关系分句是名词词组不可分割的一部分，为确定先行项的所指对象提供必不可少的信息。

在句②中女孩的身份决定于她的住址。

句④也一样，其中关系分句为书的所指对象提供必不可少的信息。

另一方面，非限定性关系分句只提供那些对确定我们所谈论的人或物的所指对象来说不需要的附加信息，所以，如果省略了非限定性关系分句，并不影响先行项的所指意义。

The Birth of Tragedy in the Cinquecento

JOURNAL OF THE HISTORY OF IDEAS✦JULY2011left to the attentions of literary critics,who,however,have passed it over in a stony silence for the last several decades.Even the few who have thoughtfully commented on early modern poetic theory have often done so with the aim of showing that their historical actors were not very Aristote-lian at all.2In other words,now that the middle twentieth century’s interest in actively redeploying Aristotle’s literary ideas is long past,the Poetics sits entombed in the intimidating and rapidly aging standard works that survey its sixteenth-century adherents and detractors,nearly always from the rela-tively limited viewpoint of doctrines such as the three unities and catharsis.3 At the same time,this older literature did already hint strongly that early modern poetic theory embodied signiﬁcantly varied responses to Aristotle, that this dynamicﬁeld constituted a narrative taken within its own terms.But did readers of the Poetics in fact do anything worth noting in the wider story of the early modern Aristotle?In at least one case,the answer is discernibly yes,and not merely because those readers recapitulated the history of the study of Aristotle on a smaller scale.When a certain group of Italian philologists took up the Poetics,they examined it in a way to which Aristotle’s other texts usually were not amenable:as a vital but difﬁcult historical source.In other words—at speciﬁc moments,at any rate—they sought in the Poetics neither prescriptive doctrines nor scientiﬁc statements supposed to apply to the present day,but speciﬁcally historical information, which,however,proved almost incredibly elusive.The most signal histori-(1956;repr.,Rome:Edizioni di storia e letteratura,1969),17–31at23;‘‘Un codice pado-vano di Aristotele postillato da Francesco ed Ermolao Barbaro,’’in Studies,337–53at 338–39;‘‘The Aristotelian Tradition,’’in his Renaissance Thought:The Classic,Scholas-tic,and Humanist Strains(New York:Harper,1961),40;and Eight Philosophers of the Italian Renaissance(Stanford:Stanford University Press,1964),114;E.N.Tigerstedt,‘‘Observations on the Reception of the Aristotelian Poetics in the Latin West,’’Studies in the Renaissance15(1968):7–24.2Luc Deitz,‘‘‘Aristoteles imperator noster...’?J.C.Scaliger and Aristotle on Poetic Theory,’’International Journal of the Classical Tradition2(1995):54–67and Iulius Caesar Scaliger,Poetices libri septem,ed.Luc Deitz and Gregor Vogt-Spira,5vols.(Stutt-gart and Bad Cannstatt:Frommann-Holzboog,1994–2003).Older discussions of anti-Aristotelian poetic theorists:B.Weinberg,‘‘Scaliger versus Aristotle on Poetics,’’Modern Philology39(1942):337–60;and G.Zonta,‘‘Rinascimento aristotelismo e barocco,’’Giornale storico della letteratura italiana54(1934):1–63,185–240.3Bernard Weinberg,A History of Literary Criticism in the Italian Renaissance,2vols. (Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1961);and‘‘Robortello on the Poetics,1548’’(319–48)and‘‘Castelvetro’s Theory of Poetics’’(349–71)in R.S.Crane,ed.,Critics and Criticism:Ancient and Modern(Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1952);Baxter Hathaway,The Age of Criticism:The Late Renaissance in Italy(Ithaca:Cornell Univer-sity Press,1962);Joel Elias Spingarn,A History of Literary Criticism in the Renaissance, 2nd ed.(1908;rept.,New York:Columbia University Press,1924).Haugen✦Humanism and Literary Historycal subject raised by the Poetics concerned the birth of tragedy.What was the tragedy’s early form,at what point could one say that the drama had become the tragedy properly speaking,and above all,how was the tragedy performed in Aristotle’s own time?Aristotle himself suggested all of these questions but offered scant guidance for answering them.As an eyewitness to performances of the tragedy,he evidently took for granted that his read-ers knew what those performances were like—an assumption that seems to have been as maddening to sixteenth-century readers as it remains today. This difﬁculty,and its allure,motivated a humanist literary history that could complete or amplify Aristotle’s meaning through a searching use of alternative sources.Aristotle’s story,in other words,appeared as a kind of heroic fragment,a damaged part of a lost whole like the remnants of ancient statuary that sixteenth-century humanists so eagerly excavated and named.4First origins in general were a favorite humanist subject,for which the many ancient and modern sources ranged from the elder Pliny’s Natural History to Polydore Vergil’s On Discovery(De inventoribus rerum).5But the early history of the drama was at once fascinating to humanists and exceedingly poorly attested:to study it was to leap directly into the‘‘ship-wreck of antiquity,’’the naufragium antiquitatis long lamented by human-ists in general.Nonetheless,a certain sort of humanist could be captivated by such questions,precisely because the evidence was so slender and the need for imaginative reconstruction so manifest.The protagonists of this sixteenth-century discussion included such humanist luminaries as Angelo Poliziano,Francesco Robortello,Piero Vet-tori,and Francesco Patrizi da Cherso.Much was at stake,in retrospect, because of the claims that surrounded the emergence of the earliest operas around1600:the Greek tragedy had been sung from beginning to end, assertedﬁgures such as Girolamo Mei and Vincenzo Galilei,and the new form of musical drama meant the tragedy’s direct revival.6But in fact,this identiﬁcation of the opera with the Greek tragedy constituted a position in an already well-known conversation;the Florentine Camerata’s view was 4On sculptural fragments,Leonard Barkan,Unearthing the Past:Archaeology and Aes-thetics in the Making of Renaissance Culture(New Haven:Yale University Press,1999), 120–28,174–87,205–7.This reference was suggested to me by an anonymous reader for the JHI.5Polydore Vergil,On Discovery,tr.Brian P.Copenhaver(Cambridge,Mass.:Harvard University Press,2002).6Barbara Russano Hanning,Of Poetry and Music’s Power:Humanism and the Creation of Opera(Ann Arbor:UMI Research Press,1980),esp.1–19;Claude Palisca,Humanism in Italian Renaissance Musical Thought(New Haven:Yale University Press,1985), 408–28.JOURNAL OF THE HISTORY OF IDEAS✦JULY2011no arbitrary or spontaneous guess.7The tradition from which the Camera-ta’s discussions arose was distinctive as a mode of scholarship and likewise distinctive as a mode of literary study.In theﬁrst place,humanist literary history of this kind dealt neither in entire extant texts nor in unbridled, theory-driven polemics.In these respects it stood apart from other kinds of early modern literary study more often discussed today.The past thirty years have taught us greatly about humanist textual criticism and about the humanist exegesis of poetry,bothﬁelds in which novel and clearly identiﬁ-able developments began in the lateﬁfteenth century.8We also,of course, have ample documentation of the rise of neoclassical literary theory out of(and sometimes against)its sources in Aristotle and Horace.9Humanist literary history,however,differed notably from these,as also from the nine-teenth-century German scholarship that shared the humanists’predilection for the fragmentary and the lost.From Poliziano onward,the literary histo-rians were willing to combine Greek and Roman sources in their search for the early drama.Even more disconcertingly to readers of Friedrich Nietz-sche’s Birth of Tragedy(1872),they hesitated to draw a sharp distinction between the comedy and the tragedy at all.Rather,they came with open minds to the question of origins and to the puzzle of how the extant tragedy had been performed.Literary history,in other words,was a well-deﬁned and innovative enterprise that deserves our attention as a part of humanist scholarship.As an encounter with Aristotle,ﬁnally,this episode shows how serious scholars approached a decidedly unusual situation:here the philos-opher,far from appearing as copious,massive,and unwieldy,was mani-festly inadequate.While Aristotle demanded to be treated as the primary source for the early drama,if for no other reason than his proximity to the7Cf.Nino Pirrotta,‘‘Trage´die et comedie dans la Camerataﬂorentina,’’in Musique et poe´sie au XVIe sie`cle(Paris:E´ditions du C.N.R.S.,1954),287–97,esp.295;and‘‘Early Opera and Aria,’’in New Looks at Italian Opera:Essays in Honor of Donald J.Grout, ed.William W.Austin(Ithaca:Cornell University Press,1968),39–107,esp.80–81;and, for a more measured argument,Danilo Aguzzi-Barbagli,‘‘Francesco Patrizi e l’umanes-imo musicale del Cinquecento,’’in L’umanesimo in Istria,eds.V.Branca and S.Graciotti (Florence:Olschki,1983),63–90,esp.67–68,82–84.8A selection of works in English:Anthony Grafton,‘‘On the Scholarship of Poliziano and Its Context,’’Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes40(1977):150–88; and Joseph Scaliger:A Study in the History of Classical Scholarship,2vols.(Oxford: Clarendon Press,1983–93),9–70;Craig Kallendorf,‘‘From Virgil to Vida:The Poeta Theologus in Italian Renaissance Commentary,’’Journal of the History of Ideas56 (1995):41–62;and The Other Virgil:‘Pessimistic’Readings of the Aeneid in Early Mod-ern Culture(Oxford:Oxford University Press,2007);William J.Kennedy,Authorizing Petrarch(Ithaca:Cornell University Press,1994).9See the literature in note3above.Haugen✦Humanism and Literary Historyevents,he also needed to be read in imaginative,decisive ways that were nonetheless grounded in sources rather than in undirected speculation.The resulting competition,so to speak,between Aristotle and later sources was managed in different ways by different scholars.In this situation,even the best-qualiﬁed historical scholars were obliged to deal with Aristotle by boldly supplementing him;one could not calmly explicate what was not there to start with.We see in the case of the literary historians,then,a moment of departure from Aristotle in order to fulﬁll his purposes,perhaps even a moment of frustration with the ordinarily verbose philosopher who had suddenly turned mute.That the humanist literary historians were distinctive could be demon-strated on the basis of two sentences alone,namely,the perplexing passage in Aristotle’s Poetics that animated the entire argument of Nietzsche’s Birth of Tragedy and which sixteenth-century scholars were apt to take rather differently.The reason is that this passage posits two things at once:in the ﬁrst place,a very broad common origin for the tragedy and comedy in extemporaneous performance,but in the second place,clearly deﬁned pre-cursor genres that(as Nietzsche saw it)drove comedy in one direction, tragedy in another.Here is Aristotle:So,at the beginning,tragedy was extemporaneous and so wascomedy;tragedy came from those who led the dithyramb;comedycame from the singers of phallic verses,which even today are stillperformed by choruses in many cities.So tragedy,bit by bit,grewup out of its predecessors,until it reached its true magnitude.(I.4) Nietzsche,as we know,took these alleged precursor forms very seriously indeed,as it was customary to do in the nineteenth century.10But sixteenth-century readers had different interpretive habits.To begin with this puzzling passage itself,the humanists viewed Aristotle’s references to the phallic verse and the dithyramb as vague,not well motivated,and lacking in explanatory power.Julius Caesar Scaliger,in a treatise published in1561, tried valiantly to imagine what Aristotle could really have meant by saying such a thing:Scaliger’s best guess was that these earlier verse forms had been composed in very short lines of verse(such as ieˆpaian,a dithyrambic line with only four syllables),while the mature comedy and tragedy had10Ju¨rgen Leonhardt,Phalloslied und Dithyrambos.Aristoteles u¨ber den Ursprung des griechischen Dramas(Heidelberg:C.Winter,1991).JOURNAL OF THE HISTORY OF IDEAS✦JULY2011much longer lines of verse.11He thus took a jarringly literal approach to Aristotle’s words‘‘and so the tragedy grew with respect to its predecessors until it reached its present magnitude.’’So,although a few sixteenth-cen-tury scholars did dutifully collect what little was known about the dithy-ramb and the phallic song,as attempts to show at least what Aristotle was referring to,they regarded it very much as an open question how these genres could possibly be relevant.In that case,what did humanist readers see in Aristotle’s cryptic lines about the birth of tragedy?The literary historians focused,quite univer-sally,on the opening part of the passage,where we are told that‘‘at the beginning,tragedy was extemporaneous(autoschediastikeˆ),and so was comedy.’’They saw two implications here.First,that tragedy and comedy were essentially similar;there was no radical difference in their origin and no radical difference in their natures.Secondly,that the real birth of tragedy and comedy should be looked for,so they usually inferred,in the dozens of extemporaneous(or at least unwritten)communal songs that were known to have been sung especially in civic and religious festivals.Scholars with a completist bent,like Julius Caesar Scaliger and Francesco Patrizi,luxuri-ated in the long lists they compiled of abstruse and poorly known song forms like the rhapsody,the threnos,and the hyporchema.In answer to the question about the origins of tragedy and comedy, then,these scholars pointed not to a deﬁnite genealogy but to a kind of poetic primordial soup of extemporaneous performance(often glossed as song),which had given rise simply to‘‘the drama,’’in Latin fabula.Mean-while,that assumption about song in early poetry raised the very large sub-ject of music:did tragedy and comedy incorporate song,in the choruses or perhaps throughout?Both of these orientations were arguably inﬂuenced by Italian drama of the sixteenth century.That drama often failed to corre-spond well with either comedy or tragedy—we might think of Poliziano’s Orfeo,of the plays of Giovanni Battista Giraldi,or indeed of theﬁrst thor-ough-composed opera,Rinuccini’s Dafne.And sixteenth-century entertain-ments often included music,especially in the form of intermedi,which featured allegorical characters,dancing,and dumbshows.So Julius Caesar Scaliger went on to suggest,as an explanation for why Aristotle derived comedy from the phallic song,‘‘I think the phallic song was like a mime (mimus),and the mime most likely resembled comedy because they proba-bly acted parts.’’12The scholar speaking here is surely Scaliger the spectator of courtly entertainments.11Julius Caesar Scaliger,Poetics(1561),357.12Scaliger,Poetics,18.Haugen✦Humanism and Literary HistoryBut there was a further reason,this time a scholarly reason,for the literary historians to posit a similarity between tragedy and comedy and to inquire about the place of music in them.It was already at work in Angelo Poliziano’s lectures on Terence and ancient comedy,delivered in Florence in the1480s.13Poliziano started his introductory lecture with a brief discus-sion of Aristotle on the difference between tragedy and comedy—he read the Poetics in a manuscript that he annotated and that remains in Flor-ence—and he later inserted a translation of Aristotle’s passage about trag-edy and comedy being atﬁrst‘‘extemporaneous’’(extemporalis)and then developing respectively from the dithyramb and phallic song.14But Polizi-ano set those passages of Aristotle into a rich matrix of something different. Speciﬁcally,as we might expect for someone giving lectures on Latin com-edy,Poliziano gave his hearers large sections of the introduction to the comedy attributed to the Roman grammarian Donatus,whose huge com-mentary on Terence had been discovered by Giovanni Aurispa in the1430s.15 Where Aristotle was puzzling and brief,Donatus was clear and pleasingly full of detail.In some respects his doctrines differed from Aristotle’s,but two of his major discussions set the tone for the ways in which contempo-raries would read Aristotle himself.First of all,Donatus was not concerned to differentiate sharply between the comedy and the tragedy,either as a question of historical origins or in their eventual form.He started his dis-cussion with a long section called,simply,De fabula,‘‘On the Drama,’’and he proceeded to expound at gratifying length about early popular songs both in the Greek world and then in the Latin world(showing,in effect, that drama also had a spontaneous birth in Italy).Eventually,of course, Donatus did come to focus on comedy,which was precisely what made his commentary so valuable to begin with,because the part of Aristotle’s Poet-ics dealing with comedy was lost.Donatus was likewise the person who raised the subject of music,in a later part of his essay that Poliziano also appropriated in detail.Speciﬁcally, Donatus undertook to explain the production credits,or tituli,that were 13Angelo Poliziano,La commedia antica e l’Andria di Terenzio,ed.R.L.Roselli(Flor-ence:Sansoni,1973).14For Poliziano’s notes on the Poetics,Peter Godman,From Poliziano to Machiavelli: Florentine Humanism in the High Renaissance(Princeton:Princeton University Press, 1998),59–64.15Aeli Donati commentum Terenti,ed.Paul Wessner,3vols.(Stuttgart:Teubner,1966); see the essays known to early moderns as‘‘De fabula’’(1:13–22)and‘‘De comoedia’’(1: 22–31).On the discovery,Remigio Sabbadini,‘‘Elio Donato‘In Terentium’scoperto nel secolo XV,’’in Sabbadini’s Storia e critica di testi latini,2nd ed.(Padua:Antenore,1971), 159–60.JOURNAL OF THE HISTORY OF IDEAS✦JULY2011found in manuscripts and printed versions of Terence’s plays,containing such notations as‘‘The music was composed[modos fecit]by Flaccus,son of Claudius,for evenﬂutes,left and right.’’16Donatus(and accordingly Poliziano)explained that the‘‘leftﬂutes’’corresponded to a serious subject, the‘‘rightﬂutes’’to humorous subjects,and when both left and rightﬂutes were found in the production credits,this meant that the ensuing drama contained both serious matter and jokes.Here,by the way,was another good reason for Donatus to speak in theﬁrst instance simply about the origin of fabula:he was not concerned to deﬁne the extant genre of comedy in an exclusive way.On the question of precisely what parts of the perform-ance were sung,Donatus was unfortunately vague,but he made it clear that music was a crucial part of the performance.A professional musician, rather than the playwright himself,was responsible for composing the music,and the music remained the same for each performance of the same comedy.The result(and Poliziano repeated this too)was that the audience, simply by hearing the introductory music,could already identify the play even before the prologue was delivered.Finally,seized with a justiﬁable curiosity about just what this singing was,Poliziano did more research and found tantalizing information in the Latin grammarian Diomedes.From Diomedes,Poliziano learned that a performance of Roman comedy was split between spoken dialogue and solo song,both of them necessarily per-formed by the actors,because there was no chorus(Diomedes added that in a Greek comedy,a chorus would also sing).17In an Italian environment that saw frequent musical settings of ancient poetry,for example Horace’s odes,the idea of a sung drama evidently appeared interesting and plausible, at least for the case of ancient Rome.18In short,then,Poliziano’s lecture on Terence from the1480s already contained the whole framework that sixteenth-century readers brought to Aristotle’s Poetics when they read it as literary history.This included a dis-position to think of‘‘the drama’’or fabula,rather than the comedy or the tragedy exclusively;a highly miscellaneous account of the drama’s origin in16‘‘Modos fecit Flaccus Claudiﬁlius tibiis parib.dextris et sinistris.’’(Part of the titulus to Andria,from the Paris1552edition of Terence,p.53.)For Poliziano’s attention to these tituli,see his collation of the Bembine manuscript,in Riccardo Ribuoli,La collazi-one polizianea del codice bembino di Terenzio(Rome:Edizioni di storia e letteratura, 1981),plate1.17Heinrich Keil,ed.,Grammatici latini,7vols.(Leipzig:Teubner,1857–80),1:491.18See J.Riemer,‘‘Zwischen‘gelehrter’und‘freier’Tradition:Horazvertonungen in der fru¨hen Neuzeit,’’in Strenae nataliciae:Neulateinische Studien:Wilhelm Ku¨hlmann zum 60.Geburtstag,ed.H.Wiegand(Heidelberg:Manutius,2006),127–53.Haugen✦Humanism and Literary Historypopular song;and a keen interest in the role of music in ancient perform-ance.It was indeed utterly logical for Poliziano to ventilate these questions in a discussion of the Roman comedy,which was the subject of his major source Donatus.But at the same time,Poliziano’s use of Donatus should probably be seen as an Aristotelian maneuver:it tended to supplement or to reconstruct Aristotle’s scanty surviving words,and this in a context in which Poliziano did not strictly need to mention Aristotle at all.Poliziano’s respect for Aristotle in general was great,as seen through both his attention to individual texts and his personal vision of an all-encompassing,culti-vated,Aristotle-like erudition—even if he did sometimes wrangle violently with Aristotle’s words,as when he attempted to educe the Platonic doctrine of the‘‘poetic frenzy’’(poeticus furor)from Aristotle’s Poetics.19Moreover, Poliziano’s disposition to compare Aristotle with Donatus was characteris-tic of his scholarship in general,although not in the sense that he indiscrimi-nately conﬂated two such different sources:Poliziano recognized well that antiquity contained discrete historical periods,for example when he defended the literature of the Latin Silver Age,in the persons of Statius and Seneca, against charges of decadence.20Rather,Poliziano habitually used texts from one period to illuminate those of another,as when he explicated Aristotle through later Greek and Latin philosophy or,conversely,when he studied the Greek sources of Latin poetry.21This was also the technique of Polizi-ano’s successors in literary history,who consciously compared Aristotle with later sources in an effort to uncover or reconstruct the obscure truth about the Greek tragedy.Given that Donatus’s essays on comedy and on drama were preﬁxed to the comedies of Terence,it should be no surprise that subsequent schol-ars writing about Terence—whose plays became a major growth industry for scholarship and commentary in theﬁrst two thirds of the sixteenth cen-tury—asked the same kinds of questions(although not,of course,because they had read Poliziano’s lectures,which remained in manuscript).Further, to all appearances,these literary-historical discussions around the well-known Terence were responsible for setting the fundamental tone,and set-ting some of the basic questions,when contemporaries began to write the literary history of Greek tragedy.They undertook that project not merely in discursive treatises like J.C.Scaliger’s or Francesco Patrizi’s,but also,19Godman,From Poliziano to Machiavelli,18–19,60–64.20Godman,From Poliziano to Machiavelli,40–45.I owe this point to an anonymous reader for the JHI.21Godman,From Poliziano to Machiavelli,60,87,98;Grafton,Joseph Scaliger,1:32–37.JOURNAL OF THE HISTORY OF IDEAS✦JULY2011 crucially,in the form of commentaries on Aristotle’s Poetics.In comment-ing on the historical parts of the Poetics,roughly sections2through4,theyregularly ampliﬁed Aristotle’s list of precursor poetic forms into a greatlength.They worried over the names and dates of early tragedians not men-tioned by Aristotle(such as Phrynichus and Thespis).They actively pursued the view—which gained support from Aristotle read in a certain way—that the origins of comedy and tragedy were alike.And,most tellingly,they all felt the need to guess what place music might have had in the performance of the Greek tragedy.But this was a subject on which Aristotle’s Poetics was conspicuously silent.Although Aristotle mentioned that‘‘rhythm,har-mony and melody[melos]’’formed parts of the performance,he gave abso-lutely no grounds for deciding what those parts had been.22That contemporaries went looking for other Greek sources to decide the question of music with respect to the Greek tragedy seems eminently likely to be the result of their familiarity with the debates on Terence and the Roman com-edy.Indeed,they very often used parts of the actual preface to Terence by Donatus,with citation or without.We,of course,continuing to operate by the standards of the nineteenth century,probably tend to view this proce-dure as shocking;but the sixteenth-century scholars were quite willing to import questions and import hypotheses from one department of antiquity to another.They hoped that the literary history of Rome might shed light on that of Greece,and vice versa.Here there is room to discuss only the interventions of genuinely histor-ical scholars,who also happen to be the only commentators who said any-thing of interest about the birth of tragedy:thus,writers such as GiorgioValla,Vincenzo Maggi and Bartolomeo Lombardi,Alessandro Piccolomini,and Antonio Riccoboni can justiﬁably be omitted.23These discussions ofliterary history always unfolded inside of treatises or commentaries thatconcerned themselves with the rest of the Poetics as well,that is,insidediscussions of an aesthetic and prescriptive nature:historical study couldthus coexist with the aggressive drawing of literary lessons meant to beapplied to the sixteenth century itself.Historical study coexisted also,sometimes uneasily,with literary theory and with textual criticism.And we 22Aristotle,Poetics(De arte poetica liber),ed.Rudolf Kassel(Oxford:Clarendon Press, 1965),1449b.23See Giorgio Valla,‘‘De poetica,’’in his De expetendis et fugientibus rebus(Venice, 1501);Vincenzo Maggi and Bartolomeo Lombardi,In Aristotelis librum de poetica (1550;repr.,Munich:W.Fink,1969);A.Piccolomini,Annotationi...nel libro della Poetica d’Aristotele(Venice,1575);A.Riccoboni,Poetica tine conversa (1587;repr.,Munich:W.Fink,1970).will witness the wide range of approaches to Aristotle that recent scholar-ship has taught us to expect—always,however,within a method that involved comparing the philosopher with other historical sources.Francesco Robortello’s1548commentary on the Poetics was theﬁrst full-scale discussion of that text in the sixteenth century.24His discussion was highly focused on detail and relatively little interested in a broad con-ceptual historiography of the drama.Robortello did,however,endorse something like a primordial-soup theory of dramatic origins,and he did this with fairly little warrant from Aristotle’s text.Robortello began by castigating the standard Latin translation of Aristotle’s key passage,by Alessandro Pazzi,arguing that Pazzi had completely obscured the sponta-neous character of poetry in the earliest times.25As Pazzi rendered it,Aris-totle said that‘‘at the beginning,both tragedy and comedy were crude and somewhat shapeless[rudes...planeque informes],’’but Robortello viewed that translation as shirking the truth.He explained,‘‘The words really mean,‘at the beginning they were extemporaneous.’’’In other words, Robortello inferred that tragedy and comedy had really existed at the ori-gins in an extemporaneous form,and one of his conclusions was that trag-edy was in fact older than dithyrambic song,which he accordingly turned from one of the precursors of tragedy into one of the inﬂuences on its ado-lescence.26And Robortello extended his story to poetry at large,arguing that all poetry had begun as short extemporaneous performances that treated a single,small subject:he offered the bucolic eclogue as an exam-ple.27Finally,as Robortello considered the place of music in tragic perform-ance,he not only asserted that only the chorus had sung part of their role; for help in glossing Aristotle’s term melos,he speciﬁcally cited Donatus for the information that some part of the tragedy was delivered in song,canti-cum(‘‘so Donatus directs us to call it in comedies’’).28Not every part of Robortello’s accountﬁt together perfectly;both 24Francesco Robortello,In librum Aristotelis de arte poetica explicationes(1548;repr., Munich:W.Fink,1968).On Robortello’s doctrine in general,see Weinberg,‘‘Robortello on the Poetics.’’25Alessandro Pazzi(Paccius),tr.,Aristotelis Poetica(Venice,1536).Pazzi is not to be confused with Giulio Pace(Pacius),who commented on the complete works of Aristotle in the late sixteenth century.26Robortello,Explicationes,39,40.27Robortello,Explicationes,42–43.28Robortello,Explicationes,124,55;see Aristotle,Poetics1449b.Weinberg’s assertion that Robortello‘‘disdain[ed]...the current notion of tragedy and comedy stemming from Donatus and Diomedes’’(‘‘Robortello on the Poetics,’’320)is cryptic and mani-festly does not refer to this subject.。

2021届江苏省常州市金沙高级中学高三下学期限时训练(一)英语试题(解析版)

江苏省常州市金沙高级中学2021届高三下学期限时训练（一）英语试题第一部分：阅读理解（共两节，满分30分）第一节（共7个小题：每小题2.5分，满分17.5分）AWhat do the random, scribbled(潦草的)drawings crowding the margins(页边空白)of most high school students’ papers mean? When a student is caught doodling(乱画)in class, he will probably be criticized for daydreaming. But doodling while listening can help with remembering details, rather than implying that the mind is wandering, according to a study published in the scientific journal Applied Cognitive Psychology.In an experiment conducted by the Medical Research Council’s Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit in Cambridge,40 subjects were asked to listen to a two-minute tape giving several names of people and places. Half of the participants were asked to shade in shapes on a piece of paper at the same time, without paying attention to neatness, while the rest were given no such instructions. After the tape had finished, all participants in the study were asked to recall the names of people and places. The doodlers recalled on average 7.5 names of people and places, compared to only 5.8 by the non-doodlers.“If someone is doing a boring task, like listening to a dull telephone conversation, they may start to daydream.” said study researcher, Professor Jackie Andrade, of the School of P sychology, University of Plymouth. “Daydreaming distracts them from the task, resulting in poorer performance. A simple task, like doodling, may be enough to stop daydreaming without affecting performance on the main task.”“In psychology, tests of memory or attention will often use a second task to selectively block a particular mental process. If that process is important for the main task, then performance will be weakened. But my research suggests that in everyday life doodling may be something we do because it helps to keep us on track with a boring task, rather than being an unnecessary distraction(分心)that we should try to resist doing.” said Andrade.Dan Ware, a social study teacher, used to consider doodling a distraction from learning, butafter teaching kids with all personality types he learned scribbling away during lectures helps certain students remember more information. “In my first few years of teaching, I thought, ‘Well, this kid isn’t paying attention. He’s daydreaming.’ But I had some real ly powerful experiences with students and came to understand in many cases that was their way of focusing, and those students were probably paying more attention than other students.” Ware said.1. What do we know about the participants involved in the experiment?A. Some were asked to note down the information neatly.B. Some were asked to memorize the names they would hear.C. Some were instructed to listen to the tape with full attention.D. Some were instructed to make random drawings on paper.2. Which of the following will both Jackie Andrade and Dan Ware agree with?A. Doodling helps some people focus.B. Doodling makes a dull task interesting.C. Students who doodle perform poorly.D. Students who doodle lack concentration.3. What is the best title of the text?A. Daydreaming Can Sharpen Study SkillsB. Doodling Can Help Memory RecallC. A Wandering Mind Improves ProductivityD. Distractions Harm Academic PerformanceBShyness is the cause of much unhappiness for a great many people. Shy people are anxious and self-conscious; that is, they are concerned about their own appearance and actions too much. Negative thoughts are constantly occurring in their minds: What kind of impression am I making? Do they like me? Do I sound stupid? Am I wearing unattractive clothes?It is obvious that such uncomfortable feelings must affect people unfavorably. A person’s self-concept is reflected in the way he or she behaves and the way a person behaves affects other people’s reactions. In general, the way p eople think about themselves has a deep effect on all areas of their lives.Shy people, who have low respect, are likely to be passive and easily influenced by others. They need faith that they are doing ＂the right thing＂. Shy people are very sensitive to criticism. It makes them feel inferior(自卑). They also find it difficult to be pleased by praises because they believe they are unworthy of praise. A shy person may respond to a praise with a statement like this one: ＂You’re just saying that to make me feel good. I know it’s not true.＂It is clear that,. while self-awareness is a healthy quality, overdoing it is harmful.Can shyness be completely got rid of, or at least reduced? Fortunately, people can overcomeshyness with determination since shyness goes hand in hand with lack of self-respect. It isimportant for people to accept their weaknesses as well as their strengths. Each one of us has hisor her own characteristics. We are interested in our own personal ways. The better we understandourselves, the easier it becomes to live up to our chances for a rich and successful life.4. The first paragraph is mainly about ____________.A. the cause of shynessB. the effect of shyness on peopleC. the feelings of shy peopleD. the questions in the minds of shy people5. According to the writer, self-awareness is ____________.A. harmful to peopleB. a weak point of peopleC. the cause of unhappinessD. a good characteristic6. What is the shy people’s reaction to praise?A. They are pleased by it. B They feel it is not true.C. They are very sensitive to it.D. They feel they are worthy of it.7. We can learn from the passage that shyness ____________.A. blocks our chances for a successful lifeB. helps us to live up to our full developmentC. enables us to understand ourselves betterD. has nothing to do with lack of self-respect第二节（共5小题，每小题2.5分，满分12.5分）根据短文内容，从短文后的选项中选出能填入空白处的最佳选项，选项中有两项为多余选项。

版权法上公共领域的概念

第17卷　总第101期3本文为笔者主持的国家社科基金项目“著作权的宪法维度”[批号为07CFX037]的部分研究成果。

33李雨峰,法学博士,西南政法大学教授,牛津大学访问学者。

1Jessica L it m an,W ar and Peace,53Journal of the Copyright Society of U.S 101-121(2006).2I d,at 103.3参见李雨峰:《版权扩张:一种合法性的反思》,《现代法学》,2001年第5期;冯晓青:《版权扩张及其缘由透视》,《政法论坛》,2006年第6期。

英文资料参见NeilW einst ock Netanel,Copyright and De mocratic Civil Society,106Yale La w Journal 292-305(1996).4有关资料可参见美国因1998年通过《索尼・伯尼版权期限延长法》而引发的争论,特别是Eldred v .A shcr oft,available at <htt p://www .sup re mecourtus .gov/op ini ons/02pdf/01-618.pdf >5See Peter K .Yu,The Escalating CopyrightW ars,32Hofstra Law Revie w 907-951(2004).6David N i m mer,The End of Copyright,48Vanderbilt La w Revie w 1420(1995).7近年有关公共领域研究的重要文献包括:Jane C .Ginsburg,“Une Chose Publique ”?The author ’s Domain and the Public Domain in Early B ritish,French and US CopyrightLa w,65The Ca mbridge Law Journal 636-670(2006;.Ja mesBoyle (ed .),Public Domain:Collected Papers,in 66La w and Contemporary Pr oble m s 1-483(W inter/Sp ring 2003);P .Bernt Hugenholtz and Lucie Guibault (eds .),The future of the public domain:identifying the commons in infor mati on la w,Kluwer La w I nternati onal,2006;Tyler T .Ochoa,O rigins and meanings of Public Domain,28U.Dayt on La w Review 215(2002);Yochai Benkler,Free as the A ir t o Common U se,74N.Y .U Law Revie w 361-362(1999);Anupam Chander and Madviha Sunder,The Romance of Public Domain,92California La w Revie w 1331(2004).中文资料参见冯晓青:《知识产权法的公共领域理论》,《知识产权》,2007年第3期;李雨峰:《版权、市民社会与国家》,《知识产权》,2006年第3期。

剑桥期刊在线说明书

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现代大学英语精读3第一单元知识点归纳

Unit1I.Word Studyaffection n.a gentle feeling of love and caringExamples: Every mother has/feels affection toward her children.He is held in great affection.affectionate a. He looks at her with affectionate looks.cf: affectation n.矫饰affirm v.to declare (usually again) positively; strengthen beliefs, ideas, or feelings Examples: affirm one’s judgment/innocence affirm sth. to sb.affirm that it is trueaffirmative a. affirmative reply/nod/reactionapply She is applying for a scholarship. Ointment ['ɔɪntmənt] n. 软膏, 油膏We should apply what we have learned to practice. a/the fly in the ointmentNot all natural laws can apply to human society. 扫兴的人；煞风景的事物Apply some of this ointment to the swollen part, and the pain will soon be gone.Capability n. the natural ability, skill, or power that makes you able to do sth. Examples: He has the capabilities of solving/to solve practical problems.It’s quite above his capabilities.ability :the power to do sth. well acquired naturally or by learningcapacity :ability to hold, contain, or learnfaculty: a special abilityHe has the ability to do the work, but he’s too lazy and won’t do it.The book is within the reading capacity of young readers.The auditorium has a seating capacity of 300 people.He has a faculty for painting.Contribute v. a. to join with others in giving help, money, etc.b. to help to cause or produceExamples: contribute food and clothing for the refugees contribute to the Red Cross Exercises contribute to one’s health. Drinking contributed to his ruin.distribute v. to give things to a large number of people; spread sth. over an area Examples: distribute pictures among children distribute magazines to subscribers distribute manure over a field (manure [mə'nʊə, -'njʊə] n. 肥料;粪便)counsel v. (fml.) to advise n. advice; opinion; suggestion counselor n. adviser; lawyer Examples: counsel care in the forthcoming negotiationHe counseled them giving up/to give up the plan.Distinct a. clearly different or belonging to a different type b. easily seen, understood; plain Examples: Silk is distinct from rayon. They are similar in form but distinct in kind.There is a distinct improvement in his pronunciation rayon['reɪɔn].He is at a distinct a dvantage in the competition n. 人造丝;人造纤维丝n. distinction ad. Distinctlydistinctive a. serving to mark a difference or make distinctExample: Soldiers wear a distinctive uniform.endeavore v. (fml.) to try very hard n. (fml.) effort; attemptExamples: He endeavoreo calm himself down but in vain.His endeavors to persuade her to go with him failed.endowment n. a. a quality or ability that someone has naturallyb. money, property, etc. given to provide an incomeExamples: They are men of great endowments.The Oxford and Cambridge colleges have numerous endowments.endow. a. to possess naturally, be born with b. to give a college, hospital, etc. a large sum of money that will provide it with an incomeExamples: She i s endowed with both beauty and brains.That hospital is privately endowed.Ethical a.connected with principles of what is right and what is wrongExamples: an ethical principle\an ethical basis for educationethnic a. a. of race or the races of mankind b. (colloq.) of a particular cultural group Examples: ethnic clothes/food/music/restaurantsExcessive a. much more than is reasonable or ecessaryExamples: excessive rainfall excessive chargesexcess n. an excess of enthusiasm.That is a city with a population in excess of two million.handle v. a. to touch, lift or turn with the hands b. to operate with the handsc. to manage, control or cope withd. to buy and sellExamples: This box contains delicate china. Please handle with care.This computer is easy to handle. This shop does not handle imported goods.We have to handle the relationship between our two countries carefully.Inherit v. to receive (genetic characters) from one’s parentsExamples: inherit money/estate/title(头衔)She inherited her mother’s good looks and her father’s bad temper.n. inheritance继承遗留物继承权n. heritage（非物质文化）遗产,传统interpret a. to make clear the meaning of (either in words or by artistic performance)b. to consider to be the meaning ofc. to give an immediate oral translation of Examples: interpret a difficult passage in a book We interpreted his silence as a refusal.Will you interpret fo r the foreign visitors?n. interpreter口译工作者;口译译员n. interpretation解释, 说明; 诠释；表演; 演奏inhibition n. (psych.) a feeling of worry or embarrassment that stops you doing or saying what you really want toExample: Wine weakens a person’s inhibitions.inhibit v. to hinder; to restrain inhibit sb. from doing sth.involve v. a. to include as a necessary part or result b. to affectExamples: All reforms involv e certain tasks. He was deeply involved in the scandal The building of the dam involved relocating almost one million people.You have to involve every country in the fight against global warming.a. involved n. involvementobserve v. a. to see or notice; watch carefully b. to say by way of comment c.遵守Examples: The accused was observed trying to force the lock of the door.Some scientists observed that global warming is not necessarily related to human activities. n. observation a. observant善于观察的;观察力敏锐的；严守教规的occur v. a. to happen b. to come into one’s mind suddenly n. occurrence Examples: Over the years many floods have occurred in that area.It occurred to him that there was a better way to do it.I guess it never occurred to him to put aside some money for a rainy day.perceive v. (fml.) to become aware of, esp. throughthe eyes or the mindExamples: Musicians can perceive small differences in sounds.He gradually perceived that language and culture can’t be separated.a. perceptive洞察力强的adv. perceptively n. perceptiveness洞察力强;敏锐;理解力a. perceptible可感觉〔感受〕到的,可理解的,可认识的n. perceptionproject v. a. to plan\b. to cause a shadow, an outline, etc. on a surface\c. to present sb./sth./yourself to other people in a particular way, esp. one that gives a good impression Examples: project a dam/a new canal project a picture on a screenproject the future roles as men or womenshrink v. a. to make or become smaller, esp. through wettingb. to move back; show unwillingness to do sth.Examples: Will this shirt shrink in the wash?\ Car sales have been shrinking recently.A shy man shrinks from meeting strangers.contract v. to make or become smaller or shorter; make or become tighter or narrower Examples: Metals contract as they become cool. (n.合同v.订合同，染上) contract one’s muscles/the brows(眉)/foreheadII.Phrases and Expressionsbe equal to v.to be just as good as; have strength, courage,ability etc. for sth. Examples: Many of our products are equal to the best in the world.It is ridiculous to think one race is not equal to another because it has a different skin color. He is equal to doing this task.dawn on/upon v.to begin to appear; grow clear to the mind Cf:It occurs to sb. that…Examples: The truth began to dawn on him. \It suddenly dawned on me that there was another thing that contributed to their economic success.drag one’s feet v.(figurative usage) to delay deliberatelyExamples:The local authorities are dragging their feet closing these coal mines.I can understand why they are dragging their feet over this reform. The reason is that it will affect their personal interests.for certain ad.certainly; definitely; no doubtExamples: He is probably an accountant. I don’t know for certain.I can’t say for certain how much this car will cost. It must be in the neighborhood of twohundred thousand yuan.freedom/free from no longer having sth. you do not wantfreedom from taxation freedom of press/speechExamples: The most important freedom our people should have is the freedom from hunger.An ideal society is one free from exploitation and oppressionWe look forward to a world founded upon essential human freedoms. The first is freedom of speech and expression—everywhere in the world. The second is freedom of every person to worship God in his own way—everywhere in the world. The third is freedom from want… everywhere in the world. The fourth is freedom from fear… anywhere in the world. “—Franklin D. Roosevelt go through1) to be passed or approved The Bill did not go through.2) to be concluded The deal did not go through.3) to discuss in detail Let’s go through the arguments again.4) to search The police went through the pockets of the suspected thief.5) to complete Let’s go through the exercises.6) to undergo; suffer He seemed to have forgotten all that he had gone through.7) to consume; use up It did not take Albert very long to go through his inheritance.8) to continue firmly to the end Knowing full well the difficulties the work involved, theywere still determined to go through with it.pull through1)to make sth. or sb. through by pullingThe eye of the needle is too small and I can’t pull the thread through.2) to survive a difficult or dangerous situationThat newly liberated country is going to have a rough time, but it will pull through.3) to recover or help to recover from illnessHe was badly injured in the accident, but the doctors made every effort to pull him through. in turnThe candidates were summoned in turn to see the examiner.Theory is based on practice and in turn serves practice.in/with relation to as regards; concerningExamples: I have a lot to say in relation to that affair.The project was outlined with relation to available funds.in a different light in a different wayExamples: After I took that course, I began to see the world in a different light.What he did made us see him in a different light.in the light of after considering (sth.)He decided to make further improvements on the computer’s design in the light of the requirements of customers.shed/throw a new light on to make sth. clearer; provide new information These facts shed a new light on the matter.independent from/of not dependent on or controlled by other persons or things Examples: If you have a car, you are independent from/of trains and buses.That’s an objective law independent from/of man’s will.Cf: Promotion is dependent on/upon one’s record of success.stand back1) to stand to the rear The child stood back at the sight of the ferocious dog.2) to distance oneself mentally in order to understand or judge better Sometimes an administrator must stand back from day-to-day business to grasp the wider pattern of events.3) to withdraw or retreat from making discussions, influencing events, etc.She ran the family and her husband stood back.III.Word BuildingIV. From the textDevelopmental changes Move from adolescence to young adulthood Identity crises Genetic endowment Chance event Later adolescent stage Pursue a college education Enter the work world Handle finances Determine one ’s daily agenda Select the major that they want to pursue Parental approval Establish one ’s sexual identity Relate to the opposite sex Have a romantic relationship with Bounce into my officeExcitement in one ’s voiceDrag one ’s feetGive and receive affectionShow proper respect forRebel againstPut into a dormAffirm personal valuesAcademic lifeA growing experienceThe knowledge presented to sb.New ways of interpreting lifeInternational studentsTelevision newscastIn a different lightPersonal growth and expansionAcquire new ways of assembling and processing informationMy world is expanding and new options are opening for me ,but my father, who was in his sixty, was seeing his world shrink and his options narrow.Be appointed to an important governmental positionEvaluate new ways of gather process and apply knowledge in one ’s lifeFour distinct aspects to psychological separation from parentsDefine one ’s sexual identity in a feminine/muscular roleDevelop new ways to organize and use knowledgePeople from a variety of ethnic backgroundsBecome financially independent from parentsGrow and learn new skills that take years to develop。

产业集群常用英文文献

Beckmann M J.Spatial Equilibrium in the Dispersed City.In:Y Y Papageorgiou. Mathematical Land Use Theory.MA: Lexington Books,1976, 17-125Bergemann D. & U. Hege. The Financing of Innovation:Learning and Slipping [J].The Rand Joumal of Economicy,2005, 36(4):779-752.Breig H. Banking Landing and Corporate Finance in Major Industrial Countries: Are France and Germany really Similar. Working Paper. Albert Ludwig University.1994Brennan M. J, Miksimovic V. and Zechner J.Vendor Financing. The Journal of Finance.1988,43:1127-1141Briek L. E. & Fung W. K. H, 1984, Taxes and Theory of Trade Debt, The Journal of Finance, 1984,39(4),pp:1169-1176.Brown A. R. R.On Social Structure. The Joural of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland.1940,70(1):1-12Carlos Quandt.Identifying Linkages with a Cluster-based Methodology[J].Economic Systems Research.2002,14(2)Claessens S & K. 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Suppliers’ Associations in the Japanese Automobile Industry: Collective Action for Technology DiffusionDr. Mari SakoIndustrial Relations DepartmentLondon School of Economics and Political ScienceHoughton Street, London WC2A 2AE, UKTel. 071 955 7037Fax. 071 955 7424August 1995Forthcoming in the Cambridge Journal of EconomicsRUNNING HEADS: Suppliers’ associationsSuppliers’ Associations in the Japanese Automobile Industry:Collective Action for Technology DiffusionABSTRACTThis paper analyzes the structure and functions of suppliers’ associations (kyoryokukai) in the automobile industry in Japan. The bilateral assembler-supplier relationship has received much attention recently as a source of Japanese industrial competitiveness. However, this paper argues that the hitherto neglected area of inter-supplier coordination in technology diffusion is at least as important as the bilateral assembler-supplier relationship in accounting for the overall performance of the Japanese automotive industry. On the basis of company visits and a large-scale survey of first-tier suppliers conducted by the author, the paper analyzes the reasons why suppliers’associations were established, why they continue to exist today, and their effects on economic performance.Journal of Economic Literature Classification: L14, L22, L23, L62, N65, O32IntroductionThe Japanese economy is often described as a ‘network economy’, with some distinctions made between enterprise groups and networks (Imai 1994), or between inter-market and vertical keiretsu (Gerlach 1992). A decade ago, when Italian industrial districts were rediscovered as a source of innovation and local economic regeneration (Piore and Sabel 1984), scholars looked for equivalents in Japan. The same principles underlying flexible specialisation were found to be operating in large decentralised multinational firms (Sabel 1989) as in an engineering district of Sakaki (Friedman 1988) (which incidentally is just one of the 549 industrial districts in Japan) (SMEA 1989, p.117).The suppliers’ association (known generically as kyoryokukai ), the focus of this paper, is a highly relevant type of network in this context. Such associations exist at all eleven Japanese vehicle manufacturers except Honda. In addition, over 300 primary parts suppliers, many of which are members of vehicle manufacturers’ associations, have their own associations of suppliers (Dodwell 1986, as cited in Smitka 1991). The suppliers’ association is therefore an institution with a significant presence in the Japanese automotive industry.Despite this, suppliers’ associations, their origins and their raison d’etre have been relatively understudied in recent years because the main paradigm for analyzing the leading sector of the Japanese economy does not allow for a network-like analysis. Traditionally, the suppliers’association featured in scholarly inquiries among Japanese Marxist economists as a tangible institution for large firms (monopoly capital) to exercise unilateral control over their smaller subcontracting firms. More recently, however, the Marxist paradigm has been superseded by transaction cost economics and game theory which conceives transactions as decomposable into bilateral contracts (Grossman and Hart 1986, Williamson 1985). In this framework, Japanese car1industry has a competitive edge because the assembler has forged a long-term and recurrent relationship with each of its core suppliers. The stability of the assembler-supplier relationship enables the supplier to contribute to design and development, to make investments and to accumulate know-how which may be useful only to that relationship. Such ‘relationship-specific skills’ (Asanuma 1989) are a major source of superior performance. This analysis of the bilateral relationship has tended to underestimate the significance of horizontal coordination among suppliers. Inter-supplier rivalry is certainly promoted by some Japanese assemblers’ practice of making public the ranking of their core suppliers according to performance (see Wada 1991, p.9 for Toyota). Relative ranking creates an incentive to engage in continuous improvement (Aoki 1988). But this technique of managing the supply chain can be implemented without a suppliers’association.The above paradigm may, in part, account for a view that the suppliers’ association is a redundant institution whose existence has far surpassed its utility. Until the 1970s, most assemblers were engaged in disseminating technical and organisational practices such as total quality control (TQC), value analysis or engineering (VA.VE), and Just-in-Time (JIT). The suppliers’ association was a convenient forum for providing technical assistance en masse, while minimizing the spill-over of benefits from such assistance to competing assemblers. There were, therefore, significant ‘association-specific rents’ as well as bilateral relationship-specific rents. However, with slower and less assured growth in the 1970s and 1980s, more suppliers started to diversify their risk by trading with several assemblers. Assemblers began to undertake less top-down technical assistance as benefits from association activities could no longer be made exclusive to one assembler, and more technologically capable suppliers emerged over time. According to this view, suppliers’ associations continue to exist out of inertia. They are more like social clubs, and do not contribute much to the overall efficiency of the Japanese automobile industry today.2A view which goes beyond asserting the declining utility of suppliers’ associations is based on the Adam Smithian notion of businessmen’s conspiracy against the public interest. This was most recently expressed during the US-Japan Structural Impediments Initiative (SII) discussions. Here, the suppliers’ association was cited, along with horizontal enterprise groups, as keiretsu, a group of firms like a cartel which exists to protect its monopoly profit by excluding outsiders. According to this view, the suppliers’ association constitutes an unfair trading barrier which ought to be dismantled. Such criticism led Nissan, in 1991, to merge its two associations (Takarakai and Hoshokai) into one (Nisshokai), to which non-Japanese suppliers are increasingly admitted. Also, most of the Japanese assemblers have endeavoured to make the criteria for becoming association members more explicit and transparent than in the past. But the Japanese government’s response, and its official line spelt out in recent Economic White Papers (EPA 1990, p.196ff; EPA 1992, p.276ff), have been in terms of the bilateral relationship paradigm only. They have thus far failed to investigate whether the suppliers’ association itself has any significant economic impact or not.From the above, it is clear that a study of suppliers’ associations is needed in order to clarify how they function and what their effects are. This is in anticipation of an increased interest in suppliers’ associations from the following angles. First, keiretsu critics would wish to know: are the associations indeed exclusionary with strict boundaries, and ought to be dismantled? Second, as more non-Japanese firms are admitted into suppliers’ association in Japan, potential overseas suppliers would need to have a good understanding of what association membership entails.1 Third, is the suppliers’ association a method of managing suppliers which would work only in Japan (as Womack et al (1990) seem to imply)? Alternatively, is it an organisational form worthy of emulation by Japanese and non-Japanese assemblers located in North America2 and Europe?3 Or is it a historical anachronism which would eventually wither away with the globalization of the car industry?3The evidence presented in this paper does not support the prevailing views in the literature spelt out above. It is shown (a) that contrary to the bilateral contracting view, suppliers value mutual learning from other suppliers just as much as learning from their assembler-customer; (b) that the majority of first-tier suppliers do not consider suppliers’ associations to be of less use now than in the past; and (c) that association members have lower pre-tax profitability than non-members, a piece of evidence which undermines the view of the association as a cartel-like entity. The empirical analysis will be based on data collected by the author through (i) company visits and interviews of purchasing departments and suppliers’ association offices of all Japanese assemblers and some first-tier suppliers in 1992 and 1993, and (ii) a large-scale survey of first-tier suppliers conducted by the author in July 1993.This paper is structured as follows. The first section provides an overview of the membership structure, growth and turnover. This is followed by a brief account of the historical development in Section 2. Section 3 examines the contemporary functions of the suppliers’association and their effects.1. Suppliers’ Association as a Japanese Business NetworkConsiderable variations exist from association to association in its characteristics. First, as shown in Table 1, the number of member suppliers per assembler varied from as few as 97 at Suzuki to 362 at Mitsubishi Motors. But relative to assemblers’ production levels, Toyota has a concentrated membership (17,839 vehicles produced per annum per member supplier) while smaller assemblers have dispersed membership (only 379 vehicles per member supplier in the case4of Hino). A relatively large assembler, Mitsubishi Motors, also has a dispersed membership, with 3883 vehicles produced per member supplier.* SEE TABLE 1 *Perhaps the most significant reason for the varying degree of concentration or dispersion of membership lies in the location of assemblers’ plants. At one extreme, Toyota had, until very recently, located all of its plants in and around Toyota City, where a majority of its suppliers are also located. Toyota plants in the same locality have shared their supplier base. At the other extreme, Mitsubishi Motors have plants which are geographically dispersed, in Tokyo, Nagoya, Kyoto and Mizushima. Each developed its own local supplier network. Even after the four plants were incorporated into the newly independent Mitsubishi Motor Corporation in 1970, the scope for consolidating the supplier base was limited. This limitation was aggravated by Mitsubishi’s wide product variety, ranging from large trucks and buses to small passenger cars.Automotive suppliers may be broadly classified into three categories: parts suppliers, raw materials suppliers, and suppliers of equipment and tools. Most assemblers have an association exclusively for parts suppliers, while some assemblers have separate associations for different types of suppliers. This paper concentrates on the associations of parts suppliers as they are numerically the most significant. In general, association members take up a large proportion --around 80 or 90 per cent -- of each assembler’s expenditure on purchasing parts (see Table 2). However, the degree to which the association is encompassing varies from assembler to assembler. The most encompassing was Kyohokai, whose 183 members, out of a total of 350 parts suppliers, accounted for nearly all (98 per cent) of Toyota’s total purchasing expenditure on parts. At the other extreme was Suzuki’s association whose 105 members accounted for only 31 per cent of the total spending on parts.5* SEE TABLE 2*Next, suppliers’ associations are by no means congruent with the keiretsu group, which may be defined as a self-defined business community bound by virtue of having overlapping and multiplex ties in shareholding, personnel and trading (Gerlach 1992).For instance, in the case of Toyota’s Kyohokai association, members may be classified broadly into three categories. First, there are 10 member companies which Toyota itself defines as part of the so-called Toyota Group (for example, Nippondenso, Toyota Auto Body and Aisin Seiki). The Group firms are linked through a complex reciprocal shareholding pattern, with around a quarter of the Group firms’ total shares being held within the Group. Besides the 10 Group companies, there are 25 Kyohokai members whose largest shareholder is Toyota Motors. Thus, around a fifth of the total 183 Kyohokai members are part of the core vertical keiretsu group.Second, there are around 40 locally based sub-contractors which tend to be independent in shareholding and personnel aspects, but are heavily dependent on orders placed by Toyota (Ueda 1989, p.15-6). Their businesses are mainly in mechanical engineering such as metal pressing, casting and forging. They have a long history of trading with Toyota, from which they have received technical and managerial assistance. If unions are recognised at these firms, they tend to belong to the All Toyota Federation of Enterprise Unions. These links, both managerial and labour, may warrant grouping these firms as part of the Toyota keiretsu group.But this leaves us with just over a half of Kyohokai members in the third category, consisting of mainly medium-sized independent firms which do not owe allegiance to any particular assembler for their origin and growth (such as Akebono Brake), and some large6corporations (such as Toshiba and Dunlop Japan). These so-called independents constitute a non-negligible proportion of the other assemblers’ association membership. Some assemblers’association members are easily categorizable into relatively dependent sub-contractors and larger independent suppliers. For example, Nissan, before the 1991 reorganisation of its association, had made the clearest distinction by having two separate organisations. Takarakai with 104 members in 1990 was for smaller suppliers who tended to be heavily dependent on Nissan’s business, and Shohokai with 70 members was for larger independent suppliers.Once it is established that suppliers’ association membership emcompasses groupings which are broader than keiretsu groupings, it is perhaps not surprising to discover significant overlaps in membership. Even arch rivals, Toyota and Nissan, shared 44 suppliers in their respective associations in 1985 (Ueda 1989, p.11). Moreover, this is not just a recent phenomenon, as 32 suppliers belonged to both Toyota’s association and one of Nissan’s associations as early as in 1967 (Miwa 1990). In 1992, there were 191 members of Nissan’s Nisshokai, of which 55 were also members of Toyota’s Kyohokai (the author’s calculation based on Auto Trade Journal and JAPIA 1992). These companies were predominantly manufacturers of tires and rubber parts, glass, paint, batteries, electronic parts, bearings and brake systems. By contrast, suppliers which have remained members of a single association tended to be locally based single-establishment companies in mechanical engineering.Over time, there has been a growth in multiple membership of suppliers’ associations. In particular, the number of parts suppliers which participated in five or more suppliers’ associations increased from 67 in 1980, to 81 in 1985 and 93 in 1990 (See Table 3). Of the 93 in 1990, 21 firms were members of eight major associations (i.e. Toyota, Nissan, Mitsubishi, Mazda, Isuzu, Fuji, Daihatsu, Hino) and were also main suppliers to Honda. These companies employ around 3500 workers on average, and produce brake systems, bearings, springs, spark plugs, tires,7belting, and batteries. They tend to play a leading role in association activities, by taking on chairmanship and executive positions in association committees and meetings. Thus, instead of regarding the automotive industry as consisting of eleven overlapping keiretsu groups each headed by an assembler, the industry may be better characterized as a network with the 20 or so core primary suppliers transmitting information from one association to another. Assemblers with a relatively new suppliers’ association, such as Mazda, have learnt the know-how in running the association from these core suppliers, rather than from competitor assemblers.* SEE TABLE 3*Why has multiple membership of suppliers’ association increased over time? Possible candidates for major causes of multiple membership are: (a) slower growth after the 1973 oil crisis which led assemblers to insist less on exclusive supply, (b) the electronification of the automotive technology which led assemblers to source from non-traditional sources (Ikeda 1989) and from sources possessing technological expertise which the assembler had little hope of being able to match in the short run, and (c) the globalisation of the Japanese automotive industry, and especially foreign direct investment by Japanese assemblers which sought new sources of parts supply. For example, in 1989, Nissan started purchasing electric fuel pumps from Nippondenso for use at Nissan Motor Manufacturing Co. in the USA (Nikkei Shinbun 4 September 1990). In 1990, Tachi-S, a Nissan affiliated seat manufacturer, obtained an order for Toyota’s new compact car model (Nikkei Shinbun 15 January 1990). Similarly, Hitachi, a Nissan supplier, started trading with Toyota (Nikkei Shinbun 9 Feburary 1993), while Zexel whose major business has been with Nissan and Isuzu also started supplying Toyota. But neither Hitachi nor Zexel nor Tachi-S are members of Toyota’s Kyohokai. Nor is Nippondenso a member of Nissan’s Nisshokai. Trading embodying strategic technology is evidently possible without an association membership.8The trend towards overlapping membership was accompanied by an increase in the total number of members over time. Such increases were conspicuous at smaller manufacturers such as Mazda, Fuji and Isuzu, which tried to tap into the more competitive supplier network of Toyota and Nissan.Small changes in the total number of association members, of course, do not preclude high turnover, with new entrants replacing those that exit (see Table 4). In the 1970s, Nissan’s associations had the lowest turnover, but by the 1980s, Toyota’s association emerged as the one with the lowest rates of quits and entry. At Toyota, the Tokai Kyohokai had 105 members in 1963. By 1971, there were 120 members; only 5 of the old members had been dropped, while 20 were added (Smitka 1991, p.85). During 1971-81, 21 new suppliers joined, while only 3 left; and during 1981-92, 8 joined while 2 left the Tokai Kyohokai.* SEE TABLE 4*By contrast, at Mitsubishi Motors, 84 firms entered while 83 firms exited the Kashiwakai during 1971-81, and 73 entered while 46 exited during 1981-90. Thus, on a rough count, of the 358 members in 1990, only about a half remained members over the entire twenty year period (see also Smitka 1991, p.85-7).What factors account for the differences in turnover rates among associations? One reason appears to be differences in the assemblers’ product strategy. In the Japanese automobile industry, it is well known that the implicit supplier contract is for the duration of a model cycle. This implies that the possible occasions for the assembler to switch suppliers, and hence for potential entry and exit of association members, are more numerous the greater the product variety and the shorter the model cycle. Given that the length of the model cycle is more or less the same across assemblers,9the greater variety of vehicles manufactured by Mitsubishi Motors, as compared to Toyota, perhaps accounts in part for the higher turnover rate in Mitsubishi’s Kashiwakai membership than in Toyota’s.Product or marketing strategy may affect the scope for continuous sourcing in another way. In particular, a contrast may be drawn between two broad types of marketing. On the one hand, some assemblers, such as Toyota, pursue full-line marketing with an emphasis on the continuumin the spectrum of models from low to high price. On the other hand, other assemblers, such as Honda and Nissan to an extent, pursue a segmented market strategy with an emphasis on bringing out discrete ‘hits’ targetted at specific customer groups (Itami et al 1988 chapter 5). The former can take better advantage of common styling and parts over model cycles as well as across existing models than the latter. Therefore, supplier relationships can be expected to be more continuous at full-line strategy assemblers like Toyota than at segmented strategy assemblers like Honda.To summarize, there is a considerable variation from association to association with respect to (i) the size of membership, (ii) the proportion of members in the total supplier base, and (iii) turnover of members over time. However, as a common characteristic, association membership is much broader than the boundary of keiretsu groupings, particularly in recent decades when independent suppliers which stand outside the keiretsu have been taking up membership in multiple associations.2. Historical Origins and Contemporary ContextThe suppliers’ association (kyoryokukai) literally translates as a ‘cooperation association’. It is generally a voluntary association with their own rules and regulations. Its aim is generally10said to be to enhance member suppliers’ cooperation with the assembler and with each other. Most of the suppliers’ associations have a name which signifies cooperation, friendship, or prosperity. Some associations, just like Japanese companies, are described as a ‘community of fate’ (unmei kyodotai ). Tracing the historical origins and the evolution of suppliers’ association assists us in understanding these sentiments.Historical EvolutionThe oldest of the supplier associations is Toyota’s Kyohokai which may be traced back to a gathering in 1939 (Kyohokai 1967, p.10), although a formal association was not launched until 1943. As part of the wartime control regime, the Japanese government at the time imposed a regulation for nominating small and medium sized firms to supply to large firms in order to control industrial production for the war effort. Non-designated firms were left to perish due to lack of funds and materials (Nakamura 1986, p.124-5). Kyohokai was founded at the request of Toyota’s suppliers (referred to as cooperating factories (kyoryoku kojo)) in order to ensure that they could survive this period of hardship. A central task of the Kyohokai, not surprisingly, was to channel raw materials and funds, which only Toyota Motors could secure through the ration system, to member suppliers.With the end of the Second World War, Kyohokai’s central task shifted towards making improvements in technological and managerial capabilities of member firms. The original members, who formed the Tokai (region) Kyohokai in 1947, were joined by newly formed Tokyo Kyohokai and Kansai Kyohokai members. The latter members tended to be larger specialist component suppliers, which developed independently of Toyota and were considered more capable managerially. This new group of suppliers aroused eagerness among the original members to strengthen their management system.11The first opportunity to make improvements collectively presented itself in1953, when the prefectural authorities offered a free factory benchmarking service (kojo shindan) to Kyohokai members (Kyohokai 1967, p.24; Wada 1991). This service was part of the post-war government policy to rationalize and modernize small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs). Because of large numbers, the Japanese SME Agency chose the keiretsu group (and the industrial district) as units of diagnosis, thus endorsing the existence of suppliers’ associations. The public consultancy offered concrete solutions to establishing managerial objectives and production plans, and to improving productivity and quality at each of the supplier firms. Kyohokai members’ effort in implementing the solutions bore fruit in the form of the launch of Toyopet Crown in 1955.Government policy also encouraged SMEs to form themselves into groups in a more explicit manner, through the SME Cooperative Association Law (Chusho Kigyoto Kyodo Kumiai Ho) of 1949. Cooperatives, once approved and registered publicly, can take out investment loans from government financial institutions, and receive government subsidies for a variety of activities, such as employee training and joint research in recent years. Around 47,000 formally registered cooperatives existed in Japan in 1991 (SMEA 1992, p.106). They are regionally based associations, and do not normally have a focus around a common customer among their members. Cooperatives in the auto industry are exceptions to this convention. The 1950s saw the formation of a number of cooperatives in the car industry, by local suppliers to Mazda, Daihatsu, Hino, and Nissan Diesel. At these assemblers, cooperatives continue to exist, with membership overlapping with the suppliers’ associations which were founded subsequently.A major cooperative association in the car industry which is in effect a suppliers’association at the same time is the Suzuki Motors Cooperative Association. It was founded in 1957 when the Shizuoka prefectural office approached Suzuki Motors with details of recently enacted laws concerning SMEs. Suzuki cashed in on the financial facilities offered by these laws12to create its suppliers’ association in the form of a cooperative. The Cooperative Law requires that the cooperative membership be restricted to SMEs. But except for this requirement, the reasoning behind setting up the Suzuki Cooperative was rather similar to that for founding suppliers’association associations in general. A document ‘The Intent to Establish the Suzuki Cooperative Association’ states:“With a rapid progress in society, every company is facing increasingly toughcompetition over improvements in product performance and the expansion ofproduction. Our cooperating factories must adapt to both the economic andtechnological aspects of this situation. As one measure, a policy shall be herebyimplemented, which will promote the welfare of every cooperating factory throughfriendship and mutual help. We intend to promote a higher level of cooperation,and to achieve co-prosperity with Suzuki Motor Company as our parent factory.”Around the same time in 1958, Nissan’s plant level supplier associations at the Yokohama and Yoshiwara factories, founded a few years earlier, were consolidated into Takarakai. Takarakai was essentially a gathering of small and medium sized firms, whose technological and managerial capabilties Nissan deemed necessary to strengthen. The concerted effort to improve industrial engineering and to adopt quality control methods culminated in Nissan’s receipt of the Deming Award, the very first in the Japanese auto industry, in June 1960. This spurred Toyota suppliers to do better. From 1961, Toyota Motors started to take a greater lead in Kyohokai activities, centred around the diffusion of Total Quality Control and Value Engineering to the top management of core suppliers (Wada 1984, p.88). Domestic rivalry was thus a significant factor in intensifying the effort poured on association activities.13However, the 1960s presented an added challenge, namely the liberalisation of international trade and capital markets. In anticipation of open trade, Japanese assemblers made a concerted effort to improve quality and cost efficiency. There was widespread fear that if nothing was done, dismantling the protection would severely undermine the domestic automotive industry. Some suppliers’ associations, such as Nissan’s Shohokai and Isuzu Kyowakai, were formed specifically to meet this challenge of internationalisation.To summarize, suppliers’ associations spread in the Japanese car industry in three waves. The first was the years leading up to the Second World War, when the assembler and suppliers attempted to forge organisational solidarity to cope with the war effort; materials shortages posed a problem to be overcome. The second wave was in the 1950s, when cooperatives as well as suppliers’ associations were formed; cooperatives were the channel for low interest loans for equipment modernisation to members, as well as for financial help in setting up common services for members. The third wave in the 1960s was associated with the prospect of the liberalisation of capital markets and international trade, and the perceived need to make a leap in international competitiveness. The associations in the post-war period were mainly private sector initiatives, but favourable government policies towards SMEs facilitated them.The pattern established in the 1960s was essentially maintained in the 1970s and 1980s. In fact, the origins of the associations formed in the last two decades may be traced back to an earlier period. For example, the Mitsubishi Motor Kashiwakai, founded in 1971, soon after the automotive division was hived off from Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, is a consolidation of factory-level associations oldest of which dates from 1950.14。