Spoken Language Processing under Network Environment
语言负迁移——精选推荐
语言迁移（language transfer）是指在第二语言学习中，学习者在使用第二语言时，借助于母语的发音、词义、结构规则或习惯来表达思想这样一种现象。
如果母语的语言规则和外语是一致的，那么母语的规则迁移会对目标语有积极的影响，这被称为正迁移（positive transfer）。
负迁移（negative transfer）则是指，如果母语的语言规则不符合外语的习惯，对外语学习产生消极影响。
语言迁移可以用来解释历史上不同民族之间的语言接触和语言变迁。
语言迁移是指母语的影响进入第二语言的习得，包括语言上的影响，如语音、语汇、语法、语义等方面的影响。
语言迁移还包括语言之外因素的影响，如思维模式、文化传统、社会历史等方面的影响。
某些语言学家认为，语言迁移只是由于学习者对外语的掌握不足。
认知主义学派的注意力主要投向迁移的制约性因素，以及迁移的认知准则研究。
所谓迁移的制约性因素研究就是研究由哪些因素制约迁移的发生和隐退。
Ellis（2000）列出了制约迁移的6 个因素：语言的不同层面，如音系、词汇、语法、语篇等；社会因素，如不同的交际对象与学习环境的影响；标记性，如某些语言特征的特殊性；原型概念，如某个词的某一涵义与其它意义相比在多大程度上被认为是核心、基础的；语言距离和心理语言类型，如学习者对一语和二语之间距离的心理感受；发展因素，如对中介语发展的自然过程的限制。
摘要: 英语写作历来是中国学生的薄弱环节,重要原因之一就是他们对英语的句法篇章规律缺乏了解, 从而在英语写作中套用汉语思维模式。
本文从思维方式、词汇、句法、语法四个层面对母语负迁移现象进行分析, 并提出若干减少母语负迁移对英语写作产生干扰的有效方法。
一、前言随着社会的发展, 英语写作无论在学校的英语学习中还是在实际的社会工作中都十分重要。
英语写作能力的高低能体现出学生英语综合素质。
然而它却是英语教学中的薄弱环节。
中国学生写英语作文时往往摆脱不了汉语思维的影响, 写出的文章大都句式单调、简单句堆砌甚至错误百出, 遣词造句处处留下汉语的痕迹, 这便是母语在英语写作中产生的负迁移, 它严重阻碍了学生英语写作能力的提高。
Chapter 6 语言学Language Processing in Mind-T
Chapter VI Language Processing in MindIntroductionWhy study language? LANGUAGE is a mirror of the mind in a deep and significant sense. It is a product of human intelligence, created anew in each individual by operations that lie far beyond the reach of will or consciousness. (Chomsky, Reflections on Language, 1975)Psycholinguistics is the study of “language and mind” , or to be more exact, can perhaps be glossed as the storage, comprehension, production and acquisition of language in any medium (spoken or written). PSYCHOLINGUISTICS is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structures. Less modestly, it sometimes also produces findings, which make their own mark on linguistic research, leading to the modification of theoretical ideas.PSYCHOLOGY OF LANGUAG语言心理学deals with more general topics such as the extent to which language shapes thought,PSYCHOLOGY OF COMMUNICATION 交际心理学includes non-verbal communication such as gestures and facial expressions.A possible divide within psycholinguistics is of those who style themselves COGNITIVE PSYCHOLINGUISTS are concerned above all with making inferences about the content of the human mindEXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLINGUISTS are somewhat more concerned with empirical matters, such as speed of response to a particular word.In practice the two schools of thought often overlap, but extreme supporters of each way of thinking sometimes perceive the gap as being a large one.Major strands of psycholinguistic research:and acquisition language.Section one: Language ComprehensionQ1: What is language comprehension?Q2: What is mind? brain/thinking processQ3: How do you understand language?Language comprehension: How do people use their knowledge of language and how do they understand what they hear or read?(includes both text comprehension and speech comprehension, either of which involves several processes. It is important for the reader or listener to take account of the grammatical structure and the meaning of what is being presented. Meaning is extracted from text or speech by reliant what is presented to information stored in long-term memory. )1. Word recognition is the first step in understanding any message, which includes not only the recognition of meanings of the words, but also the information that determines the syntactic structure of the rest of the sentence.How do we recognize words?Cohort theory集群理论: hypothesizes that auditory word recognition begins with the formation of a group of words at the perception of the initial sound and proceeds sound by sound with the cohort of words decreasing as more sounds are perceived.Factors affect word recognition:Frequency effect频率效应:Recency effect 近期效应：Context 语境: semantic association network: which represents the relationships between various semantically related words.2. Lexical ambiguityTwo theories used to distinguish ambiguous words:a)All the meanings associated with the word are accessedAll meanings of ambiguous words are accessed and time has to be taken to decide among them.b)Only one meaning is accessed initiallyFrequency and context effects are important here.3. Syntactic processingPsycholinguists generally assume that the syntactic structure is built as soon as possible rather than waiting to see what the whole string of word is before deciding what structure it has.Sentence ambiguity may occur due toa)The ambifuity of individual words and the different possible ways that words canbe fit into phrasesb)The ambiguous catefory of some of the words in the sentenceGarden path花园小径：a phenomenon concerning certain ambiguous sentences. Garden path sentences are sentences that are initially interpreted with a different structure than they actually have.How do people decide which structure an ambiguous sentence has in sentence processing?Minimal attachment theory最小接触理论: an idea that people initially construct the simplest (or least complex) syntactic structure when interpreting the structure of sentences.Other analysis: such as the one based on pragmatic plausibility.4. Semantic and sentence memoryMemory representations are not syntactic under certain conditions (see the experiment P202, which indicate that the syntactic details of linguistic material are not usually stored for very long and that it is a representation of a sentence’s meaning which a subject has available in his memory under normal circumstances.) Assimilation theory: emphasis on the importance of background knowledge in “normal”situations where we might memorize linguistic material.5. Basic process in readinga)Eye movement: information is obtained from the text only during fixationsand not at all during saccades.(P204)b)The perceptual span感知时距：the range of letters from which usefulinformation is extracted.c)The immediacy assumption即时假定：A reader is supposed to carry out theprocesses required to understand each word and its relationship to previouswords in the sentence as soon as that word is encountered.Section Two Discourse话语/text语篇InterpretationQ1. What is schemata and reference drawing?Q2. What is text interpretation?Introduction:Discourse serves as a context, affecting sentence and word-level interpretation, tipping the interpretation of what would otherwise be ambiguous words or phrases in a certain direction.a)General context effects: occur all the time when our generalknowledge about the world influences language comprehension.b)Specific context effects: involve information obtained from earlierparts of a discourse.1.Schemata 图式and inference drawing推论Schemata: packets of stored knowledge, whicha)can vary considerably in the information they contain. from the verysimple to the very complexb)are frequently organized hierarchically; for example, in addition toa rather general restaurant schema or script, we probably also havemore specific restaurant schemata for different kinds ofrestaurant(e.g. fat-food places, up-market French restaurants, andson on).c)operate in a top-down or conceptually driven way to facilitateinterpretation of environmental stimuli.Inference drawing: Language comprehension frequently requires us to go far beyond the literal meanings of the sentences we read or her. Essential information is often only implied. So that it is necessary to draw inferences in order to understand fully what is intended.The inferences which people draw are stored in long-term memory along with information about the sentences actually presented (Bransford, Barclay. And Franks,1972)2.Story structure:Our comprehension of and memory for stories are highly “ selective”, inthe sense that we focus on the central theme of the story rather than onthe relatively unimportant details. According to Van Dijik and Kintsch(1983), a story is first of all processed so that the individual propositionsare extracted (theory of story processing). The propositions of a storyenter into a short-term working buffer of limited capacity. When thebuffer contains a number propositions, the reader or listener tries torelate them to each other in a coherent fashion . In general terms,subsequent ability to remember the propositions depends on the length oftime they spend in the working buffer. Those propositions which arehighly relevant to the main theme of a story tend to be stored for arelatively long time in the working buffer. Therefore, thematicinformation should be better remembered than non-thematic information.Section Three Language ProductionQ1. What is Language production?Q2. What are the means of Language production?Language production: is very definitely a goal-driven activity, in the sense that people speak and write in order to make friends, influence people, convey information, and so on, which include two forms of production, namely, speech production and writing.1.speech productionAccording to Garrett (1976; 1984), there are altogether 5 different levels ofrepresentation involved in speaking a sentence, and they occur in the following sequence:1)The message-level representation2)The functional-level representation3)The positional-level representation4)The phonetic-level representation5)The articulatory-level representationErrors which may support that notion that speakers engage in reasonableelaborate planning before beginning to speak:Spoonererism首音互换/slip of the tongue舌头打滑): the initial letter orletters of two words are transposedAnticipation error预期错误: occur when a word is spoken earlier in thesentence than it should be: (the school is at school)Exchange error交换错误：two items within a sentence are swapped. (this isthe happiest life of my day).The following error prove the sequence of 2nd and 3rd proposed byGarrett:(speakers decide on the grammatical structure of a proposedutterance in the functional-level representation, and then select theappropriate words to fit into that structure in the subsequent position-levelrepresentation)Morpheme-exchange errors: in which roots or basic forms of two words areswitched leaving the grammatical structure unchanged. (He has alreadytrunked two packs)2.Written languageAccording to Hayes and Flower (1986), writing essentially consists of threeinter-related processes:1)The planning process2)The sentence generation process3)The revision processQ: What are the factors that influence or determine the quality of the writingplan? (relevant knowledge about the topic to be written about, strategicknowledge: knowledge of the methods used in construction a writing plan inorder to make it coherent and well-organized)Q: Who use the following writing strategies respectively, knowledge-tellingstrategy and knowledge-transforming strategy?knowledge-telling strategy: simply write down everything children can thinkof tht is relevant to a topic without organizing the information in any way(Scardamalia and Bereiter, 1987)knowledge-transforming strategy: involves focusing on potential problemswithin the planning process ( Are the main points arranged in the mostlogical order”)Here are some more examples of garden path sentences. Can you figure out what the structure of these sentences is?1.The boat floated downstream sank.2.While Mary was mending the sock fell off her lap.3.The daughter of the King’s son admires himself.。
Spoken language and written language
Spoken Language and Written Language外国语学院英语11-2201101080218潘玉婷[Abstract]:Spoken language and written language are different in essence. In general, in my opinion, spoken language is informal, written language is formal. They are used in different occasions.[Key words]:Spoken language written language[The introduction of language]:Language is a tool of communication. In some degree, we can divide it into two types: spoken language and written language. It is generally believed that spoken language is a communicative tool of listening and speaking, written language is written or printed to convey information.“Language is a tool of communication.In some degree, we can divide it into two types: spoken language and written language. It is generally believed that spoken language is a communicative tool of listening and speaking, written language is written or printed to convey information.”From Russell Hunt:The Language of Print and the Language of talk [The introduction of spoken language]:T.S.Eliot said, an identical spoken and written language would be practically intolerable. If we spoke as we write we should find no one to listen; and if we wrote as we speak we should find no one to read. The spoken and written language must not be too near together, as they must not be too far apart. In my opinion, spoken language is informal. It sometimes called oral language, which is produced in its spontaneous form, as opposed to written language. In spoken language, it is an efficient way for social or phatic communication. All words are made up from a limited set of vowels and consonants. The spoken words they make are stringed into syntactically organized sentences and phrases. And the vocabulary and grammar together with the speech sounds it used define its identity as a particular natural language.[The introduction of written language]:Written language refers to communication in its written form-specifically skills contributing to and including reading and writing. The sentence is more obvious as a grammatical unit in writing, although certainly not in all kinds of writing: signs and notices, small ads, notes, forms, tickets, cheques, all contain frequent examples of “non-sentences.”The written language can be significantly more precise. Written words can be chosen with greater deliberation and thought, and a written argument can be extraordinarily sophisticated, intricate, and lengthy. These attributes of writing are possible because the pace of involvement is controlled by both the writer and the reader. The writer can write and rewrite at great length, a span of time which in some cases can be measured in years. Similarly, the reader can read quickly or slowly or even stop to think about what he or she has just read. More importantly, the reader always has the option of re-reading; even if that option is not exercised, its mere possibility has an effect upon a reader's understanding of a text. The written word appeals more to a contemplative, deliberative style.[The relationship between spoken language and written language]: The relationship between spoken language and written language is complex. Within the field of linguistics the current consensus is that speech is an innate human capability while written language is a cultural invention. However some linguistics, argue that written and spoken language possess distinct qualities which would argue against written language being dependent on spoken language for its existence.As English leaners, we should have an idea of what the differences between spoken and written language. Spoken language and written language are now seen as alternative, “equal” systems of linguistic expression, and research has begun to investigate the nature and extent of the differences between them. Referring to the research, first, spoken language and written language differ in the way of how they are produced; second, they fit for different occasions, which indicate their occurrences are different; third, the differences of structure and use between spoken language and written language are inevitable. These three points will be talkedabout specifically in the following essay.From the point of view of production, it is clear that spoken language and written language make somewhat different demands on language-producers. Generally speaking, spoken language is time—bound, dynamic, and transient while written language is space—bound, static and permanent.The communicative systems the speaker controls the production differs from that the writer does. The speaker must monitor what it is that he has just said, and determine whether it matches his intentions. While he is saying his current words, he must plan his next phrases simultaneously . He has no permanent record of what he had said earlier. Therefore, the speaker would he under great pressure to keep on talking during the period of time given to him. In contrast, the writer may take a long time choosing a particular word, with no fear of his interlocutor interrupting him, for he is distant from his interlocutor. The writer may take a longtime finishing his work, during which he can consult the dictionary, refer to his notes and even change his mind freely. There is no pressure from his interlocutor.The speaker can notice his interlocutors’ reaction immediately, which is an advantage for him. He can observe his interlocutor get the direct feedback from them. If he finds something wrong in his interlocutor’s reaction, he modify what what he is saying to make it more accessible or acceptable to his hearer. On the contrary, the writer has no access to immediate feedback and he has to imagine the readers’ reaction, which, of course may guess wrong at times. [Conclusion]:From above we can see there are many obvious differences between spoken language and written language. Spoken language is transmitted by means of voice and sounds, while written language is transmitted by letters and grammar, thus spoken language can use “voice quality” while written language does not have this advantage. Speaker is under great pressure but can get immediate response from his interlocutor whereas the writer has no pressure from his interlocutor but can not have the immediate feedback from them.。
语言学辽宁慕课习题整理chapter1-7
语言学辽宁慕课习题整理chapter1-7Chapter 1 Invitations to linguistics1introduction to linguistics选择题1、Which of the following statements is NOT true?A Language consists of the systems of sounds and grammar.B Language is instrumental.C Language is social and conventional.D Language is a system of symbols.2、The scope of linguistic study may be generally divided into ______________.A interlinguistic study and extralinguistic studyB sociolinguistics and psycholinguisticsC descriptive linguistics and prescriptive linguisticsD phonetics and phonology3、Saussure made the distinction between _______________.A Langue and paroleB theoretical linguistics and applied linguisticsC comparative linguistics and historical linguisticsD competence and performance4、Chomsky made the distinction between _______________.A diachronic linguistics and synchronic linguisticsB Langue and paroleC competence and performanceD comparative linguistics and historical linguistics5、As modern linguistics aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, and not to lay down rules for “correct” linguistic behavior, it is said to be ___________.A prescriptiveB descriptiveC sociolinguisticD psycholinguistic判断题6、Language consists of the systems of sounds and grammar.7、The actual production and comprehension of the speech by speakers of a language is called performance.8、English is an intonation language.9、The fact that children can speak before they can read or write shows that language is arbitrary.10、According to Chomsky, a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called his linguistic competence.答案：AAACB X√√X√2design features of language选择题1、Which of the following is NOT a frequently discussed design feature of language?A DualityB ConventionC DisplacementD Arbitrariness.2、“I can refer to Confucius even though he died 2000 years ago.” This shows that language has the design feature of __________.A dualityB creativityC arbitrarinessD displacement3、The design feature of __________ refers to the property ofhaving two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level.A arbitrarinessB creativityC displacementD duality4、One of the properties of language is that a language user can understand and produce sentences he/she has never heard before. This property of language is called ________.A productivityB dualityC displacementD arbitrariness5、In broad terms, linguists agree to define language as a system of ____vocal symbols used for human communication.A arbitraryB conventionalC motivatedD dual答案：BDDAA3origins of language选择题1、There are some well-known theories about the origin of language, the natural response theory, also called .A the sing-song theoryB the pooh-pooh theoryC the Ding-Dong theoryD the yo-he-ho theory2、Ding-Dong theory is put forward by German scholar .A M. MULLerB HallidayC SaussureD Malinowski3、holds that language develops from primitive ritual songs of praise.A the yo-he-ho theoryB The sing-song theoryC the pooh-pooh theoryD the Ding-Dong theory4、holds that language originated from people’s imitations of animal cries and other sounds heard in nature.A The bow-wow theoryB the pooh-pooh theoryC the yo-he-ho theoryD the Ding-Dong theory判断题5、The bow-wow theory is a theory on the origin of language.6、Now linguists have known the specific origin of language.7、The yo-he-ho theory explains that language originated from the cries uttered during strain of work.答案：CABA √X√4functions of language选择题1、When people use language to express attitudes, feelings and emotions, people are using the ____________function of language.A creativeB phaticC emotiveD metalingual2、The social functions of language do NOT include_______________.A interrogative functionB phatic functionC metacognitive functionD informative function3、Which of the following is NOT a metafunction of language proposed by Halliday?A IdeationalB ConventionalC InterpersonalD Textual4、The social functions of language do NOT include_______________.A interrogative functionB informative functionC metacognitive functionD phatic function5、The ______ function refers to the fact that language can be used for establishing a favorable atmosphere or maintaining social contact rather than for exchanging information or ideas.A phaticB evocativeC directiveD performative判断题6、“Language operates by rules” is a fu ndamental view about language.7、When people use language to indulge in itself for its ownsake, people are using the creative function of language.8、According to Halliday’s theory of metafunctions of language, interpersonal function enacts social relationship.9、According to Halliday, a theory of metafunctions of language, that is , language has ideational, interpersonal and textual function.10、When people use language to indulge in itself for its own sake, people are using the poetic function of language.答案：CCBCA √X√√√Chapter 1 主观题1、名词解释：Diachronic linguisticsDiachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history.2、名词解释：Synchronic linguisticsA synchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present) as its point of observation.3、名词解释：PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguistics is the study of psychological aspects of language; it usually studies the psychological states and mental activity associated with the use of language. Most problems in psycholinguistics are more concrete, involving the study of language acquisition especially in children and linguistic performance such as producing and comprehending utterances or sentences among adults.4、名词解释：DualityBy Duality is meant the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. The property of duality only exists in such a system, namely, with both elements and units.Besides, the language is hierarchical.5、名词解释：DisplacementDisplacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. Displacement benefits human beings by giving them the power to handle generalizations and abstractions. In a word, the intellectual benefits of displacement to us is that it makes it possible for us to talk and think in abstract terms.6、Do you think that onomatopoeia indicates a non-arbitrary relationship between form and meaning? Why or why not?No matter whether you say “Yes” or “No”, you cannot deny that onomatopoeia needsarbitrariness. Before we feel a word is onomatopoeic we should first know which sound the word imitates. In order to imitate the noise of flying mosquitoes, there are many choices like “murmurous” and “murderous”. They both bear more or less resemblance to the genuine natural sound, but “murmurous” is fortunately chosen to mean the noise while “murderous” is chose n to mean something quite different. They are arbitrary as signifiers.（参考答案）No, I don't think so. There exists the arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning. Also, in English, totally different words are used to describe the sound. In fact, arbitrariness and onomatopoeic effect may work at the same time. For example, Widdowson cites a line from Keats' Ode to a Nightingale to illustrate. The murmurous haunt of flies on summer eves. To test this, just think of using the similar sounding word murderous to substitute murmurous, and no connectionwhatsover will be established between the sounds and the little noises of the flying flies. "It's only when you know the meaning that you infer that the form is appropriate." （我的答案）7、Illustrate the origins of language you have known.The sing-song theory: it holds that language develops from primitive ritual songs of praise.The Ding-Dong theory: the natural response theory postulates that language began with vocal expressions being assigned to objects found in the environment.The pooh-pooh theory: the theory traces language back to interjections which expresses the speakers’ emotions.The yo-he-ho theory: it explains that language originated form the cries uttered during strain of work.The bow-wow theory: it holds that language originated from people’s imitations of animal cries and other sounds heard in nature.Ta-Ta theory: it believes that body movement preceded language. language began as an unconscious vocal imitation of these movements.8、Language is generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Explain it in detail.Language is a means of verbal communication. It is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiotic and communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction including such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles.Chapter 2 Phonetics5phonetics选择题1、Pair ___________ doesn’t form a minimal pair.A cat and actB tip and dipC gap and capD pat and pad2、The study of the production of speech sounds is closely connected with ____________.A articulatory phoneticsB auditory phoneticsC acoustic phoneticsD arbitrary phonetics3、The study of the physical properties of speech sounds is closely connected with ____________.A acoustic phoneticsB articulatory phoneticsC auditory phoneticsD arbitrary phonetics4、The study of the perception of speech sounds is closely connected with .A acoustic phoneticsB articulatory phoneticsC auditory phoneticsD arbitrary phonetics5、Pair ________is not in complementary distribution.A spot and potB stop and topC light and gladD school and cool判断题1、A single phoneme always represents a single morpheme.2、When the vocal folds are apart, the air can pass through easily and the sound produced is said to be voiced.3、Cave and shave forms a minimal pair.4、Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.5、The tongue is divided into five parts: the tip, the blade, the front, the back and the root.主观题1、Please describe what is phoneme.The speech sound segments that can distinguish or contrast words in sound and meaning are phonemes. (A phoneme is the minimal or smallest distinctive linguistic unit in a language.)2、Please describe what is complementary distribution.The different allophones of the same phoneme never occur in the same phonetic context. When two or more allophones of one phoneme never occur in the same linguistic environment they are said to be in complementary distribution.答案：AAACC ××√√√6English Consonan t选择题1、The classification and description of English consonants are based on ___________________.A narrow and broad transcriptionB the shape of vocal tractC the place and manner of articulationD the position of the tongue2、According to the manner of articulation, [m] is a ___________.A nasalB plosiveC bilabialD lateral3、In terms of the place of articulation, the following sounds [t], [n], [z] share the feature of ____________.A alveolarB velarC palatalD bilabial4、Which of the following sounds is a bilabial?A [ t ]B [ b ]C [ g ]D [ d ]5、Which of the following sounds is an alveolar?A [ d ]B [ m ]C [ g ]D [ b ]判断题1、The difference between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of the airstream.2、According to the manner of articulation, [s] is a fricative.3、English consonants can be classified in terms of place of articulation and the part of the tongue that is raised the highest.4、According to the manner of articulation, some of the types into which the consonants can be classified are stops, fricatives, bilabial and alveolar.5、/d/ is a voiced alveolar stop.主观题Please describe what are consonants.Consonants are sounds produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert, impede or completely shut off the flow of the air in the oral cavity.答案：CAABA √√××√7English Vowels1、The classification and description of English vowels are based on ___________________.A the position of the tongueB the shape of the lipsC the shape of vocal tractD all of the above2、The difference between vowels and consonants lies in ___________________.A the intonation of the soundsB the obstruction of the airstreamC the place and manner of articulationD the aspiration of the sounds3、A ____ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintaining the highest position.A centralB frontC middleD back3、can be differentiated by a number of factors: the position of tongue in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels.A Consonant soundsB Voicing soundsC Vowel soundsD devoicing sounds主观题1、Please describe what are vowels.V owels are sounds produced without obstruction, so no turbulence or a total stopping of the a ir can be perceived.2、What are the criteria that a linguist uses in classifying vowels?1. V owels may be distinguished as front, central and back in terms of the position of the tongue in the mouth.2. According to how wide our mouth is opened, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semiclose vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels.3. According to the shape of the lips, vowels are divided into rounded vowels and unrounded vowels.4. The English vowels can also be classified into long vowels and short vowels according to the length of the sound.答案：DBBCChapter 3 Phonology8phonology选择题1、Of all the speech organs, the _______ is/are the most flexible.A lipsB tongueC mouthD vocal cords2、A(n) ___________ is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit, a collection of distinctive phonetic features.A soundB phoneC phonemeD allophone3、The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the ____ of that phoneme.A phonesB soundsC allophonesD phonemes4、Since /p/ and /b/ are phonetically similar, occur in the same environments and they can distinguish meaning, they are said to be ___________.A in phonemic contrastB the allophonesC in complementary distributionD minimal pair5、The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying”a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones ____________.A sameB identicalC exactly alikeD similar判断题1、Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies the combinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication.2、Phonology is concerned with how the sounds can be classified into different categories.3、The rules governing the phonological patterning arelanguage specific.4、Distinctive features of sound segments can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments.5、When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a phonemic contrast.主观题What are the major differences between phonology and phonetics?1．They differ in their approach and focus.2．Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they p ossess, how they can be classified.3．Phonology, on the other hand, is interested in the system of sounds of a particular languag e; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are use d to convey meaning in linguistic communication.答案：BCCA D √×√√×9coarticulation选择题1、When such simultaneous or overlapping articulation are involved, we call the process .A coarticulationB aspirationC nasalizationD epenthesis2、In producing a nasal the soft palate is lowered to allow airflow through the .A nasal tractB vocal foldsC vocal cordsD larynx3、The fact that the vowel in lamb has some quality of the following nasal is a phenomenon we call .A devoicingB velarizationC nasalizationD aspiration4、In coarticulation, if the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in lamb, it is known as .A perseverative coarticulationB aspirationC nasalizationD anticipatory coarticulation5、When we use a simple set of symbols in our transcription, it is called a .A aspirationB narrow transcriptionC nasalizationD broad transcription判断题1、In English, the distinction between aspirated [p?] and unaspirated [p] is not phonemic.2、In the word peak, /p/ is unaspirated, phonetically transcribed as [p]3、Aspiration is a distinctive feature in English.4、In phonetic terms, phonemic transcriptions represent the “narrow” transcription.5、Speech is a continuous process, so the vocal organs donot move from one sound segment to thenext in a series of separate steps.主观题名词解释：CoarticulationCoarticulation：Simultaneous or overlapping articulations, as when the nasal quality of a nasal sound affects the preceding or following sound so that the latter becomes nasalized. If the affected sound becomes more like the following sound, it is known as anticipatory coarticulation; if the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is perseverative coarticulation.答案：AACDD √×××√10suprasegmentals选择题1、Which of the following is NOT a Suprasegmental feature?A toneB intonationC syllableD stress2、In a syllable, a vowel often serves as ____________.A onsetB sequenceC peak or nucleusD coda3、The word “digitalization” consists of _______ syllables, and _________ morphemes.A six/ threeB five/ threeC six/ fourD five /five4、The word “digitalization” consists of _______ syllables, and _________ morphemes.A six/ threeB six/ fourC five /fiveD five/ three5、Distinctive features can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called _______.A immediate constituentsB phonetic componentsC suprasegmental featuresD semantic features主观题1、名词解释：suprasegmental featuresThe features that occur above the level of the segments and can distinguish meaning are called suprasegmental features, which include syllable structure, stress, tone and intonation.2、名词解释： intonationWhen pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation,they are collectively known as intonation.3、Illustrate with examples how suprasegmental features can affect meaning.1. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning, such as `import and im`port. The similar alternation of stress also occurs between a compound noun and a phrase consisting of the same elements. A phonological feature of the English compounds, is that the stress of the word always falls on the firstelement and the second element receives secondary stress, for example: `blackbird is a particular kind of bird, which is not necessarily black, but a black `bird is a bird that is black.2. The more important words such as nouns, verbs adjectives, adverbs, etc. are pronounced with greater force and made more prominent. But to give special emphasis to a certain notion, a word in sentence that is usually unstressed can be stressed to achieve different effect. Take the sentence “He is driving my car.” for example. To emphasize the fact that the car he is driving is not his, or yours, but mine, the speaker can stress the possessive pronoun my, which under normal circumstances is not stressed.3. English has four basic types of intonation, known as the four tones: When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings. Generally speaking, the falling tone indicates that what is said is a straight-forward, matter-of-fact statement, the rising tone often makes a question of what is said, and the fall-rise tone often indicates that there is an implied message in what is said.答案：CCCBCChapter 4 Morphology11morphology选择题1.Derivational affixes are bound morphemes added to existing form to construct new words. English derivational affixes are divided into ________and _______.A prefixes, infixesB suffixes and infixesC prefixes, suffixesD morphemes, allomorphs2.In the word “unavailability”, ______________ is the root.A unB availableC availD ability3.In today’s grammar we normally say that English does not have a “future tense”. This is because in English ________________.A the future can be expressed in many waysB the future is not expressed by morphological changeC the future is expressed by modal verbsD the future belongs to the category of “aspect”4.The morpheme “vision” in the word “television” is a(n)____________.A inflectional morphemeB bound formC free morphemeD bound morpheme5.Which of the following words is made up of bound morphemes only?A televisioB happinessC ecologyD teacher6.Morpheme is the minimal unit of meanin7.–ing is an “inflectional suffix”8.Stems in English can be classified into derivational morphemes and inflectional morphemes.9.The bound morpheme in “apples” is inflectional morpheme.10.Although is an open-class word.主观题11..名词解释：RootRoot: Root refers to the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without loss of identity. That is to say, it is that part of the word that is left when all the affixes are removed. And roots can be further classified into free root morpheme and bound root morpheme.12.名词解释：AllomorphAllomorph: A morpheme, like a phoneme, is a linguistic abstraction, which must be realized as certain phonetic forms or variants in different phonetic environments. Each of the phonetic for ms or variants is a morph. A single morpheme may be phonetically realized as two or more morph s. The different morphs that represent or which are derived from one morpheme is called the allom orphs of that morpheme答案：CCBCC √√×√×12word formation选择题1._________can best describe the following group of words: table--tables, influenza--flu.A Inflection and derivationB Derivation and blendingC Inflection and abbreviationD Compound and derivation2.Which of the following ways of word-formation does not change the grammatical class of the stem?A inflectionB compoundC derivationD coinage3._________can best describe the word formation rules of thefollowing group of words: to burgle (from burglar), Eurodollar (from European + dollar).A Back-formation and blendingB Inflection and derivationC Derivation and blendingD Compound and derivation4._________can best describe the following group of words: table—tables, day + break—daybreak.A Inflection and derivationB Derivation and blending.C Compound and derivation.D Inflection and compound5.__________can be best describe the following group of words: advertisement—ad, bicycle—bike.A abbreviationB compoundC derivationD coinage6.“Invention” is a form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial par t of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two w ords.7.Blending is a relatively complex form of compounding.8.Derivation does not change the grammatical class of the stem.9.Derivation can be further divided into two sub-types: the derivational type and the compositional type.10.Inflection shows a relationship between roots and affixes.主观题11.What is the distinction between inflectional affixes andderivational affixes?1.When an affix, usually a suffix in English, indicates the tense of a verb, the plurality of a counta ble noun, or the comparative/superlative degree of an adjective, it is termed as inflectional morphe me. For example, '-ed' in 'worked', '-ing' in 'studying', '-s' in 'books' or 'er' in 'shorter' and 'est' in 'lo ngest' are all inflectional morphemes. Usually, the inflectional morpheme will not change the part of speech of a word to which it is attached.2.But a derivational morpheme usually changes the part of speech of a word to which it is attached . When we attach '-al' to the word 'nation' to form 'national', the part of speech of the word 'nation', i.e. a noun, has been changed into an adjective. As we can see, the concept of derivational morphe me is related to a kind of word formation called derivation.答案：CAADA ×√×√×Chapter 5 Syntax13concept of grammar选择题1.A sentence is considered ____ when it does not conform to the grammatical knowledge in the mi nd of native speakers.A wrongB ungrammaticalC rightD grammatical2. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause.A particleB prepositionC subordinatorD coordinator3. Phrase structure rules have ____ properties.A recursiveB grammaticalC socialD functional4. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand _____________.A All of the above.B how words and phrases form sentences.C what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of wordsD how people produce and recognize possible sentences5. The syntactic rules of any language are ____ in number.A smallB largeC finiteD infinite判断题6.Descriptive grammar refers to grammarian’s attempt to legislate what speakers’ grammatical rules should be, rather than what they are.7.Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.8.Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules that comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker are known as linguistic competence9.The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.10.In a complex sentence, the two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinating the other.答案：DBDDD XX√√√主观题1. What are the basic components of a sentence?Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject and its predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.2. What are the major types of sentences? Illustrate them with examples.①Traditionally, there are three major types of sentences. They are simple sentence, coordinate (compound) sentence, and complex sentence. A simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.For example: John reads extensively.②A coordinate sentence conta ins two clauses joined by a linking word that is calledcoordinat ing conjunction, such as “and”, “but”, “or”.For example: John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparing for her history exam.A complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentence do not have equal status, one is subordinate to the other.For example: Before John gave her a lecture, Mary showed no interest in linguistics.14Cultural Approach选择题1. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause.。
番茄花园-UnderstandingandTeachingSpokenEnglish-
金利民
北京外国语大学英语学院
Outline
Features of the spoken language Teaching spoken English: Principles and practice How to use A Speaking Course
Turn-taking:
a typical, orderly arrangement in which participants speak with minimal overlap and gap between them. Short-turns: one or two sentences; long turns: can be an hour’s lecture.
e.g. can’t = cannot I’ll = I will
Elision:
the omission or slurring (eliding) of one or more sounds or syllables
e.g. gonna = going to wanna be = want to be wassup = what’s up
Part Two: Preview
What should be taught and what can be taught? The roles of a spoken English teacher Basic principles in teaching spoken English Some suggestions for the design of activities
2.1 What should be taught and what
Language and Linguistics
A, Interpersonal function C, Informative function B, Performative function D, Recreational function
Q2
studies the rules governing the combination of words into sentences?
(语言的区别性特征)
1,Arbitrariness(任意性) 【forms / meaning】 2,Duality(二重性) 【2 levels of structures】 3,Creativity(创造性) 【resourceful能产性】 4,Displacement(移位性) 【time、space】
Distinctions in Linguistics
(语言学中的重要区别)
1,Prescriptive & Descriptive(规定式和描写式)
【强加规则或正确标准 / 发现记录共同遵循的规则】
2,Synchronic & Diachronic(共时研究与历时研 究) 【某一特定时期/各阶段历史发展】 3,Langue & Parole(语言与言语) 【语言系统的整体
/个体在实际使用环境中的具体话语】Saussure
4,Competence & Performance(语言能力与语 言运用) 【知识储备/语言使用】【Chomsky:Aspects
of the Theory of Syntax《句法理论的若干问题》】
Q1 Which of the following is the most important
Functions of Language(语言的功能)
英语口语学习策略ppt
+
productive.
Social Strategies in Speaking Learning
It contains centering one 's learning, arranging and planning one 's learning, and evaluating one 's learning. So, we can apply the following specific methods:
04
Indirect Strategies in Speaking Learning
Indirect Strategies in Speaking Learning
metacognitive strategies
affective strategies
social strategies
Metacognitive Strategies in Speaking Learning
➢ It includes asking questions, cooperating with others and empathizing with others.
➢ To find a platform to persist in outputting what you learned. No matter it is on-line or off-line, just do it.
English spoken language
What are you trying to say?（你到底想说什么？）Don't be silly.（别胡闹了。
）How strong are your glasses?（你近视多少度？）Just because.（没有别的原因。
）It isn't the way I hoped it would be.（这不是我所盼望的。
）You will never guess.（你永远猜不到。
）No one could do anything about it.（众人对此束手无措。
）I saw something deeply disturbing.（深感事情不妙。
）Money is a good servant but a bad master.（要做金钱的主人，莫做金钱的奴隶。
）I am not available.（我正忙着）Wisdom in the mind is better than money in the hand.(脑中的知识比手中的金钱更重要）Never say die.it's a piece of cake.别泄气，那只是小菜一碟。
Don't worry.you'll get use to it soon.别担心，很快你就会习惯的。
I konw how you feel.我明白你的感受。
You win some.you lose some.胜败乃兵家常事。
Don't bury your head in the sand.不要逃避现实。
I didn't expect you to such a good job.我没想到你干得这么好。
You are coming alone well.你做得挺顺利。
She is well-build.她的身材真棒。
You look neat and fresh.你看起来很清纯。
You have a beautiful personality.你的气质很好。
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Users
Output Speech
Sentence Generation and Speech Synthesis Response to the user
Internet
Wireless Networks
Discourse Context
Dialogue Manager
User’s Intention
金 聲 玉 振
National Taiwan University
Spoken Language Processing under Network Environment
金 聲 玉 振
National Taiwan University
Role of Spoken Language Processing under Network Environment
Information Speech/ Text-to-speech Indexing Language Synthesis & Understanding Retrieval
Basic Technologies
9 Prosodic Modeling 8
Spontaneous Speech Processing: pronunciation modeling disfluencies, etc.
Spoken Language Processing under Network Environment — Some Example Works at Taiwan university
Lin-shan Lee
National Taiwan University
金 聲 玉 振
National Taiwan University
National Taiwan University
Spoken Document Retrieval
Voice Instructions
Text Instructions
我想找有關紐約受到恐怖攻擊的新聞？
Text Information
Multimedia Information including Speech
Internet
Multimedia Content Analysis
• Network Access is Primarily Text-based today, but almost all Roles of Texts can be Accomplished by Speech • User-Content Interaction can be Accomplished by Spoken and Multi-modal Dialogues • Many Hand-held Devices with Multimedia Functionalities Commercially Available Today • Using Speech Instructions to Access Multimedia Content whose Key Concepts Specified 金 聲 玉 振 by Speech Information
–
Intelligent Working Environment
–
virtual banking – on–line transactions – on–line investments
e–mail processors – intelligent agents – teleconferencing – distant learning
金 聲 玉 振
National Taiwan University
User-Content Interaction — Wireless and Multimedia Technologies are Creating An Era of Network Access by Spoken Language Prut Speech
Speech Recognition and Understanding
Dialogue Server
金 聲 玉 振
National Taiwan University
Hierarchy of Research Areas
金 聲 玉 振
National Taiwan University
4 15 Multilingual Dictation Distributed Speech Speech & Recognition and Transcription Wireless Environment Processing
Integrated Technologies
Speech Recognition Core
11
10
2 Linguistic Processing & Language Modeling
3 Decoding & Search Algorithms
1 Acoustic Processing: features, modeling, etc. Wireless Transmission & Network Environment
Text-to-Speech Synthesis
Spoken and multi-modal Dialogue text information Text Content Multimedia Content
voice information
Spoken Document Retrieval Text Information Retrieval
User-Content Interaction
—all text-based interaction can be accomplished by spoken language
金 聲 玉 振
National Taiwan University
User Interface —Wireless Communications Technologies are Creating a Whole Variety of User Terminals
— human fingers never shrink, and application environment is changed
Service Requirements Growing Exponentially Voice is the Only Interface Convenient for ALL User Terminals at Any Time, from Anywhere 金 聲 玉
芝麻開門
—語音技術開啟資訊世界的新大門
李琳山
國立台灣大學電機資訊學院
金 聲 玉 振
National Taiwan University
Outline
• Spoken Language Processing under Network Environment • Hierarchy of Research Areas • Some Example Works at National Taiwan University • Demo • Conclusion
– weather, traffic – flight schedule – stock price – sports scores
Private Services
Knowledge Archieves
– digital libraries – virtual museums
Electronic Commerce
振
National Taiwan University
Content Analysis—Multimedia Technologies are Creating a New World of Multimedia Content
Future Integrated Networks
Real–time Information
Hierarchy of Research Areas
Applications
Applied Technologies
12 Speech-based Multimedia Information Technologies Retrieval 14 Spoken Dialogue 13
Spoken Document Understanding and organization
Internet
User Interface
Content Analysis
User Interface Content Analysis
User-Content Interaction
—when keyboards/mice inadequate
— help in browsing/retrieval of multimedia content
– personal notebook – business databases – home appliances – network entertainments
• Most Attractive Form of the Network Content will be in Multimedia, which usually Includes Speech Information (but Probably not Text) • Multimedia Content Difficult to be Summarized and Shown on the Screen, thus Difficult to Browse • The Speech Information, if Included, usually Tells the Subjects, Topics and Concepts of the Multimedia Content, thus Becomes the Key for Browsing and Retrieval • Multimedia Content Analysis based on Speech Information