Pedagogical Terminology

Pedagogical Terminology1)Action research: Type of teacher-initiated research. Teachers look critically andsystematically at their own classrooms for the purposes of improving their own teaching and enhancing the quality of learning that takes place.2)Analysis of word parts: Vocabulary-building activity in which students break down wordsinto their smallest parts to identify prefixes, suffixes and stems.3)Background knowledge; Prior knowledge that readers utilize in interpreting a text. Thisincludes general, cultural, and topic-specific knowledge.4)Book flood program: A reading program in which students are provided with large amountof interesting reading material, designed to be read, discussed, and shared in a variety of ways.5)Constructivist models of reading: Models of reading comprehension and interpretation thatderive from the perspective of the reader. Since readers actively construct the comprehension of the text, the text meaning is essentially what the reader determines the text to mean. These theories are useful for understanding how literary texts can be understood in multiple ways and at multiple levels by different readers. However, as theories of reading development, they offer no detailed explanation for the development of reading abilities; rather, they assume acceptable comprehension and interpretive levels form the outset. Nor do they offer explanations for how expository texts are to be understood appropriately.6)Bottom-up models of reading: Metaphorical depiction of reading as a mechanical process inwhich the reader creates a unit-by-unit mental translation of the information in the text, with little interference form the reader‟s own background knowledge.7)Case study: Research method that involves gathering and analys8ing data about an individualexample as a way of studying a broader phenomenon. A case may be single student, a group of learners, a whole class.8)Comparison study:Research method designed to compare two groups or two otherphenomena.9)Concepts about print: Preliminary knowledge of how text works: for example, opening abook properly, recognizing the beginning of a book, knowing the direction in which print is read, having some elementary knowledge of the orthography.10)Connectionist theories:Theories of how cognitive processes work, reflecting likelypsychological correlates to the brain‟s neurological structure. In their most current versions, they provide strong accounts for word-recognition processes, vocabulary knowledge and learning and the development of syntactic knowledge.11)Discourse organization:Structural framework of discourse. Patterns and features ofdiscourse that reflect genre, writers‟ intensions, flow of information, text structure, and types of information being presented.12)Executive control processing/ processor:Operation of working memory that attends topriority tasks, allocates task operations strategically, sets goals for reading, and monitors comprehension, and repairs comprehension problems.13)Extensive reading: Approach to the teaching and learning of reading in which learners readlarge quantities of material that are within their linguistic competence.14)Free-recall measure：measure of a person‟s ability to reconstruct information from a text..at some point after having read the text. No specific ordering is required for the recall and supporting cues for recall are provided.15)Given and new information: Way of classifying elements of a sentence according to theirpresentation of information. Most sentences are written to connect what has previously been said (that which is known to the reader) with something new. The given part of a sentence, the part which is already familiar to the reader, is typically toward the beginning of the sentence, the new information, the main contribution of the sentence, , tends to come towards the end of the sentence.)16)Incidental learning: Learning that occurs without focusing on specific information. It may ormay not require some level of conscious attention. In discussions of reading, readers read to understand the text, not to learn the words in the text. Nonetheless, readers notice and attend to words as they move through texts, even if only for very short periods of time. Some of these words are learned through incidental learning.17)Inconsiderate texts: Text that is difficult to understand because of poor organization, difficultvocabulary, abstract imagery, new conceptual information, unfamiliar cultural assumptions, grammatical complexity, etc.18)Interactive models of reading: Metaphorical depictions of reading as some combination ofbottom-up and top-down processes, though typically not a full combination of all aspects of top-won and bottom-up models19)Jigsaw reading activities: Instructional technique in which subgroups of learners in a classare asked to read different parts of a text. The full picture is then pieced together, like a jigsaw, when members of different groups come together to complete a task.20)Language experience approach: Approach to teaching reading whereby students and teacherprepare reading material s together. A typical sequence of activities is as follows: Students dictate a story to the teacher about a topic of interest, the teacher writes the story down, the students copy the story, and the students read the story.21)Lexical access:Rapid and automatic activation of word meanings in the lexicon. It ispossible in second language contexts to recognize a word (word recognition), but not have any useful meaning entry for that word stored in the lexicon.22)Paced reading: Rate-development activity during which students read at a fixed ratedetermined by the teacher (e.g. 100 wpm) ．In an ideal paced-reading program, students read at a rate that is challenging but not overly frustrating and that gets progressively faster over time.23)Sustained silent reading: (SSR): Classroom time devoted to silent reading, when teacher andstudents are reading materials of their own choice. Typically SSR sessions occur on a regular basis, without instruction, evaluation, or interruptions. Also referred to as DEAR: Drop Everything and Read.24)Timed reading: Rate-development activity during which students time their reading (inwords per minute) and calculate comprehension scores. The goal is to improve reading rate and comprehension over time.25)Situation model of reader interpretation: Reader‟s elaborated interpretation of informationform the text in terms of his or her own goals, expectations, feelings, and background knowledge.26)Reading guide: An exercise handout, distributed to students before a reading assignment, that“walk s” students through a reading passage, modeling the steps taken and the strategies used to comprehend a passage. It gives students one or two pre-reading tasks, some during-reading tasks and post-reading tasks as follow-up. All tasks are tailored to the assigned passage.27)Reading to learn: A purpose for reading. Reading-to-learn tasks are typical of academic andprofessional settings where readers need to learn information (i.e. main ideas as well as details that elaborate the main ideas) from the text and link the text to their own knowledge bases. 28)Semantic feature analysis: A vocabulary-learning method that requires students to relateterms associated with a topic or some concept. For example, students could be asked to categorize various energy terms ( e.g. thermal energy, nuclear energy, hydroelectric energy, solar energy, wind) according to whether the words have certain properties( e.g. organic, natural, polluting, non-polluting).29)Syntactic parsing: Reader‟s ability to take in and process words as larger units of structure sothat basic grammatical information can be extracted to support clause-level meaning.30)Working memory: Active component of memory processes in cognition. It is limited incapacity, retains active information for a relatively short period of time, and integrates information and processes to construct comprehension. It is not a separate part of brain functioning but is a network of currently active information and related processes being used at a given moment.31)Working memory activation:Process in which information that is sufficiently excited(electrically and chemically in the brain) becomes part of the working network of information being used actively in cognitive processing.32)Adjacency pairs: This is a term discourse and, more generally, conversation analysis.Whereas theoretical linguists might be interested in isolated sentences, discourse and conversation analysts look at utterances in relation to each other. The term adjacency pairs relates to two consecutive utterances which are so strongly related to one another in the conversational structure of a language that one seems bizarre without the other. In standard British conversation examples might be a greeting—greeting pair (Hi—Hi; “How are you doing?”—“Fine, thanks‟) or a thanking exchange “ Thanks”—“My pleasure”; “Thanks a lot”---“Not at all”)33)Circumlocution: Generally a circumlocution is an extended, long-winded, or roundabout wayof expressing an idea (perhaps in order to avoid a very explicit phrase which might cause offence). In applied linguistics the term crops up in the investigation of communication strategies in relation to a learner‟s ability to express an idea for which they do not know the word in their target language.34)Discourse marker:A word or phrase which is used by a speaker (or writer) to orient thelistener in some way. The word or phrase has little meaning in its own right but provides a point of reference for the listener in relation to either the structure of the talk and topic ( “right”“Ok”“Now”) or the opinion of the speaker (“Yeah”, “Sure”, “Well”)35)Metalanguage: This is language used to talk about language and language processes. Whenspeakers engage in a standard conversation they do not normally comment on the process of the conversation or discuss the language in an abstract way. Two speakers may say to one another “Morning”, or “Hi”, “How are you?‟but they rarely think about this as a pair of …greetings‟or two …openings‟ to a conversation. All these ways of describing the speaker‟s language are examples of metalanguage.36)Phonetics: The study of the sounds of a language. In this science the focus is on the flow ofsounds in relation to one another and their analysis through sound spectrograph and phonetic symbols.37)Phonology:The study of the sound structure of a language especially in the context ofchanges to the sounds of words through time and/ or the relations between the historical developments of different languages.38)Pragmatics: In studying discourse analysis you will probably come across words likepragmatic and cultural and context quite a few times and may wonder what the difference is between …discourse analysis‟and “pragmatics‟. In the case of the former the focus is more strongly on the actual words, phrases, and chunks of language produced and how these interrelate to make up typical patterns. In the case of the latter, the focus is more on the kinds of knowledge , beliefs or understandings which speakers have about the way they should behave in communication, and this is sometimes referred to as … pragmatic knowledge”39)Prosody: The parts of the stream of spoken language which carry meaning, but are beyondthe confines of words and clauses, and are strictly sound based. Pitch, intonation, rhythm are all parts of the prosodic system of a language.40)Service encounter: A term from discourse analysis to describe spoken genres which revolvearound trade and business service, such as encounters in banks, post offices, or ticket offices.41)Socio-linguistics: The branch of linguistics which is particularly interested in the interactionbetween language use and social influences. Whereas a discourse analyst might be interested in patterns of interaction within a conversation, the socio-linguist is concerned with how the speech of an individual or group is affected by social, economic, or geographic factors.42)Speech therapy/ pathology: Speech which is produced with difficulty (for example,stammering), or, in a child, speech which is below the level expected for a particular stage in development may need the assistance of speech therapy. Speech pathology tends to be used for problems with the faculty of speech which are the result of accident, illness or other trauma.43)T-Unit: This stands for …thought unit‟. There are a number of different definitions of this, butthe two main areas they have been used in are literacy/ readability studies and the study of spoken genres. The concept is regarded as useful because it gets away from the sometimes difficult to define clause and sentence units. Within spoken analysis the rather loose definition of …a group of words expresses one idea‟ is tightened by the use of intonation (downward in English) and slight pausing to mark the ends of a t-unit.44)Text analysis: This is the sister discipline of discourse analysis. Whereas the latter tends to bemore interested in the spoken mode, text analysis, as the name suggests, is concerned with extended stretches of written language and how they cohere. Both disciplines share a common interest in patterns of language and relations between elements beyond the level of the clause.45)Unequal power discourse: discourse in which one party has more social status and/ or powerthan the other(s) and therefore has certain privileges (delegating turns, nominating topics, changing topics, asking questions, etc.) that the other speakers don‟t have.46)Transformational-generative grammar: A theory that attempts to describe a finite set ofabstract rules for generating all grammatical utterances in a language, the theory explicitly rejected the notion that language acquisition was a matter of habit formation47)Word mapping: The process of creating a visual representation or “ map” of the relationshipbetween topic-related vocabulary.48)Prescriptive grammar: rule-based grammars specifying what people should say and write.49)Portfolio: a collection of student work selected by the student that demonstrates their efforts,progress, or achievement over a period of time, or a collection of multiple writing samples selected either to showcase a student‟s most successful texts or to reveal a process of writing development. Used to structure writing courses, encourage reflection, and provide more comprehensive and equitable assessment.50)Programmed instruction (or programmed learning): a behaviorist approach to teaching atthe computer in which incremental achievements or failures at different tasks govern the student‟s learning path.51)Audience: The writer‟s construction of his or her readers, whose imagined beliefs,understandings, and values are anticipated and appealed to in the conventional features and structure of a text.52)Cohesion: The grammatical and lexical relationships between the different elements of atext.53)Collocation: The regular occurrence of a word with one or more others in a text. The termcan also refer to the meaning associations a word can take on as a result of this.54)Contrastive rhetoric: The view that the rhetorical features of L2 texts may reflect differentwriting conventions learned in the L1 culture, and the cross-cultural study of these differences.55)Corpus:A collection of texts, usually stored electronically, seen as representative of somesubset of language and used for linguistic analysis.56)Critical discourse analysis (CDA)An approach which seeks to reveal the interests , valuesand power relations in any institutional and socio-historical context through the ways that people use language.57)Direct writing assessment: Testing methods based on a communicative purpose of writing,emphasizing validity, particularly the psychological reality of the task, rather than just statistical reliability.58)Discourse: Language produced as an act of communication. This language use implies theconstraints and choices which operate on writers in particular contexts and reflects their purposes, intentions, ideas, and relationships with readers.59)Discourse community: A rather fuzzy concept used in genre studies to refer to a group ofwriters (or speakers) who share a communicative purpose and use commonly agreed texts to achieve these purposes. The term carries a core meaning of like-mindedness of membership which is widely used in research on writing to help explain discourse coherence.60)Drafting: The recursive process of text creation, rewriting and polishing: it involves gettingideas on paper and responding to potential problems for readers.61)Editing:Typically the final stage in the writing process where the writer attends tosurface—level corrections of grammar and spelling.62)Ethnography:A research approach which seeks to gather a variety of naturally occurringdata to provide a highly situated, minutely detailed, and holistic account of writers‟ behaviors.63)Expressivity view : The belief that the free expression of ideas leads to self-discovery andthat teachers should help students to find their own voices to produce fresh and spontaneous prose.64)Feedback: The response given to student writing. It can refer to either oral or written typesprovided by peers, teachers, or computers, widely regarded as central to writing development.65)Genre: Broadly, a set of texts that share the same socially recognized purpose and which, as aresult, often share similar rhetorical and structural elements to achieve this purpose.66)Hedging:Linguistic devices used to indicate either the writer‟s lack of commitment to thetruth of a statement or a desire not to express that commitment categorically for interpersonal reasons.67)Interaction: refers to social routines and relationships which surround acts of writing or theways that these are expressed in a text. The former have been studied to elaborate the influence of context on writing processes, and the latter to show how texts can reflect a writer‟s projection of the understandings, interests, and needs of a potential audience.68)New Literacy Studies: The view that written language is socially and historically situatedand that literacy and that literacy practices reflect broader social practices and political arrangements.69)Process approach: A teaching approach to writing which emphasizes the development ofgood practices by stressing that writing is done in stages of planning, drafting, revising, and editing, which are recursive, interactive and potentially simultaneous.70)Protocol research: A research technique widely employed in composition research as ameans of getting at the processes which underlie writing by eliciting the verbalized thoughts of writers.71)Register: A term from systemic linguistics which explains the relationship between texts andtheir contexts in terms of field (what), tenor (who), and mode (how). Registers refer to broad fields of activity such as legal papers, technical instructions, advertisements, and service exchange.72)Schema: A model of interpretation which suggests that readers make sense of a text byreferences to a set of organized, culturally conventional understandings of similar prior experiences.73)Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL): The theory of language developed by MichaelHolliday which emphasizes that language is the expression of meaning. The forms writers choose to express meanings in specific situations are influenced by the complex elements of those situations.74)Trochaically Timed Language: A language, such as English, whose prosody is markedprimarily by metrical feet consisting of one long or stressed syllable followed by one short or unstressed syllable.75)Uncertainty Management: A theory of communication that predicts the amount of opennessthe speaker and listener will exhibit towards each other.76)Uncertainty reduction: In Uncertainty Management Theory a strategy of the listener toreduce uncertainty in the conversation through self-disclosure or asking questions.77)Unstated topic:A topic in the discourse that is understood by the speaker and listeneralthough it is not explicitly stated.78)Top-down processing: Form of language processing that bases inferences on expectationsand predictable generalizations cued by the incoming language.79)Text-base model: type of learning from a text that utilizes the text information only and is notintegrated into long-term memory.80)Restrictive simplification: A kind of discourse simplification in which the speaker attemptsto control ore highlight features of phonology, lexis, syntax, and discourse structures.81)Resources-based learning: An approach to curriculum design that emphasizes the use oflearning resources (such as multimedia and community resources).82)Psychoacoustic effects: Impressions caused by the frequency, timbre, and duration of soundwaves that reach the ear.83)Psychological strategy: An unobservable decision by the listener on how to process a giveninput.84)Psychological distance: The perceived difficulty by a learner of coming to be a member of atarget group or speaker of the target language85)Psychoacoustic element:The four elements, frequency, tone, duration, and intensity thatdetermine the characteristics of a sound.86)Paused-task: A type of pedagogic task in which a prepared input is paused at a particularjuncture for student activity or feedback.87)Listening first methodology:An approach to language teaching that provides massiveamounts of listening input at the early stages, with no expectations for production.88)Long-term memory ( LTM)Total store of information, idea and experiences that areaccessible to a person.89)Active listening: Generic term for a series of behaviors and attitudes by a listener to preparefor listening, focus on the speaker, and provide feedback.90)Affective Filter Hypothesis:Hypothesis proposed by Burt and Dulay suggesting thatlearning experiences that help students lessen their anxiety will generally be beneficial91)Authentic language: Language that is targeted at the listener for genuine purposes and needs,not specifically for language-learning purposes.92)Conversational adjustment:A means of modifying conversational input, such as using a“here-and-now orientation‟ that may make the language easier to understand.93)Domesticating translation:A translation in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted tominimize the strangeness of the foreign text.94)Eroticizing translation: A translation in which linguistic and cultural features of the sourcetext are taken over into the target text, so that the TT has an obvious …foreign‟ appearance. 95)Communicative clues:Grammatical and lexical features which indicate the purposes forwhich utterances are used (e.g. the use of parallel structures or alliteration to convey irony). 96)Ideational function:Language used to convey information, ideas, or experience. It is ameans of giving structure to our experience of inner feelings and emotions as well as of the external world around us.97)Foreignising translation:A translation which deliberately breaks target conventions byretaining something of the strangeness of the foreign text.98)Free translation:A type of translation in which more attention is paid to producing a TTwhich reads more naturally than one which adheres closely to ST wording.99)Functional equivalence: A type of equivalence through which the translator seeks to adaptthe function of the original to suit a specific target language context.100)Functionalism: A descriptive approach to translations and translation action, which takes the intended function of the target text to be overriding in translator decidison-making。