Language and Dialect
Abstract: Degrees of listening to each other freely, common identity of native language, historical origination, customs and common writing system, the standard of language structure itself and social political factors are major standards we can depend on to distinguish language from dialect, but what will determine our decision just rely on our temporary statues and different goals. The same speech system will has opposite status in the eyes of a tourist and a linguist.Key words: language; dialectWhen we travel around the world, we will hear different languages from different national people; in the same way, when we have a journey round one country, we will find different people in different regions speak differently more or less. But we also can encounter this situation that people of the same language cannot understand with each other, and people from different languages can communicate with each other freely. What can we explain about this phenomenon? In this paper, I want to say some thing about this issue through the distinction between language and dialect.What are language and dialect?It is difficult to give answers to questions of what is language and what is dialect, though they are extremely familiar phenomena. Different scholars from different times and areas would give their own definitions. However, considering their remarkable characteristics, we can define them like this: language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication; dialect is a variety of certain language, spoken in one part of a country (regional dialect), which is different in some words, grammar, and/or pronunciation from other forms of the same language.①Why should we distinguish language and dialect?It is the need of scientific linguistic research that requires the distinction of language and dialect. We can, based on some basic concepts and distinctions of languages and dialects, construct the pedigrees of the world languages diachronically and study the language/dialect system synchronically.What‟s more, as we can find as the paper goes, differentiating language and dialect is the need of some social political reasons. For example, some groups who want to achieve certain aims may be willing to give a dialect independent language status. And sometimes it is just the matter of a tourist who wants to know whether he has come in to another country or not.These various statuses determine directly the standards used to distinguish language and dialect.How to differ them from each other?But how to differ them from each other? There have been a lot of researches on this topic. But in my opinion, the line between them is not clear and the most critical standards of differentiating them rely on the social facts as well as the linguistic facts itself.The situation of the ancient times when one language group separated into different regions and constituted various regional dialects cannot be reorganized; if we do this, “it is like reconstructing a brontosaur from half an eye socket and a bask et full of bones.……One method is to color and glue as you build”. ②As a result, we have to rely on the synchronic facts to do the job.The standards scholars using often to distinguish language and dialect can be seen from two different levels. The first one is the level of language structure system; the second one is the level of social psychology. We can establish the independent status of the languages coming from different pedigrees for their differentia in structure. Chinese, coming from the Sino-Tibetan Language Family, and Russian, a Slavic language, are overt cases. Those languages, though originating from same ancient language, because of their big differences in language system, can be also distinguished into different language easily, such as English and German, which both come from Indo-European Language Family. In these cases, the standard of pure language structure plays central role. However, the reality is not so simple. In most cases, it is very difficult in determining whether the speech system we encounter is a language or just a dialect belonging to certain language. And in the end, we may findthat the social facts and the linguistic factors both have functions in our determination. The two standard level of differing language from dialect contain following aspects: Firstly, degrees of listening to each other freely. According to this standard, if speakers, who speak more or less differently, can understand each other‟s speech without special training, then what they say can be seen as dialects of a language; if they cannot understand with each other, they will be seen as belong to different language groups. Perhaps this is the easiest criterion everyone can give, because the most outstanding feature of language relies on its sound, and if the sounds are different, they should belong to different languages. But in fact, many speech systems which can be used to communicate with each other are fallen under different languages. For example, those who use Welsh, Irish and Gaelic can communicate freely with each other, but their native tongues are divided into three different languages. In contrast, two speech forms, which cannot understand with each other wholly, may be fallen under two dialects of one language, such as north dialect and cantonese dialect of Chinese.Secondly, common identity of native language. That is the native speaker group of a speech form. consider the form. as a language or a dialect of certain language. This standard is more blurry than the first one, because understanding or not has a formal accordance (sound), while the identity feeling is just a mental condition. Some people in a group may think that they speak in a language, while others may say that they just use one dialect of a language. Language identity is a term which is determined only by people‟s emotion bias and cannot become a good criterion for language and dialect distinction.Thirdly, historical origination, customs and common writing system. Language and culture are related closely with each other. Same language often corresponds to the same customs and culture heritage of a nation. For example, Chinese, though its various regional dialects, is considered an independent language. One of the reasons is that people living in different regions have the same history and customs. However, Sapir, as well as some other anthropological linguists, pointed out that “races, languages, and cultures are not distributed in parallel fashion, that their areas ofdistribution intercross in the bewildering fashion, and that the history of each is apt to follow a distinctive course” and “that a group of languages need not in the least correspond to a racial group or a culture area is easily demonstrated”.③ Two speech forms sharing common historical cultural origination will be often attributed to different languages. For example, many minority tribes in American continent have experienced common history, but they speak in very different languages. And as far as common writing system is concerned, we should keep in mind that characters are just the writing form. of language, but not the language itself. For example, French and English are both use Latin characters, but they belong to different languages. Fourthly, the standard of language structure itself. It means considering the degree of differences between the subsystem of language, such as phonetic, lexicon and syntax, as a standard. When we use this standard in practices, we will find that it can operate critical functions just in the two simple situations discussed above. As for distinguishing language and dialect, this standard is subject to social political factors. The independent language established relying on the pure linguistic standard must correspond to the social political factors, or else the later will be more often used as the standard of determining whether the form. is a language or not. For example, on linguistic structures, Hochdeutsch and Dutch are similar; however, Hochdeutsch is just a dialect of German, while Dutch is an independent language. And when we consider the condition that two different language were becoming more and more similar with each other for a long time contact, the situation will become more complex.Fifthly, social political factors. Looking through any list of world languages, we can find easily the relationship between independent language and the dividing line among social political entity. Many forms which can be understood with each other or have similar linguistic structure are often considered as different languages just for subjecting to different social political entity. Most cases of our dividing languages of the world rely on this standard. Yuanren Zhao has pointed out that “in general, we often say that dialect is a geographical branch of certain language. However, to what extent these dialects can be seen as different languages always rely on the politicalbranches, and it is not the same thing with language itself”. ④However, there are also cases that a language is used in different nations. For example, English, which has become a international/global language, is the official language in many countries, such as India, Singapore, America etc.From the discussion above, we can see that situation is very complex in our determination of whether a speech system is a language or not. In some cases, it is the comprehensive strength of these factors which play the role; in some others, it is just one or two criteria which determine the result.ConclusionDifferent people may have their own aims of distinguishing language and dialect. However, whatever aims they nay have, the five factors we mentioned above are the ones they have to depend on.And so far, we can say something about the baffle in the beginning of the paper. If one is a traveler, moving from one place to another, then he can consider the speech system of a place is a language or not depending on his own common knowledge, such as whether they can listen to each other freely or to what extent its linguistic structure has differences with others around it. However, if one is a linguist who wants to know the organization and the rule of certain language/dialect, then he, using the standards wholly, should consider the speech system comprehensively.How to distinguish language and dialect just rely on who you are and what goals you want to achieve.Notes:<!--[if !supportLists]-->1. <!--[endif]-->Dialect can be divided into two types according to the different goals of researches. Besides regional dialects, there is social dialect which is also a variety of certain language, spoken by people belonging to a particular social class. In this paper, we will just consider the relationship between language and regional dialect, but not concern social dialect.<!--[if !supportLists]-->2. <!--[endif]-->Anthony Lane. An Englishman Abroad.The New Yorker May 22(2006):59-67.<!--[if !supportLists]-->3. <!--[endif]-->Edward Sapir. 1921. Language: An introduction to the study of speech. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 172.<!--[if !supportLists]-->4. <!--[endif]-->Yuanren, Zhao. 1980. Issues on Language. Beijing: The Commercial Press.ReferencesAnthony Lane. An Englishman Abroad. The New Yorker May 22(2006):59-67. Edward Sapir. 1921. Language: An introduction to the study of speech. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.马学良瞿霭堂.1997. 普通语言学. 北京：中央民族大学出版社.[美]肯尼斯·卡兹纳. 1980. 世界的语言. 黄长著林书武译. 北京：北京出版社. [美]王士元. 2000. 语言的探索——王士元语言学论文选译. 石锋等译. 北京：北京语言文化大学出版社Yuanren, Zhao. 1980. Issues on Language. Beijing: The Commercial Press.Finally, the term dialect, particularly when it is used in reference to regional variation, should not be confused with the term accent. Standard English, for example, is spoken in a variety of accents, often with clear regional and social associations: there are accents associated with North America, Singapore, India, Liverpool (Scouse), Tyneside (Geordie), Boston, New York, and so on. However, many people who live in such places show a remarkable uniformity to one another in their grammar and vocabulary because they speak Standard English and the differences are merely those of accent, i.e., how they pronounce what they say.One English accent has achieved a certain eminence, the accent known as Received Pronunciation (or RP), the accent of perhaps as few as three percent of those who live in England. This accent is of fairly recent origin becoming established as prestigious only in the late nineteenth century and not even given its current label until the 1920s. In the United Kingdom at least, this accent is …usually associated with a higher socialor educational background, with the BBC and the professions, and [is] most commonly taught to students learning English as a foreign language‟ (Wakelin, 1977, p. 5). For many such students it is the only accent they are prepared to learn, and a teacher who does not use it may have difficulty in finding a position as a teacher of English in certain non-English-speaking countries. Other names for this accent are the Queen‟s English, Oxford English, and BBC English. However, there is no unanimous agreement that the Queen does in fact use RP, a wide variety of accents can be found among the staff and students at Oxford University, and regional accents are now widely used in the various BBC services. As Bauer (1994, pp. 115-21) also shows, RP continues to change. One of its most recent manifestations has been labeled …Estuary English‟ (Rosewarne, 1994). Trudgill (1983b, p. 19) has pointed out what he co nsiders to be the most interesting characteristics of RP: …the relatively very small numbers of speakers who use it do not identify themselves as coming from any particular geographical region‟; …RP is largely confined to England‟ and there it is a …non-lo calized accent‟; and …it is . . . not necessary to speak RP to speak standard English‟ because …standard English can be spoken with any regional accent, and in the vast majority of cases normally is.‟The most generalized accent in North America is sometimes referred to as network English. Other languages often have no equivalent to RP: for example, German is spoken in a variety of accents, none of which is deemed inherently any better than any other. Educated regional varieties are preferred rather than some exclusive upper-class accent that has no clear relationship to personal achievement.As a final observation I should add that it is impossible to speak English without an accent. There is no such thing, therefore, as an …unaccented English.‟ RP is an accent, a social one rather than a regional one. However, we must note that there are different evaluations of the different accents, evaluations arising from social factors not linguistic ones.Ronald Wardhaugh, 1998, An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 43, Blackwell Publishers Ltd.。
我喜欢的作者是马克吐温英语作文六年级
我喜欢的作者是马克吐温英语作文六年级My Favorite Author is Mark TwainMark Twain, whose real name is Samuel Langhorne Clemens, is one of the most famous American authors of all time. He was born on November 30, 1835, in Missouri, USA. Twain is best known for his novels "The Adventures of Tom Sawyer" and "The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn", which are considered classics in American literature.I first discovered Mark Twain's works when I was in fifth grade, and I immediately fell in love with his writing style. Twain has a unique way of combining humor, satire, and social commentary in his stories, which makes them both entertaining and thought-provoking. His characters are vivid and relatable, and his dialogues are witty and engaging.One of the things I admire most about Mark Twain is his ability to address serious issues like racism, injustice, and hypocrisy in a light-hearted and humorous way. In "The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn", for example, Twain uses the character of Jim, a runaway slave, to expose the hypocrisy of society's attitudes towards race and slavery. Through Huck'sadventures with Jim, Twain challenges the reader to question their own beliefs and prejudices.Another aspect of Twain's writing that I appreciate is his use of language and dialect to create authentic and believable characters. Twain's characters speak in regional dialects that reflect the diversity of American society during his time, adding depth and realism to his stories.In addition to his novels, Mark Twain was also a prolific essayist and lecturer. He traveled extensively and shared his opinions on a wide range of topics, from politics to religion to human nature. Twain's wit and wisdom have stood the test of time, and his writings continue to resonate with readers around the world.Overall, Mark Twain is not only a great storyteller but also a social critic and a philosopher. His works are timeless and relevant, exploring the complexities of human nature and society. As a writer, Twain inspires me to think critically, to question authority, and to strive for a more just and compassionate world.In conclusion, Mark Twain is my favorite author because of his humor, insight, and humanity. His books have entertained and enlightened me, and I look forward to reading more of hisworks in the future. Mark Twain's legacy as a literary icon will continue to inspire generations of readers to come.。
语言学
combined according to rules.This explains why ―iblk‘ is not a possible sound combination in English, and also why ―Been he wounded has‖ is not a grammatically acceptable sentence in English.
The proportions in the final score
Presence is 10%. Performance in class is 10%. Final exam is 80%.
CONTENTS
Chapter One Chapter Two Chapter Three Chapter Four Chapter Five Review (1)Leabharlann 1.2.2 Duality
Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless. But the sounds of lg can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meanings such as morphemes and words, which are found at the higher level of the system. Then the units at the higher level can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences.
历史文化-语言-方言英文介绍
段落翻译I-历史文化-语言-方言-4中文：中国方言（dialect）是汉语在不同地域的分支。
它的形成是由于我国是一个地域辽阔(vast territory)、多民族、多文化的国家。
汉语的方言非常复杂。
方言之间的差异表现在发音、词汇、语法三个方面，其中语音方面的差异最明显。
大体来说，北方方言和普通话（mandarin）很接近，而南方方言和普通话差异很大。
尽管方言给不同地区的人们交际带来困扰，但它对保留本土的(indigenous)文化精神做出了贡献。
语言要点：formation; due to; vast territory; variety; complicated; differ from; the most prominent difference; generally speaking; be vastly different from; make contribution to; retain译文：Chinese dialects are branches of the Chinese language in different regions. Its formation is due to China’s vast territory, varieties of nationalitiesand cultures. The dialects of the Chinese language are very complicated. Various dialects differ from each other in three aspects: pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar. And the most prominent difference is in pronunciation. Generally speaking, most of northern dialects are similar to Mandarin, while southern dialects are vastly different from Mandarin. Although local dialects have brought much trouble in the communication of people in different areas, they have made contribution to retaining the indigenous culture.。
语言学常用术语
语言学常用术语Language: language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Linguistics: linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.Phonetics: phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.Phonology: phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.（研究语音和音节的结构，分布和序列，将音位视为起点，来处理语音系统）Morphology: morphology, as a part of linguistics, is the study of the internal structure, forms and classes of words.（研究词的内部结构和构词原则）Syntax: syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.Semantics: semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning. Pragmatics: pragmatics can be defined in various ways. A general definition is that it is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.Sociolinguistics: sociolinguistics is the sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.Psycholinguistics: psycholinguistics is the study of the mental processes of listening, speaking and acquisition of language by children.Prescriptive:Descriptive:Langue: langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by.（语言是指语言系统的整体，这个政体相对比较稳定，言语是指代某个个体在实际语言使用环境中说出来的具体话语）Parole: parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules.Competence: Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.（语言能力是指理想语言使用者有关语言规则的知识储备）Performance: Chomsky defines performance as the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.（语言应用是指真实的语言使用者在实际场景中的语言使用）Design features: design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. Duality: language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.Arbitrariness: language is arbitrary. This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.Productivity: language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.Displacement: language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.Cultural transmission: while human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e., we were all born with the ability to acquire language, but instead have to be taught and learned.Phone: a phone is a phonetic unit or segment.Phoneme: a phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but phonetic context.Morpheme: the most basic element of meaning is traditionally called morpheme.Prefix(suffix): it occurs only before other morphemes.(it occurs only after other morphemes)Root: a root is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.Category: category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same of similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase of a verb.Transformation: transformation is a special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another.Deep (surface) structure: formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization properties is called deep structure. Corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations is called surface structure.Performatives (constative): constatives were statements that either state or describe, and were thus verifiable; performatives were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable.Synonymy: synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.Antonymy: antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning; words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms.Homonymy: homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e. , different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.Polysemy: while different words my have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning.Hyponymy: hyponymy refers to the tense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms.Dialect (7 types): regional dialect, sociolect, language and gender, language and age, ldiolect, ethnic dialect.Register: the type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register.Field (tenor, mode) of discourse: field of discourse refers to what is going on: to the area of operation of the language activity. Tenor of discourse refers to the role of relationship in the situation in question: who the participants in the communication groups are and in what relationship they stand to each other. Mode of discourse mainly refers to the means of communication.Learning strategy (3 types): cognitive strategies, metacognitive strategies, and affect / social strategies.Personality: a number of personality characteristics have been proposed as likely to affect second language learning, but it has been notoriously difficult to demonstrate the effects in empirical studies, it is largely due to the difficulty in identification and measurement.Culture: culture, in a broad sense, means the total way of life of a people, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language that characterizes the life of the human community.Context: the notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.Acquisition: language acquisition refers to the child’s acquisition of his mother tongue, i.e. how the child comes to understand and speak the language of his community.Learning: learning is a conscious learning of the second language knowledge by learning the rules and talking about rules.Transfer (2 types): positive transfer, negative transferError (mistake): the errors are significant in telling the teacher what needs to be taught, in telling the researcher how learning proceeds and those errors are a means whereby learners test their hypotheses about the language to be learnt.Interlanguage (fossilization): the concept of interlanguage was established as learners’ independent system of the second language which is of neither the native language nor the second language, but a continuum or approximation from his native language to the target language. Fossilization is defined as a process occurring from time to time in which incorrect linguistic features become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes a language.Language aptitude: language aptitude here refers to a natural ability for learning a second language.Motivation (4 types): instrumental motivation, integrative motivation, resultative motivation, and intrinsic motivation.。
大学《语言学导论》试题及答案
大学网络与继续教育学院课程考试试题卷类别：网教专业：英语 20 年6月课程名称【编号】：语言学导论【0181】 A卷大作业满分：100分（要求：学生必须按各大题的答题要求，完成全部题目）Ⅰ. For each question there are four choices. Decide which one would be the best answer to the question, or would best complete the sentence. Write the corresponding letter on your ANSWER SHEET. (20%)1. ________ refers to the language user’s underlying knowledge about the systemof rules of his language.A. RegisterB. PerformanceC. CompetenceD. Dialect2. “classmate” is a _______.A. compoundB. phraseC. derivativeD. morpheme3. The function of the sentence “I promise to come on time tomorrow” is mainly_______.A. directiveB. informativeC. performativeD. phatic4. Which of the following sounds is a voiceless stop? _______.A. [d]B. [p]C. []D. []5. “-ed” and “-s” are ______ because they do not help to form new words.A. free morphemesB. inflectional morphemesC. derivative morphemesD. roots 6. Systemic-functional grammar has been developed by _______.A. GriceB. AustinC. ChomskyD. Halliday7. The syllabic structure of the word “studied” is ______.A. CCCCVVCB. CCCCVCC. CCCVVCD. CCVCVC8. ______ refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have thesame form.A. PolysemyB. SynonymyC. HomonymyD. Hyponymy9. The study of meaning in context is called _______.A. pragmaticsB. sociolinguisticsC. applied linguisticsD.semantics10. _______ means that certain authorities, such as the government, choose aparticular speech variety, standardize it and spread the use of it across regional boundaries.A. Language testingB. Language changeC. Language planningD. Language transferⅡ. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False. Write True or False on the ANSWER SHEET. (20%)11. Diachronic linguistics studies language development or change over time.12. Ultimate constituents are constituents directly below the level of aconstruction.13. Standard dialect is a particular variety of a language, which is used by aparticular social class.14. Compounds are words that are formed by joining two or more words.15. Transformational-Generative grammar was first proposed by P. H. Grice.16. To linguists, no languages are superior to any other languages.- 1 -- 2 -- 3 -。
我最喜欢的一本书英语作文80字初二
My Favorite BookMy favorite book is "The Adventures of Tom Sawyer" by Mark Twain. It's a thrilling tale of childhood mischief and adventure. Tom Sawyer, the protagonist, embodies the spirit of curiosity and bravery. His antics and pranks are both hilarious and heartwarming. The book takes me back to my own childhood, reminding me of the joy and innocence of being young. The vivid descriptions and engaging plot keep me turning the pages, eager to see what adventure awaits Tom next. I highly recommend this book to anyone who enjoys a good adventure story.我最喜欢的书是马克·吐温的《汤姆·索亚历险记》。
这是一部充满惊险刺激的童年恶作剧和冒险故事。
主人公汤姆·索亚体现了好奇和勇敢的精神。
他的滑稽动作和恶作剧既让人捧腹大笑，又让人感到温暖。
这本书让我回到了自己的童年，提醒我那时的快乐和纯真。
生动的描述和引人入胜的情节让我一页一页地翻下去，迫不及待地想知道汤姆下一次会遇到什么冒险。
我非常推荐这本书给喜欢冒险故事的人。
**Detailed Analysis of My Favorite Book**"The Adventures of Tom Sawyer" by Mark Twain is notjust a book; it's a timeless classic that captures the essence of childhood. The story revolves around Tom Sawyer, a mischievous yet charming boy who leads his friends into various antics and exciting adventures. Twain's writing style is both humorous and poignant, offering a unique perspective on the joys and challenges of growing up.The characters in the book are vibrant and memorable. Tom, with his endless energy and thirst for adventure, is the perfect representation of youthful curiosity and bravery. His loyal friends, Huck Finn and Joe Harper, complement his character, adding depth and complexity to the storyline. The adults in the story, such as Aunt Polly and the strict Mr. Dobbins, provide a contrast to the children's world of imagination and mischief.The plot of the book is engaging and filled with thrilling moments. From Tom's pranks and hijinks to his more serious adventures like witnessing a murder and escaping from a cave, the story keeps the reader on the edge of their seat. Twain's ability to blend humor withsuspense creates a captivating narrative that is both entertaining and thought-provoking.Moreover, the book offers valuable insights into the human nature and society of its time. Twain uses the story of Tom and his friends to comment on issues like social class, education, and the role of adults in children's lives. These themes are presented in a subtle yet powerful way, making the book relevant even today.The writing style of Mark Twain is another reason why I love this book so much. His use of colloquial language and dialect adds authenticity to the characters and brings the story to life. His humor is both witty and sarcastic, often poking fun at the hypocrisies and follies of society. Twain's ability to capture the voice and spirit of a child makes the book irresistible to young readers.Finally, the book's ending is satisfying and leaves the reader with a sense of hope and optimism. Despite the challenges and misadventures Tom and his friends encounter, they ultimately emerge stronger and wiser. This positive message about the resilience of childhood and the power offriendship is a beautiful testament to the enduring appealof "The Adventures of Tom Sawyer."In conclusion, "The Adventures of Tom Sawyer" is my favorite book because it combines thrilling adventure, humor, and profound insights into the human condition.Twain's masterful storytelling and engaging characters make this book a must-read for anyone who loves a good storywell-told. It's a book that will stay with me forever, reminding me of the magic and wonder of childhood.《汤姆·索亚历险记》是马克·吐温的杰作，它不仅是一本书，更是一部永恒的经典，捕捉了童年的精髓。
语言学导论术语解释英文版
Antonymy :the oppositeness of meaning between lexemesAffix: Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional affixes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories, while derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.Arbitrariness :a design feature of language which refers to the fact that there is no logical connection between the signifier and the signified of a sign.Applied linguistics: the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. In a broad sense, it refers to the application of linguistic findings to the solution of practical problems such as the recovery of speech ability.Allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.A proposition :what is expressed by a declarative sentence when that sentence is uttered to make a statementA speech community : a community the members of which have or believe they have at least one common variety oflanguageAn utterance:a piece of language actually used in a particular contextAn analytic proposition :one whose grammatical form and lexical meaning make it necessarily true, without reference to external criteriaAuditory phonetics: It studies the speech sounds from the hearer's point of view. It studies how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.Acoustic phonetics: It studies the speech sounds by looking at the sound waves. It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.Anaphor a: the process where a word or phrase refers back to another word or phrase which was used earlier in a text or conversationBinary cutting : the practice to cut a grammatical construction into two parts and then cut each of the two parts into two and continue with this segmentation until we reach the smallest grammatical unit, the morphemeBlending :word formed by combining parts of other wordsBilingualism :the situation where at least two languages are used side by side by an individual or by a group of speakers, with each having a different role to playBound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used indepen-dently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.Cognitive style:an individual’s preferred way of mentally processing (perceiving, conceptualizing, organizing, and recalling, etc.) information. It often aff ect learners’ individual preferences or needs for different learning conditions, which are called learning styles.Constatives : sentences which describe or state something; they are either true or falseCompounds:the words that are produced by stringing together wordsConstituent: any linguistic form or group of linguistic forms that appears at the bottom of one of the lines in the tree diagram of the syntactic analysisComplementary distribution :the phenomena that allophones occur in different phonetic environmentsCreole :a language formed when a pidgin has become the primary language of a speech communityCultural transmission :the fact that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker Connotation :the additional meanings that a word or phrase has beyond its central meaningConversational implicature: a kind of extra meaning that is not literally contained in the utterance but is derived from observing or flouting the maxims of CPDerivation :the morphological process in which affixes are added to the stemDiachronic linguistics :the study of the language development or change over timeDistinctive features : the features that a phoneme has and that distinguish it from other phonemesDesign features: the framework proposed by Hockett, which discusses the defining properties of human language as against animal communicationDerivational morphemes :the bound morphemes which are conjoined to other morphemes (or words) to derive or form a new wordDeixis: a particular way in which the interpretation of certain linguistic expressions is dependent on the context they are produced or interpretedDiglossia:a sociolinguistic situation where two varieties of a language exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a definite role to playDisplacement: the phenomenon that human language can cope with any subject whatever, and it does not matter how far away the topic of conversation is in time and spaceDuality of structure :language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meanings.Endocentric construction :one whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituentsFree morphemes :the morphemes which can constitute words by themselvesHomonymy :the case that two, or more meanings may be associatedwith the same linguistic formInternational Phonetic Alphabe t :a standardized andinternationallyaccepted system of phonetic transcription.L anguage interference :the use of elements from one language while speaking another.Lexicology :the study of the vocabulary items of a language,including their meanings and relations, their classification and collocation, and changes in their form and meaning through timeLogical semantics :the study of the meaning of a sentence in terms of its truth conditionsMorphology: Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.Morpheme: It is the smallest meaningful unit of language.Performatives :sentences that do not describe things and cannot be said to be true or falsePresupposition :the kind of meaning which the speaker doesn't assert but assumes the hearer can identify from the sentence Psycholinguistics :the study of the relationship between language and mind.Registers:the type of language which is selected as appropriate to a type of situationRegional dialect :linguistic varieties used by people living in different regions.Registers :varieties of language that are related to useReference :the concrete entities that have the properties denoted by words or phrasesSemantic feature : the basic unit of meaning in a wordSociolect : the linguistic variety used by people belonging to a particular social classSequential rules :the rules which govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.Selectional restrictions: the restrictions on the type of noun that can be selected with each verbSemantic anomaly :the case that one of the arguments or the predicate of the main predication is self-contradictory Standard dialect :a particular variety of a language, not related to any particular group of language usersSyntax: The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax.The chain relation :the relation holding between one item and others in a linear sequence, or between elements which are all presentThe choice relation :a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure The syntagmatic relation :the one between one item and others in a linear sequence, or between elements which are all presentThe Whorf-Sapir hypothesis : the suggestion that different languages carve the world up in different ways, and that as a result their speakers think about it differentlyUltimate constituent :the smallest grammatical unit obtained through binary segmentationUtterance meaning :something conveyed by a sentence in a context other than its literal meaning。
Dialect
方言可以分为地域方言（regional dialect） 和社会方言（social dialect）两大类。地域 方言是语言在不同地域的变体；社会方言是 语言的社会变体。
地域方言
方 言
定义 方言地理学 同言线 波浪理论 地理方言的形成与分布
定义
社会方言
社会方言的体现
一、阶层变体和性别变体 二、城乡差异和年龄变体 三、语域变体和职业变体 四、地方戏曲语言变体
Dialectologists in Europe and the US have been studying the geographical distribution of linguistic items, such as pairs of synonymous words(e.g. pail vs bucket), or different pronunciations of the same words(e.g. farm with or without the /r/ ) (R.A. Hudson, 38)
语言变异和演变的机制
Regional variation in the way a language is ห้องสมุดไป่ตู้poken is likely to be one of the most noticeable ways in which we observe variety in language.
方言在地理上的分布是非常复杂的，为了使其 更加直观明确，语言学者用绘制方言地图的形 式显示同时期各方言语言特征的地理分布。依 照所展现的不同项目，常见的方言地图有四种， 即方言分区图、方言分类图、方言特征图和方 言同言线图。（祝畹瑾 2013，79）（插图）
描述我的方言英语作文
描述我的方言英语作文英文回答：Dialects are an integral part of our cultural identity, and my dialect of English is no exception. I come from a region in China where we speak a unique dialect of English that is heavily influenced by our local language and customs. This dialect is a reflection of our history, traditions, and way of life.One distinctive feature of our dialect is the pronunciation. We tend to pronounce certain sounds differently from standard English. For example, the "r" sound is often dropped at the end of words, so "car" becomes "ca," and "better" becomes "betta." Additionally, we have a tendency to add an extra syllable to words ending in "ing," so "running" becomes "run-ning." These pronunciation quirks are what make our dialect so distinct and recognizable.Another aspect of our dialect is the vocabulary we use. We have a wide range of unique words and phrases that are not commonly used in standard English. For instance, instead of saying "hello," we often greet each other with "wassup" or "howdy." We also have our own idiomatic expressions that add color to our conversations. For example, instead of saying "it's raining cats and dogs," we might say "it's pouring buckets."Grammar is another area where our dialect differs from standard English. We have our own set of grammatical rules and structures that may not align with the rules taught in schools. For instance, we often use double negatives for emphasis, such as saying "I don't know nothing" instead of "I don't know anything." We also have a tendency to use the present tense to talk about future events, like saying "I go to the movies tomorrow" instead of "I will go to the movies tomorrow."Overall, our dialect of English is a unique blend of pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar that sets us apart from speakers of standard English. It is a reflection ofour cultural heritage and the way we communicate with each other. While it may differ from the English spoken in other parts of the world, it is a beautiful and vibrant form of expression that we take pride in.中文回答：方言是我们文化身份的一部分，我的英语方言也不例外。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》测试题精华(附答案)
胡壮麟《语言学教程》（修订版）测试题Chapter 7 Language, Culture and Society[注：第六章无测试题]I. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. _______ is concerned with the social significance of language variation and language use in different speech communities.A. PsycholinguisticsB. SociolinguisticsC. Applied linguisticsD. General linguistics2. The most distinguishable linguistic feature of a regional dialect is its __________.A. use of wordsB. use of structuresC. accentD. morphemes3. __________ is speech variation according to the particular area where a speaker comes from.A. Regional variationB. Language variationC. Social variationD. Register variation4. _______ are the major source of regional variation of language.A. Geographical barriersB. Loyalty to and confidence in one’s native speechC. Physical discomfort and psychological resistance to changeD. Social barriers5. _________ means that certain authorities, such as the government choose, a particular speech variety, standardize it and spread the use of it across regional boundaries.A. Language interferenceB. Language changesC. Language planningD. Language transfer6. _________ in a person’s speech or writing usually ranges on a continuum from casual or colloquial to formal or polite according to the type of communicative situation.A. Regional variationB. Changes in emotionsC. Variation in connotationsD. Stylistic variation7. A ____ is a variety of language that serves as a medium of communication among groups of people for diverse linguistic backgrounds.A. lingua francaB. registerC. CreoleD. national language8. Although _______ are simplified languages with reduced grammatical features, they are rule-governed, like any human language.A. vernacular languagesB. creolesC. pidginsD. sociolects9. In normal situations, ____ speakers tend to use more prestigious forms than their ____ counterparts with the same social background.A. female; maleB. male; femaleC. old; youngD. young; old10. A linguistic _______ refers to a word or expression that is prohibited by the “polite” society from general use.A. slangB. euphemismC. jargonD. tabooII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Language as a means of social communication is a homogeneous system with a homogeneous group of speakers.12. The goal of sociolinguistics is to explore the nature of language variation and language use among a variety of speech communities and in different social situations.13. From the sociolinguistic perspective, the term “speech variety” can no t be used to refer to standard language, vernacular language, dialect or pidgin.14. The most distinguishable linguistic feature of a regional dialect is its grammar and uses of vocabulary.15. A person’s social backgrounds do not exert a shaping inf luence on his choice of linguistic features.16. Every speaker of a language is, in a stricter sense, a speaker of a distinct idiolect.17. A lingua franca can only be used within a particular country for communication among groups of people with different linguistic backgrounds.18. A pidgin usually reflects the influence of the higher, or dominant, language in its lexicon and that of the lower language in their phonology and occasionally syntax.19. Bilingualism and diglossia mean the same thing.20. The use of euphemisms has the effect of removing derogatory overtones and the disassociative effect as such is usually long-lasting.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. The social group isolated for any given study is called the speech __________.22. Speech __________ refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or group of speakers.23. From the sociolinguistic perspective, a speech variety is no more than a __________ variety of a language.24. Language standardization is also called language __________.25. Social variation gives rise to __________ which are subdivisible into smaller speech categories that reflect their socioeconomic, educational, occupational background, etc.26. __________ variation in a person’s speec h or writing usually ranges on a continuum from casual or colloquial to formal or polite according to the type of communicative situation.27. A regional dialect may gain status and become standardized as the national or __________ language ofa country.28. The standard language is a __________, socially prestigious dialect of language.29. Language varieties other than the standard are called nonstandard, or __________ languages.30. A pidgin typically lacks in __________ morphemes.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Lingua franca32. Regional dialect33. Register34. SociolinguisticsV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. Is American English superior to African English Why or why not （中国人民大学，2003）36. If we take it as rule that language is intimately related to culture, then how do the kinship words, such as uncle and aunt, reflect the cultural differences between English and Chinese （东北师范大学，2004）VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)the differences between registers and regional/social dialects. Give examples if necessary. （东北师范大学，2005）答案~5 BCAAC 6~10 ~15 FTFFF 16~20 TFTFF. community 22. variety23. dialectal . sociolects 26. Stylistic27. official 28. superposed29. vernacular 30. inflectional. Lingua franca: A lingua franca is a variety of language that serves as a common speech for social contact among groups of people who speaks different native languages or dialects.32. Regional dialect: Regional dialect, also social or class dialect, is a speech variety spoken by the members of a particular group or stratum of a speech community.33. Register: Register, also situational dialect, refers to the language variety appropriate for use in particular speech situations on which degrees of formality depends.34. Sociolinguistics: Defined in its broadest way, sociolinguistics, a subdiscipline of linguistics, is the study of language in relation to society. It is concerned with language variation, language use, the impact of extra-linguistic factors on language use, etc.English is not superior to African English. As different branches of English, African English and American English are equal. Similar as they are, they are influenced by their respective cultural context and thus form respective systems of pronunciation, words and even grammar.36. In China, Chinese has a more strict and complex relationship system. So in Chinese there are a lot more kinship words than in English..(Omit.)Chapter 8 Language in UseI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning _________ is considered.A. referenceB. speech actC. practical usageD. context2. A sentence is a _________ concept, and the meaning of a sentence is often studied in isolation.A. pragmaticB. grammaticalC. mentalD. conceptual3. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes a (n) _________.A. constativeB. directiveC. utteranceD. expressive4. Which of the following is trueA. Utterances usually do not take the form of sentences.B. Some utterances cannot be restored to complete sentences.C. No utterances can take the form of sentences.D. All utterances can be restored to complete sentences.5. Speech act theory did not come into being until __________.A. in the late 50’s of the 20the centuryB. in the early 1950’sC. in the late 1960’sD. in the early 21st century6. __________ is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.A. A locutionary actB. An illocutionary actC. A perlocutionary actD. A performative act7. According to Searle, the illocutionary point of the representative is ______.A. to get the hearer to do somethingB. to commit the speaker to something’s being the caseC. to commit the speaker to some future course of actionD. to express the feelings or attitude towards an existing state of affairs8. All the acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose, but they differ __________.A. in their illocutionary actsB. in their intentions expressedC. in their strength or forceD. in their effect brought about9. __________ is advanced by Paul GriceA. Cooperative PrincipleB. Politeness PrincipleC. The General Principle of Universal GrammarD. Adjacency Principle10. When any of the maxims under the cooperative principle is flouted, _______ might arise.A. impolitenessB. contradictionsC. mutual understandingD. conversational implicaturesII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Pragmatics treats the meaning of language as something intrinsic and inherent.12. It would be impossible to give an adequate description of meaning if the context of language use was left unconsidered.13. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered.14. The major difference between a sentence and an utterance is that a sentence is not uttered while an utterance is.15. The meaning of a sentence is abstract, but context-dependent.16. The meaning of an utterance is decontexualized, therefore stable.17. Utterances always take the form of complete sentences18. Speech act theory was originated with the British philosopher John Searle.19. Speech act theory started in the late 50’s of the 20th century.20. Austin made the distinction between a constative and a performative.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. The notion of __________ is essential to the pragmatic study of language.22. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes an __________.23. The meaning of a sentence is __________, and decontexualized.24. __________ were statements that either state or describe, and were thus verifiable.25. __________ were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable.26. A(n) __________ act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.27. A(n) __________ act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something.28. A(n) _________ is commit the speaker himself to some future course of action.29. A(n) ________ is to express feelings or attitude towards an existing state.30. There are four maxims under the cooperative principle: the maxim of __________, the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation and the maxim of manner.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Conversational implicature32. Performative33. Locutionary act34. Q-principle (Horn)V. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. Explain the following remarks with examples or make some comments.“Both semantics and pragmatics are concerned with meaning, but the difference between t hem can be traced to two different uses of the verb mean: (a) What does X mean (b) What did you mean by X” （东北师范大学，2006）36. Do you think B is cooperative in the following dialogue Support your argument with Cooperative Principle. （南开大学，2004）A: When is the bus coming？B: There has been an accident further up the road.VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. What is the function of context in communication Try to explain the following utterances rather than just state facts.(1) The room is messy.(2) It would be good if she had a green skirt on.Key:~5 DBCBA 6~10 ~15 FTTFF 16~20 FFFTT. context 22. utterance 23. abstract 24. Constatives25. Performatives 26. locutionary 27. illocutionary 28. commissive 29. expressive 30. quantity. Conversational implicature: In our daily life, speakers and listeners involved in conversation are generally cooperating with each other. In other words, when people are talking with each other, they must try to converse smoothly and successfully. In accepting speakers’ presuppositions, listeners have to assume that a speaker is not trying to mislead them. This sense of cooperation is simply one in which people having a conversation are not normally assumed to be trying to confuse, trick, or withhold relevant information from one another. However, in real communication, the intention of the speaker is often not the literal meaning of what he or she says. The real intention implied in the words is called conversational implicature.32. Performative: In speech act theory an utterance which performs an act, such as Watch out (= a warning).33. Locutionary act: A locutionary act is the saying of something which is meaningful and can be understood.34. Horn’s Q-principle: (1) Make your contribution sufficient (cf. quantity); (2) Say as much as you can (given R).. Pragmatics is the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationships between sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used. Pragmatics includes the study of(1) How the interpretation and use of utterances depends on knowledge of the real world;(2) How speakers use and understand speech acts;(3) How the structure of sentences is influenced by the relationship between the speaker and the hearer.Pragmatics is sometimes contrasted with semantics, which deals with meaning without reference to the users and communicative functions of sentences.36. Yes, B is cooperative. On the face of it, B’s statement is not an answer to A’s question. B doesn’t say “when.” However, A will immediately interpret the statement as meaning “I don’t know” or “I am not sure.” Just assume that B is being “relevant” and “informative.” Given that B’s answer contains relevant infor mation, A can work out that “an accident further up the road” conventionally involves “traffic jam,” and “traffic jam” preludes “bus coming.” Thus, B’s answer is not simply a statement of “when the bus comes”; it contains an implicature concerning “when th e bus comes.”occurs before and / or after a word, a phrase or even a longer utterance or a text. The context often helps in understanding the particular meaning of the word, phrase, etc.The context may also be the broader social situation in which a linguistic item is used.(1) a. A mild criticism of someone who should have cleaned the room.b. In a language class where a student made a mistake, for he intended to say “tidy.”c. The room was wanted for a meeting.(2) a. A mild way to express disagreement with someone who has complimented on a lady’s appearance.b. A regret that the customer had not taken the dress.c. That she wore a red shirt was not in agreement with the custom on the occasion.Chapter 12 Theories and Schools of Modern LinguisticsI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. The person who is often described as “father of modern linguistics” is __________..A. FirthB. SaussureC. HallidayD. Chomsky2. The most important contribution of the Prague School to linguistics is that it sees language in terms of __________.A. functionB. meaningC. signsD. system3. The principal representative of American descriptive linguistics is __________.A. BoasB. SapirC. BloomfieldD. Harris4. Generally speaking, the __________ specifies whether a certain tagmeme is in the position of the Nucleus or of the Margin in the structure.A. SlotB. ClassC. RoleD. Cohesion5. __________ Grammar is the most widespread and the best understood method of discussing Indo-European languages.A. TraditionalB. StructuralC. FunctionalD. Generative6. __________ Grammar started from the American linguist Sydney M. Lamb in the late 1950s and the early 1960s.A. StratificationalB. CaseC. RelationalD. Montague7. In Halliday’s view, the __________ function is the fun ction that the child uses to know about his surroundings.A. personalB. heuristicC. imaginativeD. informative8. The rheme in the sentence “On it stood Jane” is __________.A. On itB. stoodC. On it stoodD. Jane9. Chomsky follows __________ in philosophy and mentalism in psychology.A. empiricismB. behaviorismC. relationalismD. mentalism10. TG grammar has seen __________ stages of development.A. threeB. fourC. fiveD. sixII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false. (10%)11. Following Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole, Trubetzkoy argued that phonetics belonged to langue whereas phonology belonged to parole.12. The subject-predicate distinction is the same as the theme and rheme contrast.13. London School is also known as systemic linguistics and functional linguistics.14. According to Firth, a system is a set of mutually exclusive options that come into play at some point ina linguistic structure.15. American Structuralism is a branch of diachronic linguistics that emerged independently in the United States at the beginning of the twentieth century.16. The Standard Theory focuses discussion on language universals and universal grammar.17. American descriptive linguistics is empiricist and focuses on diversities of languages.18. Chomsky’s concept of linguistic performance is similar to Saussure’s concept of parole, while his use of linguistic competence is somewhat different from Saussure’s langue.19. Glossematics emphasizes the nature and status of linguistic theory and its relation to description.20. If two sentences have exactly the same ideational and interpersonal functions, they would be the same in terms of textual coherence.III. Fill in the blanks. (20%)21. The Prague School practiced a special style of __________ Linguistics.22. The Prague School is best known and remembered for its contribution to phonology and the distinction between __________ and phonology.23. The man who turned linguistics proper into a recognized distinct academic subject in Britain was __________.24. Halliday’s Systemic Grammar contains a functional component, and the the ory behind his Functional Grammar is __________.25. Systemic-Functional Grammar is a(n) __________ oriented functional linguistic approach.26. Structuralism is based on the assumption that grammatical categories should be defined not in terms of meaning but in terms of __________.27. In the history of American linguistics, the period between 1933 and 1950 is also known as __________ Age.28. __________ in language theories is characteristic of America.29. The starting point of Chomsky’s TG gra mmar is his __________ hypothesis.30. Chomsky argues that LAD probably consists of three elements, that is a __________, linguistic universal, and an evaluation procedure.IV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. FSP 32. Cohesion33. LAD34. Case GrammarV. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. Why is Saussure hailed as the father of modern linguistics？36. What is behaviorism What is behaviorism in linguistics What is the relationship between linguistics and behaviorism according to Bloomfield Does behaviorism have any limitations If yes, what are they？VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. Can you make a brief introduction to some important schools and their influential representatives in modern linguistics？Key:~5 BACAA 6~10 ABDCC ~15 FFTTF 16~20 FTTTF. synchronic 22. phonetics23. J. R. Firth 24. systemic25. sociologically 26. distribution27. Bloomfieldian 28. Descriptivism29. innateness 30. hypothesis-maker. FSP: It stands for Functional Sentence Perspective. It is a theory of linguistic analysis which refers to an analysis of utterances (or texts) in terms of the information they contain.32. Cohesion: The Cohesion shows whether a certain tagmeme is dominating other tagmemes or isdominated by others.33. LAD: LAD, that is Language Acquisition Device, is posited by Chomsky in the 1960s as a device effectively present in the minds of children by which a grammar of their native language is constructed. 34. Case Grammar: It is an approach that stresses the relationship of elements in a sentence. It is a type of generative grammar developed by C. J. Fillmore in the late 1960s.Chapter 7 Exercises for Language, Culture and SocietyI . Fill in the blanks.1. Language varieties other than the standard are called nonstandard, or_________ , language.2. A speech _________ is a group of people who share the same language or a particular variety of language.3. Wherever the standard he’s). Black English can language can use a contraction (he + is _________ the form of “be”._________ superposed, socially prestigious dialect of language.5. A_________ language is originally a pidgin that has become established as a native language in some speech communities.6. A linguistic_________ refers to a word or the "polite" society from general use.7. Taboo and _________ are two faces of the same communicative coin.8. Whorf proposed that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on _________.9. Language itself is not sexist, but its use may reflect the _________ attitude connoted in the language that is sexist.10. An ethnic _______(dialect is spoken mainly by a less experienced privileged population that has experienced some sort of social isolation, such as_________ discrimination.11. In terms of sociolinguistics, _________ is sometimes used to refer to the whole of a person's language.12. In many societies of the world, we find a large number of people who speak more than one language. Asa characteristic of societies, _________ inevitably results from the coming into cultures and different languages. (bilingualism)II. . Choose the best answer.13. _________ are language varieties for use in particular speech situations.A. SlangB. Address termsC. RegistersD. Education varieties14. In sociolinguistics, _________ refers to situations typically constrained by a commonset of behaviour rules.A. domainB. . situationC. societyD. community15. _________ is defined as any regionally or socially definable human group identified by shared linguistic system.A. A speech communityB. A raceC. A societyD. A country16. _________ variation of language is the most discernible and definable in speech variation.A. RegionalB. SocialC. StylisticD. Idiolectal17. _________ is not a typical example of official bilingualism.A. CanadaB. FinlandC. BelgiumD. Germany18. _________ refers to a marginal language of few lexical items and straight forward grammatical rules, used as a medium of communication.A. Lingua francaB. CreoleC. PidginD. Standard language19. The most recognizable differences between American English and British English are in __________ and vocabulary.A. diglossiaB. bilingualismC. pidginizationD. blending20. _________ is a causal use of language that nonstandard vocabulary, typically of arbitrary, coinages and figures of speech.A. Language tabooB. SlangC. Address termsD. Register variety21. _________ variety refers to speech variation according to the particular area where a speaker comes from.A. RegionalB. SocialC. StylisticD. Ideolectal22. In a speech community people have something in common __________ a language or a particular variety of language and rules for using it.A. sociallyB. linguisticallyC. culturallyD. pragmatically23. Probably the most wide-spread and familiar ethnic variety of the English language is_________.A. British EnglishB. American EnglishC. Black EnglishD. Australian English24. __________ in a language or a particular variety of language in a person's speech, or writing, usually ranges on a from casual to formal according to the type of communicative context.A. Regional variationB. American EnglishC. Stylistic variationD. Ideolectal variationII. . Decide whether the following statements are true[T] or false[F]. In most bilingual communities, two languages have the same speech situations known as domains.__________ 25. In most bilingual communities, two languages have the same in speech situation known as domains._________ 26. A regional variety of a language is intrinsically inferior to the standard variety of that language._________ 27. The standardization of a particular dialect in relation to one or more vernaculars is the result of a deliberate governmental policy._________ 28. A pidgin is not a native language of a particular region._________ 29. When a bilingual speaker switches between the two languages concerned, he is converting one mode of thinking into the other._________ 30. Pidgins are rule-governed, like any human language._________31. According to the strong version of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, speaker's perceptions deternune language and pattern their way of life._________ 32. Diglossia is a universal phenomenon._________ 33. Diglossia refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers._________ 34. The sentences "He crazy" and "He be sick all the time" are both acceptable in Black English vernacular because copula deletion and habitual be are two famous features of Black English._________ 35. Speakers of different languages are capable of distinguishing and recognizing experiences of the same objective world according to their respective different linguistic coding system._________ 36. There are words of more or less the same meaning used in different regional dialects. Explain the following terms.37. Register 38. Pigin39. Slang 40. Communicative competence41. Sapir-Whorf hypothesis 42 . Lingua franca43. Diglossia 44. Sociolect45. Sociolinguistics 46. Speech community47. Standard language 48: Speech variety questions.V. Answer the following questions.49. What is the difference official language？50. What distinction, if any, can you draw between standard language, national languageKeysI . Fill in the blanks.1. vernacular2. community3. delete4. standard5. creole6. taboo7. euphemism8. language9. social 10. racial 11. idiolect 12. bilingualismII . Choose the best . C 14. A 15. A 16. A 17. D19. C 20. B 21. A 22. B 23. C 24. DIII. Decide whether the following statements are true[T] or false [ F ] .25. [F] They have a fairly clear functional differentiation, i. e. one language or a particular variety of language and rules for using it.26. [F] It is not justifiable to say that one variety of a language is better than any other.27. [F] The standardization is not necessarily the result of a governmental policy, but of a historical and cultural tradition.28. [T]29. [F] When a bilingual speaker switches between the two languages, he is making transitions between the two linguistic coding systems.30. [Tl,31.[F] The true statement is "According to the strong version of the Sapir¬Whorf hypothesis, language determines speaker's perceptions and patterns their way of life.32. [F] Diglossia is not a universal phenomenon.33. [F] Bilingualism refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers.34. [F] Only "he crazy" is acceptable in Black English vernacular because of copula deletion.35. [T] 36. [T]。