自考《现代语言学》复习讲义
自考语言学概论复习资料
自考语言学概论复习资料自考语言学概论复习资料语言学是研究语言的科学，它探讨语言的起源、发展、结构和使用规律。
作为一门综合性学科，语言学涉及到语音学、语法学、语义学、语用学等多个领域。
自考语言学概论是自考学生必修的一门课程，通过学习这门课程，我们可以了解语言学的基本概念、理论和研究方法，为进一步深入学习语言学打下坚实的基础。
一、语言学的起源与发展语言学的起源可以追溯到古代文明时期，人类通过语言进行交流已有数千年的历史。
语言学的发展经历了不同的阶段，从早期的语音学和语法学到现代的语义学和语用学，不断丰富和完善了对语言的研究。
语言学的起源与发展与人类社会的发展密切相关。
语言是人类社会的产物，它随着人类社会的进步而不断演变。
人类通过语言交流思想、传递信息，进而形成了复杂的社会结构和文化体系。
语言学的研究旨在揭示语言的本质和规律，帮助我们更好地理解人类语言的普遍性和多样性。
二、语言学的基本概念1. 语言的定义与特征语言是人类特有的交流工具，它具有符号性、社会性和可学性的特征。
语言通过语音、文字等符号来表达意义，是人类社会交流的基础。
语言是社会共同遵循的规范，它具有一定的语法结构和词汇系统。
同时，语言是可以学习和掌握的，人们通过语言学习和使用来实现交流和思维。
2. 语言的层次结构语言的层次结构包括语音层、词汇层、句法层、语义层和语用层。
语音层研究语音的产生和组合规律，词汇层研究词汇的构成和使用规则，句法层研究句子的构成和语法规则，语义层研究语言的意义和表达方式，语用层研究语言的使用和交际规则。
3. 语言的变体与变异语言的变体与变异是指同一语言在不同地区、社会群体和个体之间存在的差异。
语言的变体包括方言、口语、标准语等，它们在语音、词汇和语法等方面存在差异。
语言的变异是指同一语言在不同使用场景和语境下的变化，如正式语言和非正式语言、书面语言和口语等。
三、语言学的研究方法语言学的研究方法包括描述性方法和理论性方法。
自考英语本科 《现代语言学》 复习大纲
C h a p t e r1I n t r o d u c t i o n绪论what is linguistics?定义 definitionLinguistics is generally defined as scientific study of language.语言学的研究范畴 the scope of linguisticsa. The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.把语言作为一个整体而进行的全面的语言学研究一般称为普通语言学。
b. The study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of a branch oflinguistics called phonetics.语音学How speech sounds are produced and classified.c. how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.how sounds form systems and function to convey meaning. phonology音位学/ 音系学交际中语音的组合规律及传达意义的方式d. The study of the way in which these symbols are arranged to form words has constituted the branchof study called morphology.形态学how morphemes are combined to form words.这些符号通过排列组合而成构成语词，对于这种排列组合方式的研究构成了语言学研究的另一个分支，如对形态学的研究。
现代语言学 复习要点
现代语言学复习要点现代语言学是研究语言的本质、结构、演化和使用的学科，涉及到语音学、语法学、语义学、语用学等多个方面。
下面是现代语言学中的重要知识点，帮助您进行复习。
语音学音位与音素音位是语音学中的基本单位，是被感知为一种有区别的声音的语音单位。
音素是语音学中的一个概念，是语音中能够起差别作用的最小单位。
一种语音中可能存在多个音位，但其对应的音素数量通常比较少。
### 调值语音学中通常使用调值来表示声音的高低的。
不同的语言中可能有不同数量的调，比如汉语中有四个音调，英语中没有固定的调值。
### 音系音系是指一种语言中所有音位（包括所有音素）的总体，包括其音位的数量、种类和分布等方面。
语法学句子成分句子成分是指构成句子的基本单词、短语或从句。
一般来说，句子成分包括主语、谓语、宾语、定语、状语等。
### 句子结构句子结构是指句子内不同成分的组成方式。
对于不同语言，其句子结构可能存在明显差异，如英语中主语一般出现在谓语前，而在汉语中通常是在谓语后。
### 语法关系语法关系是指句子中不同成分之间的关系，如主语与谓语之间的关系、宾语与谓语之间的关系等。
语义学词义词义是单词所表达的概念或意义。
不同的单词可能存在相同或相似的词义，因此在语义学中通常需要进行词义分类和比较。
### 语义关系语义关系是指单词、短语、句子等之间的意义相互联系。
常见的语义关系包括同义关系、反义关系、上下位关系等。
### 语篇意义语篇意义是指句子及其上下文所构成的整体意义。
在语篇分析中，不仅要关注句子内部的语义关系，还需考虑句子与上下文之间的语义关系。
语用学言语行为言语行为是指言语交流过程中所体现的具体行为，如陈述、命令、请求、批评等。
不同类型的言语行为具有不同的功能和表达方式。
### 语用礼貌语用礼貌是指在言语交际过程中对他人尊重、友好的表达方式。
常见的语用礼貌策略包括委婉语、礼貌用语、双重否定等。
### 上下文依存言语交际过程中，具体表达的含义通常需要依赖于上下文信息。
自考《现代语言学》复习讲义
自考《现代语言学》复习讲义自考《现代语言学》复习讲义一、常考题型1.填空2.单项选择3.判断正误4.解释词语并举例说明对名词解释并举一两个例子进行说明5.回答问题做题要求：用英文进行答题。
二、各章节学习要点Chapter 1 Introduction （绪论）is linguisticsDefinition （语言学的定义）Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.Linguistics studies not any particular language, ., English, Chinese, Arabic, and Latin, but in language in general.The Scope of linguistics （语言学的研究范畴）—4The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics(普通语言学).This deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study, in contrast to those branches of study which relate linguistics tothe research of other areas.Main branches of linguistics 语言学的主要分支：1）phonetics（语音学）2)phonology （音系学）3)morphology （形态学） 4)syntax （句法学） 5)semantics （语义学） 6)pragmatics （语用学）The study of all these aspects of language forms the core of linguistics.Findings in linguistic studies can often be applie3d to the solution of such practical problems as the recovery of speech ability. The study of such applications is generally known as applied linguistics.Macrolinguistics 宏观语言学：1) Psycholingusitcs (心理语言学)；2) Sociolinguistics (社会语言学)；3) Anthropological linguistics (人类语言学)；4) Computational linguistics (计算语言学) Some important distinctions in linguistics —71.3.1 Prescriptive vs. descriptive （规定性和描述性）Modern linguistics, ., linguistic study carried out in this century is mostly descriptive.1.3.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic （共时性和历时性）In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study.1.3.3 Speech and writing （口头语和书面语）Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.1.3.4 Langue and parole （语言和言语）The distinction between langue and parole was made by the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure in the early 20th century.1.3.5 Competence and performance （语言能力和语言运用）Similar to Saussure’s dis tinction between langue and parole is the distinction between competence and performance, which was proposed by the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s.While Saussure’s distinction and Chomsky’s are verysimilar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.2. What is languageDefinitions of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.(语言是人类在交际中使用的一套任意的声音符号系统。
现代语言学自考 pdf
现代语言学自考一、语言学基础语言学基础是现代语言学自考的重要组成部分，主要包括语言学的定义、语言学的研究对象、语言学的分支学科等内容。
学生需要掌握语言学的基本概念、基本理论和基本方法，为后续深入学习打下坚实的基础。
二、语音学与音系学语音学与音系学是研究语言的发音、音素、音节、音韵等规律的学科。
学生需要掌握语音的发音机制、音素的分类与区别、音节的结构与变化、音韵的规则与变化等内容，能够正确地分析和描述语言的语音现象。
三、形态学形态学是研究语言中词汇的构成与变化的学科。
学生需要掌握词素、词根、词缀等基本概念，了解词汇的构成方式与变化规律，能够正确地分析和描述语言的词汇现象。
四、句法学句法学是研究语言的句子结构与变化的学科。
学生需要掌握句子的基本结构、句法规则、句型变化等内容，能够正确地分析和描述语言的句子结构现象。
五、语义学语义学是研究语言中词汇和句子的意义与变化的学科。
学生需要掌握语义的基本概念、语义关系、语义变化等内容，能够正确地分析和描述语言的语义现象。
六、语用学语用学是研究语言在实际运用中的意义与功能的学科。
学生需要掌握语境、话语、交际等基本概念，了解语言在实际运用中的功能与意义，能够正确地分析和描述语言的语用现象。
七、社会语言学社会语言学是研究语言与社会因素的相互关系的学科。
学生需要掌握社会因素对语言的影响、语言的社会功能与变化等内容，能够正确地分析和描述语言的社会现象。
八、第二语言习得研究第二语言习得研究是研究人们如何学习第二语言的学科。
学生需要掌握第二语言学习的过程、影响因素、学习方法等内容，能够正确地分析和描述第二语言学习的现象。
九、语言习得理论语言习得理论是研究人们如何习得语言的学科。
学生需要掌握语言习得的基本理论、习得机制、习得过程等内容，能够正确地分析和描述语言习得的现象。
十、认知语言学认知语言学是研究语言与认知关系的学科。
学生需要掌握认知的基本概念、认知语言学的理论与方法等内容，能够正确地分析和描述语言与认知的关系。
自考现代语言学复习资料
第一章.绪论Introduction1.General linguistics:which is the study of language as a whole and which deals with the basic concepts,theories,descriptions,models and methods applicable in any linguistic study.2.Phonology:The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication.For example,phone,phoneme,and allophone.3.Morphology:The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words.For example,boy and“ish”---boyish,teach---teacher.4.Syntax:The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences.For example,”John like linguistics.”5.Semantics:The study of meaning in language.For example,:The seal could not be found.The zoo keeper became worried.”The seal could not be found,The king became worried.”Here the word seal means different things.6.Pragmatics:The study of meaning in context of use.For example,“I do”The word do means different context.7.Sociolinguistics:The study of language with reference to society.For example,regional dialects,social variation in language.8.Psycholinguistics:The study of language with reference to workings of mind.9.Prescriptive:aims to lay down rules for"correct"behaviour.10.Descriptive:describe and analyzes the language people actually use.11.Synchronic:the description of a language at some point in time.12.Diachronic:the description of a language as it changes through time.ngue:the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.14.Parole:the realization of langue in actual use.petence:the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language.16.Performance:the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.1.一般语言学：是对语言作为一个整体的研究,涉及任何语言研究所适用的基本概念、理论、描述、模型和方法.2.音韵学：研究声音是如何组合在一起并在交流中使用的.例如,电话、音位和变音.3.词法学：研究词素排列成词的方式.例如,男孩和“男孩”-男孩,老师.4.句法：研究词素和单词如何组合成句子的学科.例如,“约翰式语言学”.5.语义学：研究语言的意义.例如：找不到海豹.动物园管理员很担心.“找不到海豹,国王很担心.”在这里,海豹这个词的意思是不同的.6.语用学：研究使用语境中的意义.例如,“我做”这个词的意思是不同的语境.7.社会语言学：研究语言与社会的关系.例如,地区方言,语言的社会变异.8.心理语言学：研究与思维活动有关的语言.9.规定性：旨在为“正确”行为制定规则.10.描述性：描述和分析人们实际使用的语言.11.共时性：在某个时间点对一种语言的描述.12.历时性：语言随时间变化的描述.13.语言：一个语言群体中所有成员所共有的抽象语言系统.14.言语：语言在实际使用中的实现.15.能力：理想的使用者对其语言规则的了解.16.表现：这一知识在语言交际中的实际实现.How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?Traditional grammar is prescriptive;it is based on"high"(religious,literary)writtenlanguage.It sets grammatical rules and imposes the rules on language users.But Modernlinguistics is descriptive;It collects authentic,and mainly spoken language data and then itstudies and describes the data in an objective and scientific way.传统的语法是规定性的,它是基于“高”（宗教,文学）的书面语言.它设定语法规则,并将规则强加于语言使用者.但现代语言学是描述性的,它收集真实的,主要是口语数据,然后它以客观科学的方式研究和描述数据.How do you understand the distinction between a synchronic study and a diachronic study?The description of a language at some point in time is a Synchronic study;the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.A synchronic study of language describes a language as it is at some particular point in time,while a diachronic study of language is the study of the historical development of language over a period of time.Synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study.在某个时间点对语言的描述是一种历时研究.语言的描述随着时间的变化是一种历时性的研究.语言的共时性研究描述了某个特定时间点的语言,而语言的历时性研究则是对一段时间内语言历史发展的研究.共时性研究似乎比历时性研究优先.Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary,not the written?First,the spoken form is prior to the written form and most writing systems are derived from the spoken form of language.Second,the spoken form plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed and it serves a wider range of purposes.Finally,the spoken form is the medium through which we acquire our mother tongue.首先,口语形式先于书面形式,大多数写作系统都是从语言的口语形式派生出来的；其次,口语形式在传达的信息量方面比书面形式发挥着更大的作用,而且它服务于更广泛的目的.最后,口语形式是我们获得母语的媒介.Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole seems similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance.What do you think are their major differences?Although Saussure’s distinction and Chomsky’s are very similar,they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a mater of social conventions,and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of vies and to him,competence is a property of the mind of each individual.尽管索绪尔和乔姆斯基的区别非常相似,但至少在这点上有所不同,索绪尔的语言观是一种社会学的观点,他的语言观是一种社会规范东西,乔姆斯基从心理学的角度看待语言,对他来说,能力是每个人心灵的特性.Do you think human language is entirely arbitrary?Why?Language is arbitrary in nature,it is not entirely arbitrary,because there are a limited number of words whose connections between forms and meanings can be logically explained to a certain extent,for example,the onomatopoeia, words which are coined on the basis of imitation of sounds by sounds such as bang,crash,etc..Take compounds for another example.The two elements“photo”and“copy”in“photocopy”are non-motivated,but the compound is not arbitrary语言在本质上是任意的,并不是完全任意的,因为只有有限的几个词的形式和意义之间的联系可以在一定程度上得到逻辑上的解释,例如拟声词,是在模仿声音的基础上由诸如砰、砰等声音创造出来的.另一个是以化合物为例.“影印”中的“照片”和“复印”这两个元素是没有动机的,但复合词不是任意的.Design features1)ArbitrarinessIt means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds,difference sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.2)ProductivityIt makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.3)DualityLanguage is a system,which consists of two sets of structures,or two levels.The lower or the basic level is a structure of meaningless sounds.But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning such as morphemes and words.4)DisplacementLanguages can be used to refer to context removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.5)Cultural transmissionLanguage is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning,rather than by instinct.1）任意性意思是意义和声音之间没有逻辑联系,不同的声音在不同的语言中用来指同一个对象.2）生产力它使得用户能够构造和解释新的信号.3）二元性语言是一个系统,由两组结构或两个层次组成.低级或初级是一种无意义的声音结构.但是语言的声音可以分组并被重新组合成大量的意义单位,如语素和单词.4）位移语言可以用来指从说话者的直接情况中删除的上下文.5）文化传播语言是通过教和学代代相传的,而不是靠本能.第二章、语音学Phonetics1.Phonetics:The study of sounds that are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics.2.Phonology:The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.3.Broad transcription:is the transcription of sounds by using one letter to represent one sound.4.Narrow transcription:is the transcription with diacritics to show detailed articulatory features of sounds.5.Vowels are the sounds produced by airflow without any hindrance.6.Consonants are the sounds produced by different ways of obstruction of airflow in the mouth.7.Diphthong:produced by moving from one vowel position or another through intervening positions.8.Fricative:when the obstruction is partial and the air is forced through a narrow passage in the mouth so as to cause definite local friction at the point,the speech sound thus produced is a fricative.9.Phone:Phone can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language.A phone is a phonetic unit or segment.It does not necessarily distinguish meaning;some do,some don’t.10.Phoneme:Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning.The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme;it is a unit that is of distinctive value.11.Allophone:The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophone of that phoneme.12.Phonemic contrast:If two phonetically similar sounds can occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning,they are in phonemic contrast.plementary distribution:These two allophone of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution.14.Minimal pair:When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the stings,the two words are said to form a minimal pair.15.Stress:When a certain syllable of a word is stressed,it means that the syllable is pronounced with great force than the other or others.16.Tones:Tones are pitch variation,which are caused by the different rates of vibration of the vocal cords.Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like phoneme;therefore,the tone is a suprasegmental feature.17.Intonation:When pitch,stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation,they are collectively known as intonation.Intonation plays an important role in conveying meaning in almost everylanguage,especially in a language like English1.语音学：研究语言交际中使用的声音称为语音学.2.音韵学：研究声音是如何组合在一起并用于交流的,称为音韵学.3.宽式音标：是用一个字母代表一个声音的.4.窄式音标：是用变音符号来显示声音的详细发音特征的标注.5.元音是气流不受任何阻碍而发出的声音.6.辅音是通过不同的方式阻塞口腔气流而产生的声音.7.双元音：通过中间位置从一个元音位置或另一个元音位置移动而产生的.8.擦音：当障碍物是部分的,空气通过口腔中的一个狭窄通道,从而在该点上造成一定的局部摩擦时,产生的语音是擦音.9.音素：音素可以简单地定义为我们在说一种语言时使用的语音.音素是一个语音单位或段.它不一定能区分意义；有的能,有的不能.10.音位学：音位学是指区别意义的语音.音位学中的基本单位叫做音位,它是一个具有独特价值的单位.11.音位变体：在不同的语音环境中能代表一个音位的不同音位称为该音位的变音.12.音位对立：如果两个语音相似的声音能出现在同一个环境中,并且它们能区分意义,它们就是音位对立.13.互补分布：相同音素的这两个异音素被称为互补分布.14.最小对：当两种不同的形式在各方面都相同时,除了一个声音片段出现在刺的同一位置外,这两个词被称为形成最小对.15.重音：当一个单词的某个音节被重音时,意味着该音节比另一个或其他音节的重音要大.16.声调：声调是声调变化,声调是由声带的不同振动频率引起的音调变化.音高变化可以像音素一样区分意义,因此,音调是一种超音段特征.17.语调：当音调、重音和音长与句子联系在一起而不是孤立地与单词联系在一起时,它们统称为语调.语调在几乎每一种语言,尤其是像英语这样的语言中都起着重要的传达意义的作用.Phonology and phoneticsThe difference between phonology and phonetics:phonetics is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human language.phonology is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language音位学和语音学的区别：语音学对所有人类语言中使用的所有语音都感兴趣.音韵学对一种特定语言的声音系统感兴趣.Some rules of phonology1)Sequential rules:govern the combination of sounds in a particular language2)Assimilation rules:assimilates one sound to another by"copying"a feature of a sequential phoneme,thus making the two phones similar3)Deletion rule1）顺序规则：控制特定语言中的声音组合2）同化规则：通过“复制”顺序音素的特征将一种声音同化为另一种声音,从而使两个音素相似3）删除规则第三章、形态学Morphology1.Morphology:Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.2.Inflectional morphology:studies the inflections of word formation.3.Derivational morphology:the study of word formation.4.Morpheme:the smallest meaningful unit of language.5.Free morpheme:the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes.6.Bound morpheme:the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes,either free or bound,to form a word.7.Root:is often seen as part of a word;it can never stand by itself although it bears clear,definite meaning;it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.8.Stem:is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.9.Affix:Affixes are of two types:inflectional and derivational.10.Prefix:occur at the beginning of a word.11.Suffix:Suffixes are added to the end of the stems;they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.12.Derivation affixes:Derivation affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.Derivation can be viewed as the adding of affixes to stem to form new words.pounding:Like derivation,compounding is another popular and important way of forming new words in pounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.1.形态学：形态学是语法的一个分支,研究词的内部结构和词的形成规则.2.屈折形态学：屈折形态学研究构词的屈折变化.3.派生形态学：派生形态学是对构词法的研究.4.语素：语素是语言中最小的有意义的单位.5.自由语素：自由语素是独立意义单位的语素,可以单独使用,也可以与其他语素结合使用.6.粘着语素：站着语素是不能独立使用的语素,但必须与其他语素结合,自由语素或站着语素,形成一个词.7.词根：词根常被视为一个词的一部分,虽然有明确的含义,但它永远不能独立存在,必须与另一个词根或词缀结合才能构成一个词.8.词干：词干是屈折词缀可以添加到的任何语素或语素组合.9.词缀：词缀有两种类型：屈折词缀和派生词缀.10.前缀：前缀出现在单词的开头.11.后缀：后缀加在词干的末尾；它们修改了原词的意思,在许多情况下改变了词性.12.派生词缀：派生词缀被添加到一个已有的形式中以创建一个词.派生可以被看作是词缀添加以形成新词.13.复合词：复合词和派生词一样,是英语中另一种流行而重要的构词方法.复合词可以被视为两个或两个以上单词的组合来创造新词.Features of compounds1)Orthographically,a compound can be written as one word with or without a hyphen in between,or as two separate words.2)Syntactically,the part of speech of the compound is generally determined by the part of speech of the second element.3)Semantically,the meaning of a compound is often idiomatic,not always being the sum total of the meaning of its components.4)phonetically,the stress of a compound always falls on the first element,while the second element receives secondary stress.1）在书写特征,一个复合词可以写成一个单词,中间有或没有连字符,也可以写成两个独立的单词.2）在句法上,复合词的词性一般由第二成分的词性决定.3）从语义上讲,复合词的意义往往是习语性的,而不一定是其成分意义的总和.4）在语音上,复合词的重音总是落在第一个成分上,而第二个成分则受到第二个重音的影响.Discuss the types of morphemes with examples.Free morphemes,they are the independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves,for example,“book-”in the word“bookish”.Bound morphemes:They are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes,either free or bound,to form a word such as“-ish”in“bookish”.Bound morphemes can be subdivided into roots and affixes.A root is seen as part of a word;it can never stand by itself although it has a clear and definite meaning,such as“gene-”in the word“generate”.Affixes are of two types:inflectional and derivational.Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as“-s”in the word“books”to indicate plurality of nouns.Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word such as“mis-”in the word“misinform”.Derivational affixes can also be divided into prefixes and suffixes.Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word such as“dis-”in the word“dislike”,while suffixes occur at the end of a word such as“-less”in the word“friendless”.自由语素它们是独立的意义单位,可以自由地单独使用,例如“book ish”一词中的“book”.粘着语素,它们不能单独使用,但必须与其他语素结合,或自由或绑定,才能形成“bookish”中的“ish”一词.粘着语素可分为词根和词缀.词根被视为一个词的一部分,尽管它有一个明确的含义,例如“gene”中的“gene”,但它永远不能独立存在.词缀有两种类型：屈折词缀和派生词缀.屈折语素在“书”一词中表现出各种语法关系或语法范畴,如“-s”表示多个名词.派生词缀被添加到一个已有的形式中,在“错误通知”一词中创建一个词,例如“MIS-”.派生词缀也可以分为前缀和后缀.前缀出现在单词的开头,如“dis”,后缀出现在单词的结尾,如“less”在“无朋友”这个词里.第四章、句法学Syntax1.Linguistic competence:Comsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language,and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.2.Sentence:A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement question or command.3.Transformation rules:Syntactic movement is governed by transformational rules.The operation of the transformational rules may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.4.D-structure&S-structure:A sentence may have two levels of syntactic representation.One exists before movement take place,the other occurs after movement take place.The former is called the deep structure of the sentence,and the latter is the surface structure.5.Universal grammar:Universal grammar is a linguistic knowledge system unique to human beings,which exists in the brains of normal people.6.Moveа:Just as there is a general rule for all phrase structure rules,i,e.the X-bar schema,there is a general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement.This movement rule is called Moveа7.Case condition:General principles of Universal Grammar.One such principle,or condition,is the case condition[格条件].As is required by the case condition principle,a noun phrase must have case and case is assigned by V(verb)or P(preposition)to the object position,or by AUX(auxiliary)to the subject position.8.Adjacency condition:on case assignment,which states that a case assignor and a case recipient should stay adjacent to each other.9.Hierarchical structure:The sentence structure that groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic categories of each structural constituent,such as NP and VP.10.Recursive properties:An S contains a VP that may contain another S;11.A clause that takes a subject and a finite verb,and at the same time stands structurally alone is known as a finite clause[定式从句]1.语言能力：comsky将能力定义为用户对语言规则的理想认知,表现在语言交际中这种知识的实际实现.2.句子：句子是一个结构独立的单元,通常由若干个单词组成一个完整的陈述问题或命令.3.转换规则：句法运动受转换规则支配.转换规则的操作可能会改变句子的句法表征.4.d-结构和s-结构：一个句子可能有两个层次的句法表征.一个存在于运动发生之前,另一个发生在运动发生后,前者被称为句子的深层结构,后者是表层结构.5、普遍语法：普遍语法是人类特有的语言知识系统,它存在于正常人的大脑中.6.move_：正如所有短语结构规则（即x-bar模式）都有一个通用规则一样,也有一个通用移动规则解释任何组成移动的句法行为.这个移动规则叫做move_7.格条件：普遍语法的一般原则.其中一个原则或条件是格条件.根据格状原则,名词短语必须有V（动词）或P（介词）被赋格到宾语位置,或由辅助（AUX）指派到主语位置.8.相邻条件：在案件转让时,规定案件转让人和案件接受者应彼此相邻.9.层次结构：将单词分成结构成分,并显示每个结构成分的句法类别的句子结构,如np和vp.10.递归属性：一个s包含一个vp,这个vp可以包含另一个s11.接受主语和限定动词同时在结构上独立的从句称为限定从句.Types of sentencessimple sentence,coordinate(compound)sentence[复合句],complex sentence1)A simple sentence:consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.2)A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction,such as“and”,“but”,“or”.3)A complex sentence contains two or more clauses,one of which is incorporated into the other.Syntactic categories：Words and phrases are organized according to the syntactic categories they belong to.Syntactic movement：Syntactic movement occurs when a constituent in a sentence moves out of its original place to a new position.单句、并列（复合）句、复句（1）单句：由一个主语和一个谓语组成的单句,单独作为自己的句子.（2）并列句包含两个分句,由一个称为并列连词的连词连接,例如“and”、“but”、“or”.（3）复句包含两个或多个从句,其中一个从句并入另一个从句.句法范畴：单词和短语是根据它们所属的句法范畴来组织的.句法运动：当句子中的成分从原来的位置移到新的位置时,就会发生句法运动.第五章、语义学Semantics1.Semantics:Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language.2.Sense:concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form;it is abstract and decontextualized.3.Reference:what a linguistic form refers to in the real,physical world;it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.4.Synonymy:the sameness or close similarity of meaning.同义词5.Polysemy:the same one word may have more than one meaning.一词多义6.Antonymy:the oppositeness of meaning.7.Homonymy:the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form,i.e.different words are identical in sound or spelling,or in both.同音/形异义8.Hyponymy:the sense relation between a more general,more inclusive word and a more specific word.上下义关系9.Co-hyponyms:hyponymy that have the same superordinate.ie“rose,tulip”ponential analysis:a way to analyze word meaning.It was proposed by structural semanticists.11.Grammatical meaning:its grammaticality.i.e.its grammatical well-formedness.The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by the grammatical rules of the language.12.Semantic meaning:a sentence is governed by rules called selectional restrictions.13.Predication analysis:In semantic analysis of a sentence,the basic unit is called predication.The predication is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.14.An argument:is a logical participant in a predication.It is generally identical with the nominal element(s)in a sentence.参数15.A predicate is something that is said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.谓词16.Semantic triangle:The straight line indicates a direct relationship between the two,and the dotted line indicates that there is no direct relationship between the two.1.语义学：语义学可以简单地定义为对语言意义的研究.2.意义：意义是指语言形式的内在意义.它是语言形式所有特征的集合,是抽象的、非语境化的.3.所指：是一种语言形式在现实的物理世界中所指的事物,它处理语言要素与非语言经验世界之间的关系.4.同义：意义的相同或相近.5.一词多义：指同一个词可能有多个意思.6.反义词：反义词是指意义的对立.7.同音异义：是指具有不同含义的词具有相同形式的现象,即不同的词在发音或拼写上是相同的,或在两种情况下都是相同的.8.上下义：上下义是指一个更一般、更包容的词和一个更具体的词之间的意义关系.9.并列下义词：具有相同上义词的下义词,即“玫瑰,郁金香”10.成分分析：分析词义的一种方法.它是由结构语义学家提出的.11.语法意义：是指它的语法性.也就是说,它的语法结构良好.句子的语法性受语言的语法规则支配.12.语义：句子的语义受称为选择限制的规则支配.13.谓词分析：在句子的语义分析中,基本单位叫做谓词.谓词是对句子意义的抽象.14.参数：是谓词的逻辑参与者.它通常与句子中的名词性成分相同.15.谓语是指对一个论据所说的话,或者它陈述了连接句子中论据的逻辑关系.16.语义三角：直线表示二者之间的直接关系,虚线表示二者之间没有直接关系.What are the main theories of semantics?1)The naming theory:It was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato.According to this theory,the linguistic forms or symbols used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for.So words are just names orlabels for things.2)The conceptualism view:It holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to.In the interpretation of meaning,they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.3)Contextualism:It is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts.Two kinds of context are recognized:the situational context and the linguistic context.4)Behaviourism:The contextualist view was further strengthened by Bloomfield.He drew on behaviorist psychology when he tried to define the meaning of linguistic forms.Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a languageform as"the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer".(Bloomfield）This behaviorist theory is somewhat close to contextualism.It is linked with psychological interest.1）命名理论：它是由古希腊学者柏拉图提出的.根据该理论,将语言中使用的语言形式或符号视为其代表的对象的标签.因此,单词只是事物的名称或标签.2）概念主义观点：认为语言形式与其所指的事物之间没有直接联系.在意义的解释中,它们通过思想在心中的中介而联系在一起.3）语境主义：它是基于这样一种假设：一个人可以从可观察的语境中获得意义,或者将意义还原为可观察的语境.可以识别两种上下文：情境和语言上下文.4）行为主义：布卢姆菲尔德进一步强化了语境主义观点.当他试图定义语言形式的含义时,他借鉴了行为主义心理学.行为主义者试图将一种语言形式的含义定义为“说话者在听众中说出它的情况及其发出的响应”.（布卢姆菲尔德）这种行为主义理论在某种程度上类似于语境主义,与心理兴趣有关.What kinds of synonyms can be divided into?1)Dialectal synonyms:Dialectal synonyms are words which have more or less the same meaning and are used in different regional dialects such as petroleum in British English and gasoline in American English.2)Stylistic synonyms:Stylistic synonyms are words which have the same meaning but differ in style,or degree of formality.3)Collocational synonyms:Some synonyms differ in their collocation.That is,they go together with different words,for example:accuse...of,charge...with,rebuke..-for.4)Semantically different synonyms:They refer to the synonyms that differ slightly in what they mean.1)方言同义词：方言同义词是指在不同的地区方言中,如英国英语中的石油语和美国英语中的汽油语中,或多或少具有相同意义的词.2)文体学同义词：文体学同义词是指具有相同含义,但风格或形式程度不同的词.3)搭配同义词：有些同义词在搭配上有所不同.也就是说,他们会用不同的词,例如：指责.……的,冲锋.……用,斥责.-为了.4)语义上不同的同义词：它们指的是在意思上略有不同的同义词.In terms of semantics,what kinds of antonyms can be categorized?What are their characteristics?1)gradable antonyms:Some antonyms are gradable because there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair such as old/young,hot/cold.2)Complementary antonyms:a pair of complementary antonyms is characterized by the feature that the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other.3)Relational opposites:pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items.1）可分级的反义词：有些反义词是可分级的,因为一对反义词中的两个成员之间通常有中间形式,如老/年轻、热/冷.2）互补反义词：一对互补反义词的特点是否定其中一个成员意味着断言另一个成员.3）关系反义词：表示两个词之间关系颠倒的词对.Is the meaning of a sentence the sum of the meanings of each word that makes up a sentence?1)The meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its components.2)The meaning of a sentence consists of two aspects:grammatical meaning and semantic meaning.1）句子的意义不是所有成分的意义之和.2）句子的意义包括两个方面：语法意义和语义意义.第六章语用学Pragmatics1.pragmatics:Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.2.context:The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language.Generally speaking,it consists of the knowledge that is shared by the speaker and the hearer.3.utterance meaning:Utterance is based on sentence meaning;it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication,or simply in a context.4.Cooperative principle:in making conversation,the participants must fist of all be willing to cooperate;otherwise it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk.5.Conversational implicature:for variety reasons these maxims are often violated,or“flouted”to use Grice’s term.most of these violations give rise to what Gries calls conversational implicature.6.locutionary act:the act of utterance words,phrases,clauses.It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax,lexion and phonology.7.illocutionary act:is the act expressing the speaker’s intention;It is the act performed in saying something.8.perlocutionary act:the act performed by or resulting from saying something:it is the consequence of,or the change brought about by the utterance;it is the act performed by saying something.1.语用学：语用学可以定义为研究一种语言的使用者如何使用句子来实现成功的交际.2.语境：语境的概念是语言语用研究的基础.一般来说,它是由说话者和听话者共享的知识组成的.3.话语意义：话语是建立在句子意义基础上的,它是在真实的交际情境中,或仅仅是在语境中,实现句子的抽象意义.4.合作原则：在交谈中,参与者首先必须愿意合作,否则就无法继续交谈.5.会话含义：由于种种原因,这些准则经常被违反,或“藐视”使用格莱斯的条款.这些违反行为大多产生了Gries所谓的会话含义.6.言语行为：言语、短语、从句的行为.它是通过句法、词汇和音韵来传达字面意义的行为.7.言外行为：是表达说话人意图的行为；是在说某事时所做的行为.8.言后行为：由说某事所做的或由说某事所引起的行为：它是言语的结果或所带来的变化；它是通过说某事所做的行为.What is the difference between pragmatics and traditional semantics?Pragmatics is the study of meaning in the context of use,while traditional semantics treatsmeaning as something intrinsic,abstract and de-contextualized.语用学是在使用语境中对意义的研究,而传统语义学把意义看作是内在的、抽象的、非语境化的东西.Sentence meaning vs.utterance meaning?A sentence is a grammatical unit.Utterance is what people actually utter in the course of communication.The meaning of a sentence is abstract and de-contextualized,while the meaning of an utterance is concrete and context-dependent.Utterance meaning is based on sentence meaning;it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication,or simply in a context.句子是一个语法单位.话语是人们在交际过程中实际所说的东西.句子的意义是抽象的、非语境化的,而话语的意义是具体的、语境依赖的.话语意义是建立在句子意义的基础上的,它是在真实的交际情境中,或者仅仅是在语境中,实现句子的抽象意义.Searle's classification of illocutionary act?1.representatives（阐述类）:stating or describing,saying what the speaker believes to be true2.directives（指令类）:trying to get the hearer to do somethingmissives（承诺类）:committing the speaker himself to some future course of action4.expressives（表述类）:expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state5.declarations（声明类）:bringing about immediate changes by saying something陈述或描述说话人认为是真的。
现代语言学自考资料
※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※第一章绪论1/ What is linguistics?什么是语言学？Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general.2/ The scope of linguistics语言学的研究范畴The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通语言学)The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics. （语音学）The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. （音系学）The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology. （形态学）The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. （句法学）The study of meaning in language is called semantics. （语义学）The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. （语用学）The study of language with reference to society is called socio-linguistics. （社会语言学）The study of language with reference to the working of mind is called psycho-linguistics. （心理语言学）The study of applications (as the recovery of speech ability) is generally known as applied linguistics. （应用语言学）But in a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second language.Other related branches include anthropological linguistics, （人类语言学）neurological linguistics, （神经语言学）mathematical linguistics, （数字语言学）and computational linguistics. （计算机语言学）3/ Some important distinctions in linguistics语言学研究中的几对基本概念Prescriptive and descriptive 规定与描写If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive, if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar. Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive. The task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people ac tually use, whether it is “correct” or not.Synchronic and diachronic 共时和历时The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study is more important.Speech and writing 口头语与书面语Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken form of language as primary, but not the written form. Reasons are: 1. Speech precedes writing; 2. There are still many languages that have only the spoken form; 3. In terms of function, the spoken language is used for a wider range of purposes than the written, and carries a larger load of communication than the written.Langue and parole 语言和言语The Swiss linguist F. de Saussure made the distinction between langue and parole early 20th century.Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Saussure made the distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. He believes what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.Competence and performance 语言能力和语言运用Proposed by American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950‟s.He defines competence as the ideal user‟s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. He believes the task of the linguists is to discover and specify the language rules.4/ What is language?语言的定义Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Sapir uses “ideas” “emotions” and “desires” in his definition. Hall, like Sap ir, treats language as a purely human institution. Chomsky‟s definition is quite different, it focus on the purely structural properties of languages and to suggest that these properties can be investigated from a mathematically precise point of view.5/ Design features语言的甄别性特征Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. American linguist Charles Hockett specified twelve design features, five of which will be discussed here.Arbitrariness 语言的随意性Arbitrariness means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. It is notentirely arbitrary.Example: different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages. Productivity 语言的创造性Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.Duality 语言的二重性The duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meaning.Displacement 语言的移位性Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places.Cultural transmission 语言的文化传递性While human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e., we were born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned anew. This indicates that language is culturally transmitted. It is passed down from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※※Chapter 2 Phonology 音系学1.The phonic medium of language语言的声音媒介Speech and writing are the two media used by natural languages as vehicles for communication. Of the two media of language, speech is more basic than writing. Speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises.For linguists, the study of sounds is of greater importance than that of writing.The limited ranges of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language (语言的声音媒介) . The individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds （语音）. 2．What is phonetics?什么是语音学？Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language；It is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world‟s languages.There are three branches of phonetics. They are:Articulatory phonetics （发音语音学）, it studies the speech sounds from thespeaker‟s point of view. It studies how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds.Auditory phonetics （听觉语音学），it studies the s peech sounds from the hearer‟s point of view. It studies how the sounds are perceived by he hearer.Acoustic phonetics（声学语音学），it studies the speech sounds by looking at the sound waves. It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.ans of speech发音器官The pharyngeal cavity 咽腔the throatThe oral cavity 口腔the mouthThe nasal cavity 鼻腔the noseThe air stream coming from the lungs may be modified in these cavities in many ways. It may also be modified in the larynx (喉) before it reaches any of the cavities.Lying across the glottis (声门) are the vocal cords (声带). V ibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called “voicing”. The speed of the vibration determines the pitch of the sound.The tongue is the most flexible in the oral cavity.4.Orthographic representation of speech sounds –broad and narrowtranscriptions语音的书写形式－宽式和窄式音标IPA-International Phonetic Alphabet 国际音标There are two ways to transcribe speech sounds. One is the transcription with letter-symbols (字母符号) only, called broad transcription (宽式音标). The other is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics (变音符号), called narrow transcription (窄式音标).实例：对pit/spit中p音的比较：pit中的p是送气音，在窄式音标中标为上标，写作：[p h it]spit中的p是不送气音，在宽式音标中不作标示，写作：[spit]对leaf/feel/build/health中l音的比较：Leaf中l 在元音前，叫清晰音，在宽式音标中不作标示，写作：[li:f]Feel中l出现在单词结尾，叫模糊音，在窄式音标中加变音符号[~]Build中l出现在另一个辅音前，也叫模糊音，在窄式音标中也加变音符号[~]Health中l出现在齿音前，受其影响叫齿音[l]，在窄式音标中加变音符号[II]5.Classification of English speech sounds英语语音的分类a)Classification of English consonants英语辅音的分类按发音方式分Stop or plosive 塞音或爆破音: [p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g]Fricative 擦音：[f] [v] [s] [z] [ ] [❆] [s] [✞] [h]Affricate 塞擦音：[t☞][d✞]Liquid流音：[l] [r]Nasal鼻音：[m] [n] [☠]Glide滑音：[w] [j]按发音部位分Bilabial双唇音：[p] [b] [m] [w]Labiodental唇齿音：[f] [v]Dental齿音：[ ] [❆]Alveolar齿龈音：[t] [d] [s] [z] [n] [l] [r]Palatal硬腭音：[✞][t☞][d✞][i]V elar软腭音：[k] [g] [☠]Glottal声门音：[h]B) Classification of English vowels英语元音的分类按舌头在口中的位置分：Front vowel前元音：[i:] [i] [e] [✌] [a]Central vowel中元音：[☯:] [☯] [✈]Back vowel后元音：[u:] [u] [ :] [ ] [a:]按口形的大小分：Close vowel闭元音：[i:] [i] [u:] [u]Semi-close vowel半闭元音：[e] [☯:]Open vowel开元音：[✌] [a]Semi-open vowel半开元音：[☯] [ :] [✈] [ ] [a:]按唇形是否为圆分Unrounded vowel不圆唇元音：[i:] [i] [e] [✌] [a] [☯:] [☯] [✈] [a:]rounded vowel圆唇元音：[u:] [u] [ :] [ ]按语音的长短分Long vowel长元音[i:] [☯:][a:] [u:] [ :]Short vowel短元音[i] [e] [✌] [a] [☯] [✈] [u] [ ]在元音中还有一些(diphthong)双元音，包括：[ei] [ai] [☯u] [a u] [ i ] [i☯] [e☯] [u☯]6.Phonology 音系学Phonology and phonetics音系学和语音学Both phonology and phonetics are studies of speech sounds.Phonetics is of a general nature, it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages;Phonology is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language, it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. Thus these two are at once related and distinct branches of linguistic studies.Example:单词leap和peel中的[l]音有清晰音和模糊音之分，但音的不同对意义的表达并无关联。
00830现代语言学复习资料
现代语言学复习资料教材购买：第一章绪论?. , .. (普通语言学), , . （语音学）. （音系学）. （形态学）. （句法学）. （语义学）. （语用学）. （社会语言学）. （心理语言学）( ) . （应用语言学）, , ., （人类语言学） , （神经语言学） , （数字语言学） . （计算机语言学）, , , ..., “” .; . , .., .:. ;. ;. , , .[ə'ə]. ., .. , .语言能力和语言运用. ’.’ , . .?“”“”“” ., , ., ...)., . ., . , . .), .), , , . , , . . ), , . . , .), , .**********************************音系学., . . “” ., .(语言的声音媒介) .（语音）.． ?；’ .（发音语音学）, ’ . .（听觉语音学），’ . .（声学语音学）， . ..咽腔口腔鼻腔语音解剖图发音器官图. (字母符号) , (宽式音标). (变音符号), (窄式音标). 音的比较[]是不送气音，在宽式音标中不作标示，写作：[]音的比较在元音前，叫清晰音，在宽式音标中不作标示，写作：[][][][]，在窄式音标中加变音符号[])塞音或爆破音: [] [] [] [] [] []擦音：[] [] [] [] [] [] [] [] []塞擦音：[][][] [][] [] [][] [])[] [] [] [][] [][] [][] [] [] [] [] [] [][][][][][] [] [][])前元音：[:] [] [] [] []中元音：[[:] [[] []后元音：[:] [] [:] [] [:])分：闭元音：[:] [] [:] []半闭元音：[] [[:]开元音：[] []半开元音：[[] [:] [] [] [:])圆唇元音：[:] [] [:] [])长元音[:] [[:][:] [:] [:]短元音[] [] [] [] [[] [] [] []音系学., ;, . ., ,. . .义。
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自考《现代语言学》复习讲义一、常考题型1.填空2.单项选择3.判断正误4.解释词语并举例说明对名词解释并举一两个例子进行说明5.回答问题做题要求：用英文进行答题。
二、各章节学习要点Chapter 1 Introduction （绪论）1.What is linguistics?1.1 Definition （语言学的定义） P.1Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.Linguistics studies not any particular language, e.g., English, Chinese, Arabic, and Latin, but in language in general.1.2 The Scope of linguistics （语言学的研究范畴） P.2—4The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics(普通语言学).This deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study, in contrast to those branches of study which relate linguistics to the research of other areas.Main branches of linguistics 语言学的主要分支：1）phonetics（语音学） 2)phonology （音系学） 3)morphology （形态学） 4)syntax （句法学） 5)semantics （语义学） 6)pragmatics （语用学）The study of all these aspects of language forms the core of linguistics.Findings in linguistic studies can often be applie3d to the solution of such practical problems as the recovery of speech ability. The study of such applications is generally known as applied linguistics.Macrolinguistics 宏观语言学：1) Psycholingusitcs (心理语言学)；2) Sociolinguistics (社会语言学)；3) Anthropological linguistics (人类语言学)；4) Computational linguistics (计算语言学)1.3 Some important distinctions in linguistics P.4—7Modern linguistics, i.e., linguistic study carried out in this century is mostly descriptive.1.3.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic （共时性和历时性）In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study.1.3.3 Speech and writing （口头语和书面语）Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.1.3.4 Langue and parole （语言和言语）The distinction between langue and parole was made by the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure in the early 20th century.1.3.5 Competence and performance （语言能力和语言运用）Similar to Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole is the distinction between competence and performance, which was proposed by the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s.While Saussure’s distinction and Chomsky’s are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.2. What is language?2.1 Definitions of language p.9Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.(语言是人类在交际中使用的一套任意的声音符号系统。
)Language distinguishes us from animals because it is far more sophisticated than any animal communication system.2.2 Design features p.11—14Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communicationA framework was proposed by the American linguist Charles Hockett. He specified twelve design features, five of which will be discussed here.1) Arbitrariness （任意性）Language is arbitrary. This means that there is no logical relationship between meanings and sounds. While language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary. The arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.2) Productivity (创造性)Productivity is unique to human language.3) Duality (双重性)Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which is meaningless.4) Displacement （移位性）Language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future or in far-away places. In contrast, no animal communication possess this feature.5) Cultural transmission (文化传递性)While human capacity of language has a genetic basis, i.e., we were all born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.Chapter 2 Phonology (音系学)1. The phonic medium of language （语言的声音媒介）p.15—16Speech and writing are the two media or substances used by natural languages as vehicles for communication. Of the two media of language, speech is more basic than writing. For linguists, the study of sounds is of greater importance than that of writing; their dada for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from authentic, everyday speech.2.Phonetics (语音学)2.1 What is phonetics? p.16—17Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.articulatory phonetics (发音语音学)；auditory phonetics (听觉语音学)；acousticphonetics (声学语音学)Of the three branches of phonetics, the longest established, and until recently the most highly developed, is articulatory phonetics.2.2 Organs of speech (发音器官) p.17—22The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas or cavities: the pharyngeal cavity (咽腔)—the throat, the oral cavity(口腔)—the mouth, and the nasal cavity(鼻腔)—the nose. (人类的发声器官都被包括在三个重要的地方或腔道里；咽腔—即咽喉；口腔—即嘴；和鼻腔—即鼻子。