托福备考托福阅读34套TPO样题+解析+译文TPO13--3 Methods of Studying Infant
托福考试 复习托福阅读TPO13(试题+答案+译文)第3篇:Methods of Studying Infant Perception托福阅读原文In thestudy of perceptual abilities of infants, a number of techniques are used todetermine infants' responses to various stimuli. Because they cannot verbalizeor fill out questionnaires, indirect techniques of naturalistic observation areused as the primary means of determining what infants can see, hear, feel, andso forth. Each of these methods compares an infant's state prior to theintroduction of a stimulus with its state during or immediately following thestimulus. The difference between the two measures provides the researcher withan indication of the level and duration of the response to the stimulus. Forexample, if a uniformly moving pattern of some sort is passed across the visualfield of a neonate (newborn), repetitive following movements of the eye occur.The occurrence of these eye movements provides evidence that the moving patternis perceived at some level by the newborn. Similarly, changes in the infant'sgeneral level of motor activity —turning the head, blinking the eyes, crying, andso forth — have been used by researchers as visual indicators of the infant'sperceptual abilities.Suchtechniques, however, have limitations. First, the observation may be unreliablein that two or more observers may not agree that the particular responseoccurred, or to what degree it occurred. Second, responses are difficult toquantify. Often the rapid and diffuse movements of the infant make it difficultto get an accurate record of the number of responses. The third, and mostpotent, limitation is that it is not possible to be certain that the infant'sresponse was due to the stimulus presented or to a change from no stimulus to astimulus. The infant may be responding to aspects of the stimulus differentthan those identified by the investigator. Therefore, when observationalassessment is used as a technique for studying infant perceptual abilities,care must be taken not to overgeneralize from the data or to rely on one or twostudies as conclusive evidence of a particular perceptual ability of theinfant.Observationalassessment techniques have become much more sophisticated, reducing thelimitations just presented. Film analysis of the infant's responses, heart andrespiration rate monitors, and nonnutritive sucking devices are used as effectivetools in understanding infant perception. Film analysis permits researchers tocarefully study the infant's responses over and over and in slow motion.Precise measurements can be made of the length and frequency of the infant'sattention between two stimuli. Heart and respiration monitors provide theinvestigator withthe number of heartbeats or breaths taken when a new stimulusis presented. Numerical increases are used as quantifiable indicators ofheightened interest in the new stimulus. Increases in nonnutritive sucking werefirst used as an assessment measure by researchers in 1969. They devised anapparatus that connected a baby's pacifier to a counting device. As stimuliwere presented, changes in the infant's sucking behavior were recorded. Increasesin the number of sucks were used as an indicator of the infant's attention toor preference for a given visual display.Twoadditional techniques of studying infant perception have come into vogue. Thefirst is the habituation-dishabituation technique, in which a single stimulusis presented repeatedly to the infant until there is a measurable decline(habituation) in whatever attending behavior is being observed. At that point anew stimulus is presented, and any recovery (dishabituation) in responsivenessis recorded. If the infant fails to dishabituate and continues to showhabituation with the new stimulus, it is assumed that the baby is unable toperceive the new stimulus as different. The habituation-dishabituation paradigmhas been used most extensively with studies of auditory and olfactoryperception in infants. The second technique relies on evoked potentials, whichare electrical brain responses that maybe related to a particular stimulus because ofwhere they originate. Changes inthe electrical pattern of the brain indicate that the stimulus is gettingthrough to the infant's central nervous system and eliciting some form ofresponse.Each ofthe preceding techniques provides the researcher with evidence that the infantcan detect or discriminate between stimuli. With these sophisticatedobservational assessment and electro-physiological measures, we know that theneonate of only a few days is far more perceptive than previously suspected.However, these measures are only "indirect" indicators of theinfant's perceptual abilities.托福阅读试题1.Paragraph 1 indicates that researchers use indirect methods primarily to observe theA.range of motor activity in neonatesB.frequency and duration of various stimuliC.change in an infant's state following the introduction of a stimulusD.range of an infant's visual field2.The word uniformly in the passage (Paragraph 1)is closest in meaning toA.clearlyC.consistentlyD.occasionally3.Why does the author mention repetitive following movements of the eye(Paragraph 1)?A.To identify a response that indicates a neonate's perception of a stimulusB.To explain why a neonate is capable of responding to stimuli only through repetitive movementsC.To argue that motor activity in a neonate may be random and unrelated to stimuliD.To emphasize that responses to stimuli vary in infants according to age4.Which of the following is NOT mentioned in paragraph 2 as a problem in using the technique of direct observation?A.It is impossible to be certain of the actual cause of an infant's response.B.Infants' responses, which occur quickly and diffusely, are often difficult to measure.C.Infants do not respond well to stimuli presented in an unnatural laboratory setting.D.It may be difficult for observers to agree on the presence or the degree of a response.5.The word potent in the passage(paragraph 2)is closest in meaning toB.powerfulmonD.similar6.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage(paragraph 2)? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.A.Researchers using observational assessment techniques on infants must not overgeneralize and must base their conclusions on data from many studies.B.On the basis of the data from one or two studies, it seems that some infants develop a particular perceptual ability not observed in others.C.To use data from one or two studies on infant's perceptual abilities, it is necessary to use techniques that will provide conclusive evidence.D.When researchers fail to make generalizations from their studies, their observed data is often inconclusive.7.What is the author's primary purpose in paragraph 3?A.To explain why researchers must conduct more than one type of study when they are attempting to understand infant perceptionB.To describe new techniques for observing infant perception that overcome problems identified in the previous paragraphC.To present and evaluate the conclusions of various studies on infant perceptionD.To point out the strengths and weaknesses of three new methods for quantifying an infant's reaction to stimuli8.The word quantifiable in the passage(Paragraph 3)is closest in meaning toA.visualB.permanentC.meaningfulD.measurable9.Paragraph 3 mentions all of the following as indications of an infant's heightened interest in a new stimulus EXCEPT an increase inA.sucking behaviorB. heart rateC.the number of breaths takenD.eye movements10.According to paragraph 4, which of the following leads to the conclusion that infants are able to differentiate between stimuli in a habituation-dishabituation study?A.Dishabituation occurs with the introduction of a new stimulus.B.Electrical responses in the infant's brain decline with each new stimulus.C.Habituation is continued with the introduction of a new stimulus.D.The infant displays little change in electrical brain responses.11.In paragraph 4, what does the author suggest about the way an infant's brain perceives stimuli?A.An infant's potential to respond to a stimulus may be related to the size of its brain.B.Changes in the electrical patterns of an infant's brain are difficult to detect.C.Different areas of an infant's brain respond to different types of stimuli.D.An infant is unable to perceive more than one stimulus at a time.12.Paragraph 5 indicates that researchers who used the techniques described in the passage discovered thatA.infants find it difficult to perceive some types of stimuliB.neonates of only a few days cannot yet discriminate between stimuliC.observational assessment is less useful for studying infant perception than researchers previously believedD.a neonate is able to perceive stimuli better than researchers once thought13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit? The repetition allows researchers to observe the infant's behavior until they reach agreement about the presence and the degree of the infant's response.Observational assessment techniques have become much more sophisticated, reducing the limitations just presented. Film analysis of the infant's responses, heart and respiration rate monitors, and nonnutritive sucking devices are used as effective tools in understanding infant perception. ■【A】Film analysis permits researchers to carefully study the infant's responses over and over and in slow motion. ■【B】Precise measurements can be made of the length and frequency of the infant's attention between two stimuli. ■【C】Heart and respiration monitors provide the investigator with the number of heartbeats or breaths taken when a new stimulus is presented. ■【D】Numerical increases are used as quantifiable indicators of heightened interest in the new stimulus. Increases in nonnutritive sucking were first used as an assessment measure by researchers in 1969. They devised an apparatus that connected a baby's pacifier to a counting device. As stimuli were presented, changes in the infant's sucking behavior were recorded. Increases in the number of sucks were used as an indicator of the infant's attention to or preference for a given visual display.14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage.This question is worth 2 points.Researchers use a number of techniques to determine how infants respond to changes in their environmentA.Data from observational methods must be confirmed through multiple studies.B.New techniques for studying infant perception have improved the accuracy with which researchers observe and quantify infant responsesC.Indirect observation is most accurate when researchers use it to test auditory and olfactory perception in neonates.D.Visual indicators such as turning the head, blinking the eyes, or crying remain the best evidence of an infant’s perceptual abilities.E.Pacifiers are commonly used in studies to calm an infant who has been presented with excessive stimuli.F.Sophisticated techniques that have aided new discoveries about perception in the neonate continue to be indirect measures.托福阅读答案1.以indirect methods做关键词定位至第二句，说用间接方法来观察婴儿能看到什么听到什么，接下来又说与stimulus引入之前的状态进行对比，所以答案是C，不管是hear还是see都是婴儿的state，而且只有引入之后的state才能与之前的state对比得出变化2.uniformly统一地，一致地，持续地，所以答案C的consistently正确。
托福备考托福阅读34套TPO样题+解析+译文34—1 伊sl宗教艺术
托福考试 复习TPO 34—1 伊斯兰宗教艺术原文：【1】The arts of the Islamic book, such as calligraphy and decorative drawing, developed during A.D. 900 to 1500, and luxury books are some of the most characteristic examples of Islamic art produced in this period. This came about from two major developments: paper became common, replacing parchment as the major medium for writing, and rounded scripts were regularized and perfected so that they replaced the angular scripts of the previous period, which because of their angularity were uneven in height. Books became major vehicles for artistic expression, and the artists who produced them, notably calligraphers and painters, enjoyed high status, and their workshops were often sponsored by princes and their courts. Before A.D. 900, manuscripts of the Koran (the book containing the teachings of the Islamic religion) seem to have been the most common type of book produced and decorated, but after that date a wide range of books were produced for a broad spectrum of patrons. These continued to include, of course,manuscripts of the Koran, which every Muslim wanted to read, but scientific works, histories, romances, and epic and lyric poetry were also copied in fine handwriting and decorated with beautiful illustrations. Most were made for sale on the open market, and cities boasted special souks (markets) where books were bought and sold. The mosque of Marrakech in Morocco is known as the Kutubiyya, or Booksellers’ Mosque, after the adjacent market. Some of the most luxurious books were specific commissions made at the order of a particular prince and signed by the calligrapherand decorator.【2】Papermaking had been introduced to the Islamic lands from China in the eighth century. It has been said that Chinese papermakers were among the prisoners captured in a battle fought near Samarqand between the Chinese and the Muslims in 751, and the technique of papermaking - in which cellulose pulp extracted from any of several plants is first suspended in water, caught on a fine screen, and then dried into flexible sheets - slowly spread westward. Within fifty years, the government in Baghdad was using paper for documents. Writing in ink on paper, unlike parchment, could not easily be erased, and therefore paper had the advantage that it was difficult to alter what was written on it. Papermaking spread quickly to Egypt - and eventually to Sicily and Spain - but it was several centuries before paper supplanted parchment for copies of the Koran, probably because of the conservative nature of religious art and its practitioners. In western Islamic lands, parchment continued to be used for manuscripts of the Koran throughout this period.【3】The introduction of paper spurred a conceptual revolution whose consequences have barely been explored. Although paper was never as cheap as it has become today, it was far less expensive than parchment, and therefore more people could afford to buy books, Paper is thinner than parchment, so more pages could be enclosed within a single volume. At first, paper was made in relatively small sheets that were pasted together, but by the beginning of the fourteenth century, very large sheets - as much as a meter across - were available. These large sheetsmeant that calligraphers and artists had more space on which to work. Paintings became more complicated, giving the artist greater opportunities to depict space or emotion. The increased availability of paper, particularly after 1250, encouraged people to develop systems of representation, such as architectural plans and drawings. This in turn allowed the easy transfer of artistic ideas and motifs over great distances from one medium to another, and in a different scale in ways that had been difficult, if not impossible, in the previous period.【4】Rounded styles of Arabic handwriting had long been used for correspondence and documents alongside the formal angular scripts used for inscriptions and manuscripts of the Koran. Around the year 900, Ibn Muqla, who was a secretary and vizier at the Abbasid court in Baghdad, developed a system of proportioned writing. He standardized the length of alif, the first letter of the Arabic alphabet, and then determined what the size and shape of all other letters should be, based on the alif. Eventually, six round forms of handwriting, composed of three pairs of big and little scripts known collectively as the Six Pens, became the standard repertory of every calligrapher.题目：1.Paragraph 1 makes all of the following points about Islamic books EXCEPT:A.Books were an important form of artistic expression.B.A wide variety of books with different styles and topics became available.C.They were sold primarily near mosques.D.Most books were intended for sale on the open market.2.The word "sponsored" in the passage is closest in meaning toA.visitedB.ownedC.praisedD.supported3.The word "adjacent" in the passage is closest in meaning toA.majorB.nearbyC.ancientD.well-known4.According to paragraph 1, before A.D. 900, books in the Islamic worldA.included a wide range of subjectsB.did not contain any calligraphy or decorationed rounded scriptsD.were usually written on parchment5.In paragraph 1，why does the author mention the fact that the mosque in Marrakech,Morocco, is known as the Booksellers’MosqueA.T o cast doubt on the importance of souks in making books available to common peopleB.To provide an example of a place where books were made at the order of a particular princeC.To emphasize how influential and well known the book markets wereD.T o demonstrate the need for religious texts in Islamic lands6.The phrase "extracted from" in the passage is closest in meaning toA.taken out ofB.produced usingC.discovered inbined with7.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage?Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.A.It was several centuries before papermaking techniques spread to faraway areas where parchment was popular and used widely in art.B.Although papermaking came to Egypt quickly, it took much longer for paper to be used when copying the Koran, probably because of the conservative nature ofreligious art.C.Papermaking spread beyond Egypt, Sicily, and Spain, but it was not widely used by artists for centuries, probably because of the conservative nature of art in those countries.D.Paper replaced parchment in copies of the Koran, probably at the request of conservative practitioners in areas like Egypt, Sicily, and Spain.8.In paragraphs 2 and 3, which of the following is NOT mentioned as an advantage of paper over parchment?A.It was harder to erase or change what was written on paper.B.More pages of paper could be bound in a single volume.C.Paper could be produced in sheets of varying weights and thicknesses.D.More people could buy books made of paper because it was cheaper.9.Why does the author include the following information: "At first, paper was made in relatively small sheets that were pasted together, but by the beginning of the fourteenth century, very large sheets - as much as a meter across -were available."?A.T o provide evidence that the development of papermaking techniques was very slowB.To explain why paper was never as cheap as it has become todayC.To make the point that paper allowed artists to develop paintings that were more expressive and complexD.T o prove that paper was more popular with artists who used large sheets, than it was with book printers, who used smaller sheets10.According to paragraph 3, the increased availability of paper and the development of systems of representationA.encourage more people to make their own drawingsB.made the transfer of artistic ideas to distant people and places much easierC.made architectural plans more complex and therefore harder to readD.allowed artists to create paintings that were smaller in scale11.According to paragraph 4, what did Ibn Muqla achieve around the year 900?A.He modified a set of formal scripts known as the Six Pens into rounded scripts appropriate for correspondence.B.He created a standardized set of rounded scripts proportional to the size of the first letter of the alphabet.C.He promoted calligraphy as an art form and encouraged the use of rounded letters in religious texts.D.He persuaded the court in Baghdad to use rounded styles instead of more angular scripts in their documents.12.The phrase "composed of" in the passage is closest in meaning toA.made up ofB.developed fromC.in addition toD.similar to13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit? This change occurred for good reason. This change occurred for good reason.Papermaking had been introduced to the Islamic lands from China in the eighth century. ■【A】It has been said that Chinese papermakers were among the prisoners captured in a battle fought near Samarqand between the Chinese and the Muslims in 751, ，and the technique of papermaking - in which cellulose pulp extracted from any of several plants is first suspended in water, caught on a fine screen, and then dried into flexible sheets - slowly spread westward. ■【B】Within fifty years, the government in Baghdad was using paper for documents. ■【C】Writing in ink on paper, unlike parchment, could not easily be erased, and therefore paper had the advantage that it was difficult to alter what was written on it. ■【D】Papermaking spread quickly to Egypt - and eventually to Sicily and Spain - but it was several centuries before paper supplanted parchment for copies of the Koran, probably because of the conservative nature of religious art and its practitioners. In western Islamic lands, parchment continuedto be used for manuscripts of the Koran throughout this period.14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answerchoices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some answer choices do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This questions is worth 2 points. Islamic books from A.D. 900 to 1500 reflect major changes from the past and important innovations.A.Books became major vehicle of artistic expression for calligraphers and painters, and the subjects of books expanded to include more and more kinds of works.B.The growing luxuriousness of books meant that the market for them was increasingly dominated by the wealthy and powerful patrons who could afford them.C.After it was learned from Chinese prisoners, the technique of papermaking spread throughout Islamic lands, where paper gradually replaced parchment.D.The high status enjoyed by calligraphers and artists made books extremely popular in the cities where books were bought and sold.E.The popularity of books led to major advances in the development and transfer of new artistic ideas.F.Around the year 900, a set of rounded styles of Arabic handwriting began replacing angular scripts in copying the manuscripts of the Koran.答案：1.C2.D3.B4.B5.C6.A7.B8.C9.C10.B11.B12.A13.C14.ACE。
托福TPO34口语Task3阅读文本+听力文本+题目+满分范文
为了帮助大家高效备考托福，为大家带来托福TPO34口语Task3阅读文本+听力文本+题目+满分范文，希望对大家备考有所帮助。
托福TPO34口语Task3阅读文本： Program to Provide Free Tutoring The university has announced that starting with the fall semester, free tutoring will be available to all new students for their entire first year. The academic dean, James Maxwell, commented, “The university is aware of the academic problems that many first-year students face when making the transition from high school to college.”The new tutoring program, he said, is designed to assist first-year students who want or need additional support with their academic course work. The program will also be organized so that individual students can arrange to work with tutors majoring in their own chosen field of study. 托福TPO34口语Task3听力文本： (man) Hey, did you read about this plan? (woman) Yeah, and I think it's really a great idea. (man) Why's that? (woman) Well, a lot of new students really need this, I mean, it's not just about getting extra help with the course material, they'll probably also get information about things like taking notes or the best way to study for exams.(man) Yeah, I barely even knew how to do those things when I first came here.(woman) Neither did I. So these are things most students wind up having to learn on their own at first. That's why so many of them have a hard time.(man) And it's probably good that they can work with somebody who has the same interests. (woman) Right, that will be a real advantage: to get information about the classes you're gonna need to take from somebody who's already taken those classes. And they could recommend professors and tell you who the best advisers in the department are, things like that.(man) I see what you mean, so new students could get access to information about the program from another student’s point of view. (woman) Exactly! 托福TPO34口语Task3题目： The woman expresses her opinion about the university’s plan. Briefly summarize the plan. Then state her opinion about the plan and explain the reasons she givesfor holding that opinion. 托福TPO34口语Task3满分范文： Well, according to the plan, the university is offering free tutoring to all new students for the entire first year to help the students who need additional support for their academic course work, and help from tutors in the same major. Accordingly, the woman agrees with the plan for two main reasons. Firstly, she believes that the students will not only get extra help with the course material, but also information like ideas or strategies for cracking exams. Therefore it'll be a lot easier for the freshmen to get their study started. Secondly, the woman thinks it will be a real advantage for the freshmen because they could receive information from the tutors who have already taken the classes, about past learning experience, such as recommended professors or best advisers and things like that. All in all, the woman agrees with the plan for the reasons stated above. (146 words) 以上是给大家整理的托福TPO34口语Task3阅读文本+听力文本+题目+满分范文，希望对你有所帮助!。
托福备考托福阅读34套TPO样题+解析+译文15--2MassExtinctions物种灭绝-
托福考试 复习托福阅读TPO15(试题+答案+译文)第2篇:Mass Extinctions物种灭绝托福阅读原文【1】Cases in which many species become extinct within a geologicallyshort interval of time are called mass extinctions. There was one such event at the end of the Cretaceous period(around 70 million years ago).There was another, even larger, mass extinction at the end of the Permianperiod (around 250 million years ago). The Permian event has attractedmuch less attention than other mass extinctions because mostly unfamiliar species perished at that time.【2】The fossil record shows at least five mass extinctions in which many families of marine organisms died out. The rates of extinction happeningtoday are as great as the rates during these mass extinctions. Many scientists have therefore concluded that a sixth great mass extinction iscurrently in progress.【3】What could cause such high rates of extinction? There are several hypotheses, including warming or cooling of Earth, changes in seasonal fluctuations or ocean currents, and changing positions of the continents. Biological hypotheses include ecological changes brought about by theevolution of cooperation between insects and flowering plants or of bottom-feeding predators in the oceans. Some of the proposedmechanisms required a very brief period during which all extinctions suddenly took place; other mechanisms would be more likely to have taken place more gradually, over an extended period, or at different timeson different continents. Some hypotheses fail to account for simultaneous extinctions on land and in the seas. Each mass extinctionmay have had a different cause.Evidence points to hunting by humansand habitat destruction as the likely causes for the current mass extinction.【4】American paleontologists David Raup and John Sepkoski, who have studied extinction rates in a number of fossil groups, suggest that episodes of increased extinction have recurred periodically, approximately every 26 million years since the mid-Cretaceous period. The late Cretaceous extinction of the dinosaurs and ammonoids was justone of the more drastic in a whole series of such recurrent extinction episodes. The possibility that mass extinctions may recur periodically hasgiven rise to such hypotheses as that of a companion star with along-period orbit deflecting other bodies from their normal orbits, making some of them fall to Earth as meteors and causing widespread devastation upon impact.【5】Of the various hypotheses attempting to account for the late Cretaceous extinctions, the one that has attracted the most attention inrecent years is the asteroid-impact hypothesis first suggested by Luis andWalter Alvarez. According to this hypothesis, Earth collided with an asteroid with an estimated diameter of 10kilometers, or with several asteroids, the combined mass of which was comparable. The force of collision spewed large amounts of debris into the atmosphere, darkeningthe skies for several years before the finer particles settled. The reducedlevel of photosynthesis led to a massive decline in plant life of all kinds,and this caused massive starvation first of herbivores and subsequentlyof carnivores. The mass extinction would have occurred very suddenly under this hypothesis.【6】One interesting test of the Alvarez hypothesis is based on the presence of the rare-earth element iridium (Ir).Earth’s crust contains very little of this element, but most asteroids contain a lot more. Debris throwninto the atmosphere by an asteroid collision would presumably containlarge amounts of iridium, and atmospheric currents would carry this material all over the globe. A search of sedimentary deposits that spanthe boundary between the Cretaceous and Tertiary periods shows that there is a dramatic increase in the abundance of iridium briefly and precisely at this boundary. This iridiumanomaly offers strong support forthe Alvarez hypothesis even though no asteroid itself has ever been recovered.【7】An asteroid of this size would be expected to leave an immense crater,even if the asteroid itself was disintegrated by the impact. The intenseheat of the impact would produce heat-shocked quartz in many types ofrock. Also, large blocks thrown aside by the impact would form secondarycraters surrounding the main crater.To date, several such secondary-craters have been found along Mexico’s Yucatan Peninsula, and heat shocked quartz has been found both in Mexico and in Haiti.A locationcalled Chicxulub, along the Yucatan coast, has been suggested as the primary impact site.托福阅读试题1.Paragraph 1 supports which of the following statements about mass extinctions?A.They take place over a period of 70 million years.B.They began during the Cretaceous period.C.They eliminate many animal species that exist at the time they occur.D.They occur every 250 million years.2.According to paragraph 2, scientists base their belief that a mass extinction is going on at present on which of the following?A.The speed with which mass extinctions are happening today is similarto the speed of past extinctions.B.The number of species that have died out since the last extinction eventis extremely large.C.Mass extinctions occur with regularity and it is time for another one.D.Fossil records of many marine species have disappeared.3.The word extended in the passage is closest in meaning toA.specific.B. unlimited.C.reasonable.D. long.4.According to paragraph 3, each of the following has been proposed asa possible cause of mass extinctions EXCEPTA.habitat destruction.B.continental movement.C.fierce interspecies competition.D.changes in Earth's temperature.5.Paragraph 3 supports which of the following ideas about mass extinctions?A.Scientists know the exact causes of most mass extinctions.B.Mass extinctions are unlikely to happen again in the future.C.Insects, flowering plants, and bottom-feeding predators in the oceanstend to be the first organisms to disappear during episodes of mass extinctions.D.Some mass extinctions occurred on land and in the seas at the sametime.6.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential informationin the underlined sentence （Paragraph 4）in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.A.Based on their studies of extinction rates of numerous fossil groups, paleontologists David Raup and John Sepkoski have determined that mass extinctions occur about every 26 million years.B.David Raup and John Sepkoski studied extinction rates of numerous fossil groups and suggest that mass extinctions during the Cretaceousperiod continued for 26 million years.C.Studies that paleontologists David Raup and John Sepkoski conductedof various fossil groups have revealed that extinction rates have increasedover the past 26 million years.D.The studies conducted by paleontologists David Raup and John Sepkoski of the fossil remains of species suggest that the extinction rateof species started to increase by the middle of the Cretaceous period.7.According to paragraph 4, what aspect of extinction episodes does the companion-star hypothesis supposedly clarify?A.Their location.B.Their frequency.C.Their duration.D.Their severity.8.The phrase account for in the passage(Paragraph 5)is closest in meaning toA.describe.B.challenge.C.explain.D.test.9.According to paragraph 6, what made iridium a useful test of the Alvarez hypothesis?A.Its occurrence in a few locations on Earth against several locations onother planets.B.Its occurrence in limited quantities on Earth against its abundance in asteroids.C.Its ability to remain solid at extremely high temperatures.D.Its ease of detection even in very small amounts.10.In stating that no asteroid itself has ever been recovered, the author emphasizes which of the following?A.The importance of the indirect evidence for a large asteroid.B.The fact that no evidence supports the asteroid impact hypothesis.C.The reason many researchers reject the Alvarez hypothesis.D.The responsibility of scientists for not making the effort to discover theasteroid itself.11.The word intense（Paragraph 7）in the passage is closest in meaningtoA.sudden.B.unusual.C.immediate.D. extreme.12.What is the purpose of paragraph 7 in the passage?A.It proposes a decisive new test of the Alvarez hypothesis.B.It presents additional supporting evidence for the Alvarez hypothesis.C.It explains why evidence relating to the Alvarez hypothesis is hard tofind.D.It shows how recent evidence has raised doubts about the Alvarez hypothesis.13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence bestfit? In general, it is believed that these two extinctions resulted from drastic environmental changes that followed meteorite impacts or massive volcanic eruptions.■Cases in which many species become extinct within a geologically shortinterval of time are called mass extinctions. ■There was one such eventat the end of the Cretaceous period (around 70 million years ago). ■There was another, even larger, mass extinction at the end of the Permian period (around 250 million years ago). ■The Permian event has attracted muchless attention than other mass extinctions because mostly unfamiliar species perished at that time.14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because theyexpress ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas inthe passage. This question is worth 2 points.There have been many attempts to explain the causes of mass extinctions.A.Asteroid impacts, evolutionary developments, and changes in Earth'sclimate and in the positions of the continents have all been proposed aspossible causes of mass extinctions.B.Researchers have observed 26-million-year cycles in extinction rates ofa number of fossil groups that could all be attributed to the same cause.C.According to the Alvarez hypothesis, much of the iridium originally present on Earth was thrown into the atmosphere as a result of an asteroid impact that also caused a mass extinction.D.The unusual distribution of iridium on Earth and the presence of cratersand heat-shocked quartz are central to the theory that an asteroid impactcaused the late Cretaceous event.E.The collision between Earth and a large asteroid resulted in massive damage and generated enough heat to cause irreversible changes inEarth's atmosphere.F.There was a particularly large mass extinction that occurred around 250million years ago at the end of the Permian period, whose cause couldnot be determined.托福阅读答案1.以mass extinctions做关键词定位至第一句，说大量生物在短时间内灭绝的这种现象叫做大灭绝事件，C是原文的同义替换，所以是正确答案。
托福备考托福阅读34套TPO样题+解析+译文12--1 Which Hand Did They Use
托福考试 复习托福阅读TPO12(试题+答案+译文)第1篇:Which Hand Did They Use?托福阅读原文We all know that many more people today are right-handed than left-handed. Can one trace this same pattern far back in prehistory? Much of the evidence about right-hand versus left-hand dominance comes from stencils and prints found in rock shelters in Australia and elsewhere, and in many Ice Age caves in France, Spain, and Tasmania. When a left hand has been stenciled, this implies that the artist was right-handed, and vice versa. Even though the paint was often sprayed on by mouth, one can assume that the dominant hand assisted in the operation. One also has to make the assumption that hands were stenciled palm downward—a left hand stenciled palm upward might of course look as if it were a right hand. Of 158 stencils in the French cave of Gargas, 136 have been identified as left, and only 22 as right; right-handedness was therefore heavily predominant.Cave art furnishes other types of evidence of this phenomenon. Most engravings, for example, are best lit from the left, as befits the work of right-handed artists, who generally prefer to have the light source on the left so that the shadow of their hand does not fall on the tip of the engraving tool or brush. In the few cases where an Ice Age figure is depicted holding something, it is mostly, though not always, in the righthand.Clues to right-handedness can also be found by other methods. Right-handers tend to have longer, stronger, and more muscular bones on the right side, and Marcellin Boule as long ago as 1911 noted the La Chapelle-aux-Saints Neanderthal skeleton had a right upper arm bone that was noticeably stronger than the left. Similar observations have been made on other Neanderthal skeletons such as La Ferrassie I and Neanderthal itself.Fractures and other cut marks are another source of evidence. Right-handed soldiers tend to be wounded on the left. The skeleton of a 40- or 50-year-old Nabatean warrior, buried 2,000 years ago in the Negev Desert, Israel, had multiple healed fractures to the skull, the left arm, and the ribs.Tools themselves can be revealing. Long-handed Neolithic spoons of yew wood preserved in Alpine villages dating to 3000 B.C. have survived; the signs of rubbing on their left side indicate that their users were right-handed. The late Ice Age rope found in the French cave of Lascaux consists of fibers spiraling to the right, and was therefore tressed by a righthander.Occasionally one can determine whether stone tools were used in the right hand or the left, and it is even possible to assess how far back this feature can be traced. In stone tool making experiments, Nick Toth, aright-hander, held the core (the stone that would become the tool) in his left hand and the hammer stone in his right. As the tool was made, the core was rotated clockwise, and the flakes, removed in sequence, had a little crescent of cortex (the core's outer surface) on the side. Toth's knapping produced 56 percent flakes with the cortex on the right, and 44 percent left-oriented flakes. A left-handed toolmaker would produce the opposite pattern. Toth has applied these criteria to the similarly made pebble tools from a number of early sites (before 1.5 million years) at Koobi Fora, Kenya, probably made by Homo habilis. At seven sites he found that 57 percent of the flakes were right-oriented, and 43 percent left, a pattern almost identical to that produced today.About 90 percent of modern humans are right-handed: we are the only mammal with a preferential use of one hand. The part of the brain responsible for fine control and movement is located in the left cerebral hemisphere, and the findings above suggest that the human brain was already asymmetrical in its structure and function not long after 2 million years ago. Among Neanderthalers of 70,000–35,000 years ago, Marcellin Boule noted that the La Chapelle-aux-Saints individual had a left hemisphere slightly bigger than the right, and the same was found for brains of specimens from Neanderthal, Gibraltar, and La Quina.托福阅读试题1.The phrase “assisted in” in the passage(Paragraph 1)is closest in meaning toA.initiatedB. dominatedC. helped withD.setup2.It canbe inferred from paragraph 1 that even when paint was sprayed by mouth to make a hand stencilA.there was no way to tell which hand was stenciledB.the stenciled hand was the weaker handC.the stenciled hand was the dominant handD.artists stenciled more images of the dominant hand than they did of the weak3.The phrase “depicted” in the passage(Paragraph 2)is closest in meaning toA.identifiedB.revealedC.picturedD.imagined4.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential informationin the highlighted sentence in the passage(Paragraph 2)? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.A.Right-handed artists could more easily have avoided casting shadows on their work, because engravings in prehistoric caves were lit from the left.B.The tips of engraving tools and brushes indicate that these instruments were used by right-handed artists whose work was lit from the left.C.The best lighting for most engravings suggests that they were made by right-handed people trying to avoid the shadow of their hands interfering with their work.D.Right-handed artists try to avoid having the brush they are using interfere with the light source.5.All of the following are mentioned in paragraphs 1 and 2 as evidence of right-handedness in art and artists EXCEPTA. the ideal source of lighting for most engravingsB. the fact that a left hand stenciled palm upward might look like a right handC. the prevalence of outlines of left handsD. figures in prehistoric art holding objects with the right hand6.According to paragraph 3, the La Chapelle-aux-Saints Neanderthal skeleton can be identified as right-handed becauseA.other Neanderthal skeletons found nearby are also right-handedB.the right arm bone is stronger than the leftC.it is similar to skeletons of La Ferrassie I and NeanderthalD. the right side of the skeleton shows less evidence of fractures7.Which of the following statements about fractures and cut marks can be inferred from paragraph 4?A.Fractures and cut marks caused by right-handed soldiers tend to occur on the right side of the injured party's body.B. The right arm sustains more injuries because, as the dominant arm, it is used more actively.C.In most people, the left side of the body is more vulnerable to injury since it is not defended effectively by the dominant arm.D.Fractures and cut marks on fossil humans probably occurred after death.8.According to paragraph 5, what characteristic of a Neolithic spoon would imply that the spoon's owner was right-handed?A.The direction of the fibersB.Its long handleC.The yew wood it is carved fromD.Wear on its left side9.In paragraph 5, why does the author mention the Ice Age rope found in the French cave of Lascaux?A.As an example of an item on which the marks of wear imply that it was used by a right-handed personB.Because tressing is an activity that is easier for a right-handed person than for a left-handed personC.Because the cave of Lascaux is the site where researchers have found several prehistoric tools made for right-handed peopleD.As an example of an item whose construction shows that it was right handed made by a right-person10.The word “criteria” in the passage(Paragraph 6)is closest in meaning toA. standardsB. findingsC.ideasD.techniques11.What was the purpose of Toth's tool making experiment described in paragraph 6?A.To shape tools that could be used by either handB. To produce replicas of early tools for display in museumsC.To imitate the production of pebble tools from early sitesD.To determine which hand made the early tools12.What is the author's primary purpose in paragraph 7?A.To illustrate the importance of studying the brainB.To demonstrate that human beings are the only mammal to desire fine control of movementC.To contrast the functions of the two hemispheres of the brainD.To demonstrate that right-hand preference has existed for a long time13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit? The stencils of hands found in these shelters and caves allow us to draw conclusions about which hand was dominant.We all know that many more people today are right-handed than left-handed. Can one trace this same pattern far back in prehistory? ■【A】Much of the evidence about right-hand versus left-hand dominance comes from stencils and prints found in rock shelters in Australia and elsewhere, and in many Ice Age caves in France, Spain, and Tasmania. ■【B】When a left hand has been stenciled, this implies that the artist was right-handed, and vice versa. ■【C】Even though the paint was often sprayed on by mouth, one can assume that the dominant hand assisted in the operation. One also has to make the assumption that hands were stenciled palm downward—a left hand stenciled palm upward might of course look as if it were a right hand. ■【D】Of 158 stencils in the French cave of Gargas, 136 have been identified as left, and only 22 as right; right-handedness was therefore heavily predominant.14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of thepassage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.Several categories of evidence indicate that people have always been predominantly right-handedA.Stencils of right-handed figures are characteristic of cave art in France, Spain, and Tasmania.B.Signs on the skeletal remains of prehistoric figures, including arm-bone size and injury marks, imply that these are the remains of right-handed people.C.Instruments such as spoons, ropes, and pebble tools show signs that indicate they were used or constructed by right-handed people.D.The amount of prehistoric art created by right-handed artists indicates that left-handed people were in the minority.E.Neanderthal skeletons often have longer finger bones in the right hand, which is evidence that the right hand was stronger.F.Nick Toth, a modem right-handed toolmaker. has shown that prehistoric tools were knapped to fit the right hand.托福阅读答案1.assist in帮助，所以C的help with是正确答案。
托福备考托福阅读34套TPO样题+解析+译文23--3 Rock Art of the Australia Aborigines
托福考试 复习托福阅读TPO23(试题+答案+译文)第3篇:Rock Art of the Australia Aborigines托福阅读原文【1】Ever since European first explored Australia, people have been trying to understand the ancient rock drawings and cavings created by the Aborigines, the original inhabitants of the continent. Early in the nineteenth century, encounters with Aboriginal rock art tended to be infrequent and open to speculative interpretation, but since the late nineteenth century, awareness of the extent and variety of Australian rock art has been growing. In the latter decades of the twentieth century there were intensified efforts to understand and record the abundance of Australian rock art.【2】The systematic study of this art is a relatively new discipline in Australia. Over the past four decades new discoveries have steadily added to the body of knowledge. The most significant data have come from a concentration on three major questions. First, what is the age of Australian rock art? Second, what is its stylistic organization and is it possible to discern a sequence or a pattern of development between styles? Third, is it possible to interpret accurately the subject matter of ancient rock art, bring to bear all available archaeological techniques andthe knowledge of present-day Aboriginal informants?【3】The age of Australia’s rock art is constantly being revised, and earlier datings have been proposed as the result of new discoveries. Currently, reliable scientific evidence dates the earliest creation of art on rock surfaces in Australia to somewhere between 30,000 and 50,000 years ago. This in itself is an almost incomprehensible span of generations, and one that makes Australia’s rock art th e oldest continuous art tradition in the world.【4】Although the remarkable antiquity of Australia’s rock art is now established, the sequences and meanings of its images have been widely debated. Since the mid-1970s, a reasonably stable picture has formed of the organization of Australian rock art. In order to create a sense of structure to this picture, researchers have relied on a distinction that still underlies the forms of much indigenous visual culture—a distinction between geometric and figurative elements. Simple geometric repeated patterns—circles, concentric circles, and lines—constitute the iconography (characteristic images) of the earliest rock-art sites found across Australia. The frequency with which certain simple motifs appear in these oldest sites has led rock-art researchers to adopt a descriptive term—the Panaramitee style—a label which takes its name from the extensive rock pavements at Panaramitee North in desert South Australia, which are covered with motifs pecked into the surface. Certain featuresof these engravings lead to the conclusion that they are of great age—geological changes had clearly happened after the designs had been made and local Aboriginal informants, when first questioned about them, seemed to know nothing of their origins. Furthermore, the designs were covered with “desert varnish,” a glaze that develops on rock surfaces over thousands of years of exposure to the elements. The simple motifs found at Panaramitee are common to many rock-art sites across Australia. Indeed, sites with engravings of geometric shapes are also to be found on the island of Tasmania, which was separated from the mainland of the continent some 10,000 years ago.【5】In the 1970s when the study of Australian archaeology was in an exciting phase of development, with the great antiquity of rock art becoming clear. Lesley Maynard, the archaeologist who coined the phrase “Panaramitee style,”suggested that a sequence could be determined for Australian rock art, in which a geometric style gave way to a simple figurative style (outlines of figures and animals), followed by a range of complex figurative styles that, unlike the pan-Australian geometric tradition, tended to much greater regional diversity. While accepting that this sequence fits the archaeological profile of those sites, which were occupied continuously over many thousands of years a number of writers have warned that the underlying assumption of such a sequence—a development from the simple and the geometric to thecomplex and naturalistic—obscures the cultural continuities in Aboriginal Australia, in which geometric symbolism remains fundamentally important. In this context the simplicity of a geometric motif may be more apparent than real. Motifs of seeming simplicity can encode complex meanings in Aboriginal Australia. And has not twentieth-century art shown that naturalism does not necessarily follow abstraction in some kind of predetermine sequence?托福阅读试题1.The word “infrequent” in the passage (paragraph 1) is closest in meaning toA.puzzling.B.uncommon.C.questionable.D.undocumented.2.According to paragraph 1, the twentieth-century approach to studying Australian rock art was different from earlier approaches because the twentieth-century approachA.recognized that many different groups of Aborigines created Australian rock art.B.concentrated on a limited range of Aboriginal rock art.C.examined Aboriginal art from an Aboriginal rather than from a European perspective.D.focused more intensely on understanding and documenting rock art.3.The word “relatively” in the passage (paragraph 2) is closest in meaning topletely.paratively.C.apparently.D.particularly.4.The word “discern” in the passage (paragraph 2) is closest in meaning toA.indicate.B.apply.C.identify.D.repeat.5.The word “revised” in the passage (paragraph 3) is closest in meaning toA.discussed.B.raised.C.challenged.D.changed.6.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential informationin the highlighted sentence in the passage (paragraph 4)? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave ways or leave out essential information.A.The oldest rock art sites have simpler motifs than the best known sites of Panaramitee North.B.Because motifs primarily associated with the Panaramitee region are common in the oldest sites the term Panaramitee style has become the general term for rock art of this type.C.Because the Panaramitee style is so common in the older sites, researchers have described it most extensively.D.The motifs carved in the rocky surface of the Panaramitee region make up the oldest form of rock art discovered in Australia.7.According to paragraph 4, researchers have organized and structured Australian rock art by distinguishing between which of the following? A.Images found at Panaramitee North and images found in other parts of Australia.B.Images found in a particular type of rock layer and images found in other types of rock layers.C.Images that have geometric elements and images that have figurative elements.D.Images that are typically found and image that are rarely found.8.According to paragraph 4, all of the following are signs of the great ageof the Panaramitee engravings EXCEPT:A.The engravings consisted of simple animal drawings.B.The engravings were covered with a layer of a substance known as “desert varnish”.C.Local Aborigines who were asked knew nothing about the origin of the engravings.D.Geologic changes had occurred after the engravings were made.9.Why does the author include information about Tasmania in paragraph 4?A.To provide evidence that the Panaramitee style is widespread and of great age.B.To prove that Aboriginal Australians could not have made the carvings in Tasmania.C.To indicate how researchers have determined how long ago Tasmania separated from the mainland.D.To illustrate the importance of geometric rock art to tourism in Tasmania.10.According to paragraph 5, the complex figurative style differs from the geometric style in that the complex figurative styleA.varies significantly from region to region.B.is more meaningful.C.appears on only a few types of rocks.D.has changed little overtime.11.According to paragraph 5, Lesley Maynard made which of the following suggestions about Australian rock art?A.There were a pattern of human figures being represented in a more complex style than animal figures.B.Australian archaeology should concentrate on determining the sequence of styles that led up to the Panaramitee style.C.The great antiquity of Australian rock art would probably make it impossible to determine the ages of the various styles found in rock art.D.The geometric style of Australian rock art was replaced by increasingly complex figurative styles.12.In paragraph 5, the author indicates that twentieth century art has shown that naturalism does not necessarily follow abstraction in some kind of predetermined sequence in order toA.emphasize that it may not be possible to determine what the figures in ancient rock art represent.B.suggest a reply to those who have questioned Maynard’s interpretation of the sequence of Australian rock art.C.provide a counterexample to Maynard’s interpretation of the sequence of Australian rock art.D.indicate that twentieth century art is more advanced than ancient rock art.13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square [■] to add the sentence to the passage. While a great deal of information exists, the answers to these questions are not yet definitive.Paragraph 2: The systematic study of this art is a relatively new discipline in Australia. Over the past four decades new discoveries have steadily added to the body of knowledge. The most significant data have come from a concentration on three major questions. First, what is the age of Australian rock art? Second, what is its stylistic organization and is it possible to discern a sequence or a pattern of development between styles? Third, is it possible to interpret accurately the subject matter of ancient rock art, bring to bear all available archaeological techniques and the knowledge of present-day Aboriginal informants? ■【A】Paragraph 3: The age of Australia’s rock art is constantly being revised, and earlier datings have been proposed as the result of new discoveries. ■【B】Currently, reliable scientific evidence dates the earliest creation of art on rock surfaces in Australia to somewhere between 30,000 and 50,000 years ago. ■【C】This in itself is an almost incomprehensible span of generations, and one that makes Australia’s rock art the oldest continuous art tradition in the world. ■【D】14. Direction: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of thepassage is provides below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.Interest in the rock art of the original inhabitants of Australia has grown over the last two centuries.te nineteenth century studies of Aboriginal rock art failed to recognize that a variety of styles existed.B.The extreme age of the earliest Aboriginal rock art has been established but the interpretation of rock art images is still debated.C.A sequence from geometric to more representative art fits many sites but does not necessarily indicate a progression from simple to complex meaning.D.In determining the way in which Australian rock art was organized, archaeologists have made little distinction between geometric and figurative elements.E.Older examples of rock art consist of simple, repeated geometric patterns while later rock art includes figures and animals.F.Aboriginal informants were able to explain the meanings of ancient rock art symbols.托福阅读答案1.infrequent不常见的，所以正确答案是uncommon，单词是frequent加否定前缀构成的。
托福备考托福阅读34套TPO样题+解析+译文4--3 Petroleum Resources
托福考试 复习托福阅读TPO4(试题+答案+译文)第3篇:Petroleum Resources石油资源托福阅读原文Petroleum, consisting of crude oil andnatural gas, seems to originate from organic matter in marine sediment.Microscopic organisms settle to the seafloor and accumulate in marine mud. Theorganic matter may partially decompose, using up the dissolved oxygen in thesediment. As soon as the oxygen is gone, decay stops and the remaining organicmatter is preserved.Continued sedimentation—the process ofdeposits’ settling on the sea bottom—buries the organic matter and subjects itto higher temperatures and pressures, which convert the organic matter to oiland gas. As muddy sediments are pressed together, the gas and small droplets ofoil may be squeezed out of the mud and may move into sandy layers nearby. Overlong periods of time (millions of years), accumulations of gas and oil cancollect in the sandy layers. Both oil and gas are less dense than water, sothey generally tend to rise upward through water-saturated rock and sediment.Oil pools are valuable undergroundaccumulations of oil, and oil fields are regions underlain by one or more oilpools. When an oil pool or field has been discovered, wells are drilled intothe ground. Permanent towers, called derricks, used to be built to handle thelong sections of drilling pipe. Now portable drilling machines are set up andare then dismantled and removed. When the well reaches a pool, oil usuallyrises up the well because of its density difference with water beneath it orbecause of the pressure of expanding gas trapped above it. Although this riseof oil is almost always carefully controlled today, spouts of oil, or gushers,were common in the past. Gas pressure gradually dies out, and oil is pumpedfrom the well. Water or steam may be pumped down adjacent wells to help pushthe oil out. At a refinery, the crude oil from underground is separated intonatural gas, gasoline, kerosene, and various oils. Petrochemicals such as dyes,fertilizer, and plastic are also manufactured from the petroleum.As oil becomes increasingly difficult tofind, the search for it is extended into more-hostile environments. The developmentof the oil field on the North Slope of Alaska and the construction of theAlaska pipeline are examples of the great expense and difficulty involved innew oil discoveries. Offshore drilling platforms extend the search for oil tothe ocean’s continental shelves—those gently sloping submarine regions attheedges of the continents. More than one-quarter of the world’s oil and almostone-fifth of the world’s natural gas come from offshore, even though offshoredrilling is six to seven times more expensive than drilling on land. Asignificant part of this oil and gas comes from under the North Sea betweenGreat Britain and Norway.Of course, there is far more oilunderground than can be recovered. It may be in a pool too small or too farfrom a potential market to justify the expense of drilling. Some oil lies underregions where drilling is forbidden, such as national parks or other publiclands. Even given the best extraction techniques, only about 30 to 40 percentof the oil in a given pool can be brought to the surface. The rest is far toodifficult to extract and has to remain underground.Moreover, getting petroleum out of theground and from under the sea and to the consumer can create environmentalproblems anywhere along the line. Pipelines carrying oil can be broken byfaults or landslides, causing serious oil spills. Spillage from hugeoil-carrying cargo ships, called tankers, involved in collisions or accidentalgroundings (such as the one off Alaska in 1989) can create oil slicks at sea.Offshore platforms may also lose oil, creating oil slicks that drift ashore andfoul the beaches, harming the environment. Sometimes, the ground at an oil fieldmaysubside as oil is removed. The Wilmington field near Long Beach,California, has subsided nine meters in 50 years; protective barriers have hadto be built to prevent seawater from flooding the area. Finally, the refiningand burning of petroleum and its products can cause air pollution. Advancingtechnology and strict laws, however, are helping control some of these adverseenvironmental effects.托福阅读试题1. The word “accumulate” in the passage(paragraph 1) is closest in meaning toA.grow upB.build upC.spread outD.break apart2. According to paragraph 1, which of thefollowing is true about petroleum formation?A.Microscopic organisms that live in mudproduce crude oil and natural gas.rge amounts of oxygen are needed forpetroleum formation to begin.C.Petroleum is produced when organicmaterial in sediments combines with decaying marine organisms.D.Petroleum formation appears to begin inmarine sediments where organic matter is present.3. In paragraphs 1 and 2, the author’sprimary purpose is toA.describe how petroleum is formedB.explain why petroleum formation is a slowprocessC.provide evidence that a marineenvironment is necessary for petroleum formationD.show that oil commonly occurs inassociation with gas4. Which of the sentences below bestexpresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage(paragraph 2) ? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leaveout essential information.A.Higher temperatures and pressures promotesedimentation, which is responsible for petroleum formation.B.Deposits of sediments on top of organicmatter increase the temperature of and pressure on the matter.C.Increase pressure and heat from theweight of the sediment turn the organic remains into petroleum.D.The remains of microscopic organismstransform into petroleum once they are buried under mud.5. The word “adjacent” in the passage(paragraph 3) is closest in meaning toA.nearbyB.existingC.specialD.deep6. Which of the following can be inferredfrom paragraph 3 about gushers?A.They make bringing the oil to the surfaceeasier.B.They signal the presence of huge oilreserves.C.They waste more oil than they collect.D.They are unlikely to occur nowadays.7. Which of the following strategies foroil exploration is described in paragraph 4?A.Dr illing under the ocean’s surfaceB.Limiting drilling to accessible locationsing highly sophisticated drillingequipmentD.Constructing technologically advanceddrilling platforms8. What does the development of the Alaskanoil field mentioned in paragraph 4 demonstrate?A.More oil is extracted from the sea thanfrom land.B.Drilling for oil requires major financialinvestments.C.The global demand for oil has increasedover the years.D.The North Slope of Alaska has substantialamounts of oil.9. The word “sloping” in the passage(paragraph 4) is closest in meaning toA.shiftingB.incliningC.formingD.rolling10. According to paragraph 5, the decisionto drill for oil depends on all of the following factors EXCEPTA.permission to access the area where oilhas been foundB.the availability of sufficient quantitiesof oil in a poolC.the location of the market in relation tothe drilling siteD.the political situation in the regionwhere drilling would occur11. The word “foul” in the passage(paragraph 6) is closest in meaning toA.reachB.floodC.polluteD.alter12. In paragraph 6, the author’s primarypurpose is toA.provide examples of how oil explorationcan endanger the environmentB.describe accidents that have occurredwhen oil activities were in progressC.give an analysis of the effects of oilspills on the environmentD.explain how technology and legislation helpreduce oil spills13. Look at the four squares [█] thatindicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Unlesssomething acts to halt this migration, these natural resources will eventuallyreach the surface.Continued sedimentation—the process ofdeposits’settling on the seabottom—buries the organic matter and subjects itto higher temperatures and pressures, which convert the organic matter to oiland gas. █【A】As muddysediments are pressed together, the gas and small droplets of oil may besqueezed out of the mud and may move into sandy layers nearby. █【B】Over longperiods of time (millions of years),accumulations of gas and oil can collect inthe sandy layers. █【C】Bothoil and gas are less dense than water, so they generally tend torise upward through water-saturated rock and sediment. █【D】Where would the sentence best fit?14. Directions: An introductory sentencefor a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary byselecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in thepassage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideasthat are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. Thisquestion is worth 2 points.“Petroleum” is abroad term that includesboth crude oil and natural gas.A.Petroleum formation is the result ofbiological as well as chemical activity.B.The difficulty of finding adequatesources of oil on land has resulted in a greater number of offshore drillingsites.C.Petroleum extraction can have a negativeimpact on the environment.D.Petroleum tends to rise to the surface,since it is lower in density than water.E.Current methods of petroleum extractionenable oil producers to recover about half of the world’s pe troleum reserves.F.Accidents involving oil tankers occurwhen tankers run into shore reefs or collide with other vessels.托福阅读答案1.accumulate沉积，聚集，累积之意，所以build up正确，注意grow up表示长大，这个和累积不是一个概念，原文与之并列的动词是settle，叫做落下来，稳定下来，所以break apart意思反了，而且grow up和spread out在某种意义上是差不多的，所以都不对2.以petroleum formation做关键词，没有，但有petroleumoriginate from blablabla，说石油起源于海洋沉积物当中的有机物，与D选项说的完全一致，D正确；A错，原文没说live；B错，原文没说需要大量氧气，只说用光了氧气之后有机物能够保存；C错，原文没说combine3.问两段，分别看两段的开头，第一段开头说石油是怎么开始的，第二段第一句说继续沉积blabla，也就是在延续第一段所说的石油的形成过程，所以A正确4.去掉原句中的插入语，原句变成了sedimentationbury and subject to blabla，convert to petro，A错，没说温度压力提升sedimentation；B遗漏了重要信息，原句的变成石油没说；C正确；D完全没重现原文的重要信息，错5.adjacent相邻的，临近的，答案A，原句说水或者蒸汽可以从什么样的井弄下去，把油压出来。
托福备考托福阅读34套TPO样题+解析+译文16--3 Planets in Our Solar System
托福考试 复习托福阅读TPO16(试题+答案+译文)第3篇:Planets in Our Solar System托福阅读原文The Sun is the hub of a huge rotating system consisting of nine planets, their satellites, and numerous small bodies, including asteroids, comets, and meteoroids. An estimated 99.85 percent of the mass of our solar system is contained within the Sun, while the planets collectively make up most of the remaining 0.15 percent. The planets, in order of their distance from the Sun, are Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto. Under the control of the Sun's gravitational force, each planet maintains an elliptical orbit and all of them travel in the same direction.The planets in our solar system fall into two groups: the terrestrial (Earth-like) planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars) and the Jovian (Jupiter-like) planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune). Pluto is not included in either category, because its great distance from Earth and its small size make this planet's true nature a mystery.The most obvious difference between the terrestrial and the Jovian planets is their size. The largest terrestrial planet, Earth has a diameter only one quarter as great as the diameter of the smallest Jovian planet, Neptune, and its mass is only one seventeenth as great. Hence, the Jovian planets are often called giants. Also, because of their relative locations,the four Jovian planets are known as the outer planets, while the terrestrial planets are known as the inner planets. There appears to be a correlation between the positions of these planets and their sizes. Other dimensions along which the two groups differ markedly are density and composition. The densities of the terrestrial planets average about 5 times the density of water, whereas the Jovian planets have densities that average only 1.5 times the density of water. One of the outer planets, Saturn, has a density of only 0.7 that of water, which means that Saturn would float in water. Variations in the composition of the planets are largely responsible for the density differences. The substances that make up both groups of planets are divided into three groups—gases, rocks, and ices—based on their melting points. The terrestrial planets are mostly rocks: dense rocky and metallic material, with minor amounts of gases. The Jovian planets, on the other hand, contain a large percentage of the gases hydrogen and helium, with varying amounts of ices: mostly water, ammonia, and methane ices.The Jovian planets have very thick atmospheres consisting of varying amounts of hydrogen, helium, methane, and ammonia. By comparison, the terrestrial planets have meager atmospheres at best. A planet's ability to retain an atmosphere depends on its temperature and mass. Simply stated, a gas molecule can "evaporate" from a planet if it reaches a speed known as the escape velocity. For Earth, this velocity is 11 kilometers persecond. Any material, including a rocket, must reach this speed before it can leave Earth and go into space. The Jovian planets, because of their greater masses and thus higher surface gravities, have higher escape velocities (21-60 kilometers per second) than the terrestrial planets. Consequently, it is more difficult for gases to "evaporate" from them. Also, because the molecular motion of a gas depends on temperature, at the low temperatures of the Jovian planets even the lightest gases are unlikely to acquire the speed needed to escape. On the other hand, a comparatively warm body with a small surface gravity, like Earth's moon, is unable to hold even the heaviest gas and thus lacks an atmosphere. The slightly larger terrestrial planets Earth, Venus, and Mars retain some heavy gases like carbon dioxide, but even their atmospheres make up only an infinitesimally small portion of their total mass.The orderly nature of our solar system leads most astronomers to conclude that the planets formed at essentially the same time and from the same material as the Sun. It is hypothesized that the primordial cloud of dust and gas from which all the planets are thought to have condensed had a composition somewhat similar to that of Jupiter. However, unlike Jupiter, the terrestrial planets today are nearly void of light gases and ices. The explanation may be that the terrestrial planets were once much larger and richer in these materials but eventually lost them because of these bodies' relative closeness to the Sun, which meant that theirtemperatures were relatively high.托福阅读试题1.According to the passage, each of the following statements comparing terrestrial planets with Jovian planets is true EXCEPT:A.Terrestrial planets are closer to the Sun than Jovian planets.B.Terrestrial planets have smaller diameters than Jovian planets.C.Terrestrial planets have smaller masses than Jovian planets.D.Terrestrial planets travel in a different direction than Jovian planets do.2.The word markedly in the passage (paragraph 4) is closest in meaning toA.EssentiallyB.TypicallyC.ConsistentlyD.Noticeably3.Paragraph 4 mentions which of the following as a reason why terrestrial planets are dense?A.They are made up of three groups of substances.B.They are composed mainly of rocky and metallic materials.C.They contain more ice than Jovian planets.D.They contain relatively small amounts of water.4.Paragraph 4 supports each of the following statements about Saturn EXCEPT:A.It is less dense than any of the terrestrial planets.B.It contains no rocky material.C.It contains ices.D.It contains a large percentage of gases.5.The word meager in the passage (paragraph 5) is closest in meaning toA.richB.thinC.uniqueplex6.According to paragraph 5, which of the following statements is true of both Jovian and terrestrial planets?A.The thicker the atmosphere, the smaller the planet’s massB.The more varied the gases in the atmosphere, the higher the temperatureC.The higher the surface gravity, the higher the escape velocityD.The less the atmosphere contributes to the total mass, the lower the temperature7.According to paragraph 5, what is a major reason that Jovian planets have much thicker atmospheres than terrestrial planets do?A.Jovian planets have lower surface gravitiesB.Jovian planets have lower temperaturesC.Jovian planets have lower escape velocitiesD.Jovian planets’ gas molecules have higher average speeds8.Paragraph 5 supports which of the following statements about the ability of planets to retain gases?A.More-massive planets are less able to retain gases than less-massive ones.B.Planets are more likely to retain heavy gases than light gases.C.Jovian planets are unlikely to retain the lightest gases.D.Only terrestrial planets have been able to retain carbon dioxide.9.In calling the cloud of gas and dust from which the Sun and all the planets are thought to have condensed "primordial",(in paragraph 6) the author means that the cloud wasA.immense in sizeposed of similar particlesC.present at the very beginning of our solar system's formationD.created from a great variety of different materials10.The word eventually in the passage (paragraph 6) is closest in meaning toA.over timeB.long agoC.simplyD.certainly11.According to paragraph 6, what is a possible explanation for the lack of light gases and ices on terrestrial planets?A.The location of terrestrial planets caused them to lose some of the materials they once contained.B.Terrestrial planets were formed much later than Jovian planets.C.The composition of terrestrial planets was different from that of Jupiter.D.Terrestrial planets were formed out of different material than the Sun was.12. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit? This explains their relatively low densities.Paragraph 4: Other dimensions along which the two groups differ markedly are density and composition. The densities of the terrestrial planets average about 5 times the density of water, whereas the Jovian planets have densities that average only 1.5 times the density of water. One of the outer planets, Saturn, has a density of only 0.7 that of water, which means that Saturn would float in water. Variations in the composition of the planets are largely responsible for the density differences. ■【A】The substances that make up both groups of planets are divided into three groups—gases, rocks, and ices—based on their melting points. ■【B】The terrestrial planets are mostly rocks: dense rockyand metallic material, with minor amounts of gases. ■【C】The Jovian planets, on the other hand, contain a large percentage of the gases hydrogen and helium, with varying amounts of ices: mostly water, ammonia, and methane ices. ■【D】13.Directions: From the seven answer choices below, select the two phrases that correctly characterize the terrestrial planets and the three phrases that correctly characterize the Jovian planets. Drag each phrase you select into the appropriate column of the table. Two of the phrases will NOT be used. This question is worth 3 points.A.Have relatively small sizesB.Are grouped in the same category as PlutoC.Contain relatively high proportions of icesD.Have relatively high temperaturesE.Have densities that are generally lower than the density of waterF.Have relatively high escape velocitiesG.Have a composition closer to that of the cloud from which they condensed terrestrial1 ）terrestrial planetsA B C D E F G2 ）Jovian planetsA B C D E F G托福阅读答案1.EXCEPT题，排除法，问整个文章，所以应该关注各段的开头。
托福备考托福阅读34套TPO样题+解析+译文TPO24--3 Moving into Pueblos
托福考试 复习托福阅读TPO24(试题+答案+译文)第3篇:Moving into Pueblos托福阅读原文【1】In the Mesa Verde area of the ancient North American Southwest, living patterns changed in the thirteenth century, with large numbers of people moving into large communal dwellings called pueblos, often constructed at the edges of canyons, especially on the sides of cliffs. Abandoning small extended-family households to move into these large pueblos with dozens if not hundreds of other people was probably traumatic. Few of the cultural traditions and rules that today allow us to deal with dense populations existed for these people accustomed to household autonomy and the ability to move around the landscape almost at will. And besides the awkwardness of having to share walls with neighbors, living in aggregated pueblos introduced other problems. For people in cliff dwellings, hauling water, wood, and food to their homes was a major chore. The stress on local resources, especially in the firewood needed for daily cooking and warmth, was particularly intense, and conditions in aggregated pueblos were not very hygienic.【2】Given all the disadvantages of living in aggregated towns, why did people in the thirteenth century move into these closely packed quarters?For transitions of such suddenness, archaeologists consider either pull factors (benefits that drew families together) or push factors (some external threat or crisis that forced people to aggregate). In this case, push explanations dominate.【3】Population growth is considered a particularly influential push. After several generations of population growth, people packed the landscape in densities so high that communal pueblos may have been a necessary outcome. Around Sand Canyon, for example, populations grew from 5 -12 people per square kilometer in the tenth century to as many as 30 - 50 by the 1200s. As densities increased, domestic architecture became larger, culminating in crowded pueblos.Some scholars expand on this idea by emphasizing a corresponding need for arable land to feed growing numbers of people: construction of small dams, reservoirs, terraces, and field houses indicates that farmers were intensifying their efforts during the 1200s. Competition for good farmland may also have prompted people to bond together to assert rights over the best fields. 【4】Another important push was the onset of the Little Ice Age, a climatic phenomenon that led to cooler temperatures in the Northern Hemisphere. Although the height of the Little Ice Age was still around the corner, some evidence suggests that temperatures were falling during the thirteenth century. The environmental changes associated with this transition are not fully understood, but people living closest to the SanJuan Mountains, to the northeast of Mesa Verde, were affected first. Growing food at these elevations is always difficult because of the short growing season. As the Little Ice Age progressed, farmers probably moved their fields to lower elevations, infringing on the lands of other farmers and pushing people together, thus contributing to the aggregations. Archaeologists identify a corresponding shift in populations toward the south and west toward Mesa Verde and away from higher elevations.【5】In the face of all these pushes, people in the Mesa Verde area had yet another reason to move into communal villages: the need for greater cooperation. Sharing and cooperation were almost certainly part of early Puebloan life, even for people living in largely independent single-household residences scattered across the landscape. Archaeologists find that even the most isolated residences during the eleventh and twelfth centuries obtained some pottery, and probably food, from some distance away, while major ceremonial events were opportunities for sharing food and crafts. Scholars believe that this cooperation allowed people to contend with a patchy environment in which precipitation and other resources varied across the landscape: if you produce a lot of food one year, you might trade it for pottery made by a distant ally who is having difficulty with crops—and the next year, the flow of goods might go in the opposite direction. But all of this appears to have changed thirteenthcentury. Although the climate remained as unpredictable as ever between one year and the next, it became much less locally diverse. In a bad year for farming, everyone was equally affected. No longer was it helpful to share widely. Instead, the most sensible thing would be for neighbors to combine efforts to produce as much food as possible, and thus aggregated towns were a sensible arrangement.托福阅读试题1.The word traumatic(paragraph 1)meaning toA.Essential.B.highly stressful.C.highly unusual.D.unwise.2.The word intense in the passage(paragraph 1)is closest in meaningtoA.strong.B.questionable.C.obvious.D.deliberate.3.According to paragraph 1, before the thirteenth century the people of southwestern North America lived in households thatA.shared daily chores with neighboring households.B.occupied dwellings that were built into the sides of cliffs.C.were largely free to conduct their lives as they pleased.D.enforced common standards of behavior and cooperative conduct within their communities.4.Which of the following best indicates the organization of paragraph 1?A.It presents the conditions that caused a change in a population' s living patterns and then explains why those conditions got worse.B.It identifies certain present-day cultural traditions and rules and then traces them to their roots in the thirteenth century.C.It casts doubt on one explanation of the move to pueblos and then introduces an alternative explanation that the passage will defend.D.It describes a major change in a population' s living patterns and then presents a number of problems that resulted from that change.5.According to paragraph 3, which of the following was one of the consequences of increasing population densities?A.People were increasingly crowded into collections of large housing units.B.People stopped planting crops that have relatively low yields.C.Domestic buildings were pushed beyond the canyon limits.D.The natural landscape was destroyed.6.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information inthe highlighted sentence in the passage(paragraph 4)?Incorrect choiceschange the meaning inimportant ways or leave out essential information.A.Some scholars even claim that the intensification of farmers' various efforts during the 1200s led to further population growth and the consequent need for more arable land.B.Evidence of intensifying agriculture in the 1200s indicates a need to feed a larger population and so extends the argument that a growing population was the cause of the move to pueblos.C.During the 1200s, farmers met the demand for more arable land, but they also succeeded in cultivating existing land more intensively with the help of agricultural construction projects.D.Some scholars feel strongly that the construction of small dams, reservoirs, terraces, and field houses in the thirteenth century is independent evidence for growth in the number of people.7.The word transition(paragraph 4)in the passage is closest in meaning toA.change.B.climate.C.decline.D.problem.8.Why does the author state that "Growing food at these elevations is always difficult because of the short growing season"?A.To explain why the higher elevations were always relatively sparselypopulated.B.To suggest that any worsening of conditions would have significant consequences.C.To emphasize how resourceful the people growing food at these elevations were.D.To argue that farming was not the primary source of food at high elevations.9.According to paragraph 4, what did farmers do in response to falling temperatures during the Little Ice Age?A.Moved to areas away from Mesa Verde.B.Moved closer to the northeastern part of Mesa Verde.C.Began to cultivate crops adapted to a short growing season.D.Gave up the cultivation of the highest-lying lands.10.According to paragraph 5, major ceremonial events were occasions forA.leaders to persuade people from the countryside to move into a pueblo.B.farmers to collect information about where crops could be reliably grown.C.people to develop better techniques for producing pottery and crafts.D.people in the early Puebloan era to share farm and craft products.11.According to paragraph 5, which of the following was a reason people in the Mesa Verde area formed communal villages in the thirteenth century?A.The climate in the Mesa Verde area became more locally diverse.B.Individuals were no longer interested in exchanging pottery and food.C.Cooperation between people became more important for survival.D.Bad years of farming began to occur more frequently.12.Paragraph 5 supports which of the following statements about cooperation among the people in the Mesa Verde area from the eleventh through the thirteenth century?A.Cooperation allowed many households to give up farming and to specialize in making pottery and crafts.B.People went from exchanging food and crafts they individually produced to sharing in a cooperative effort to produce as much food as possible.C.Overtime there was less cooperation as farmers competed with each other for trade with distant areas.D.Individuals stopped cooperating with each other because they did not have enough food for themselves.13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square to add the sentence to the passage. Performing everyday household tasks required more effort.In the Mesa Verde area of the ancient North American Southwest, livingpatterns changed in the thirteenth century, with large numbers ofpeople movinginto large communal dwellings called pueblos, often constructed at the edges ofcanyons, especially on the sides of cliffs. Abandoning small extended-familyhouseholds to move into these large pueblos with dozens if not hundreds ofother people was probably traumatic. Few of the cultural traditions and rulesthat today allow us to deal with dense populations existed for these peopleaccustomed to household autonomy and the ability to move around the landscapealmost at will. ■【A】And besides theawkwardness of having to share walls with neighbors, living in aggregatedpueblos introduced other problems. ■【B】For people in cliff dwellings, hauling water, wood,and food to their homes was a major chore. ■【C】The stress on local resources, especially in thefirewood needed for daily cooking and warmth, was particularly intense, andconditions in aggregated pueblos were not very hygienic. ■]【D】14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage.This question is worth 2 points.In the thirteenth century, the people in the Mesa Verdearea went from living in scattered independent households to living in largepueblos.A.Because the thirteenth-century inhabitants of the Mesa Verde area did not have the cultural expectations of today's city dwellers, they easily adapted to communal life.B.Even though living in pueblos had disadvantages, the population of the area had grown so large that there may have been no other arrangement that would have met its needs.C.From the eleventh century onward, farmers began to increase food production on existing farmland and started bringing more land under cultivation.D.A development that contributed to increasing population densities was a cooling climate that led many people to leave the coldest areas and crowd into climatically more favorable areas.E.The primary reason for moving to pueblos was the social benefits associated with communal life.F.People were brought together by the need to produce food cooperatively, as the use of food surpluses in one place to relieve shortages in another ended due to a change in climate.托福阅读答案1.traumatic受伤的，外伤的，不顺心的，所以正确答案是highly stressful。
托福备考托福阅读34套TPO样题+解析+译文TPO 28—3 Buck Rubs and Buck Scrapes
托福考试 复习TPO 28—3 Buck Rubs and Buck Scrapes原文：【1】A conspicuous sign indicating the presence of white-tailed deer in a woodlot is a buck rub. A male deer makes a buck rub by striping the bark (outer layer) of a small tree with its antlers. When completed, the buck rub is an obvious visual signal to us and presumable to other deer in the area. A rub is usually located at the shoulder height of a deer (one meter or less above the ground) on a smooth-barked, small-diameter (16-25 millimeters) tree. The smooth bark of small red maples makes this species ideal for buck rubs in the forests of the mid-eastern United States. 【2】Adult male deer usually produce rubs in late summer or early autumn when the outer velvet layer is being shed from their antlers. Rubs are created about one to two months before the breeding season (the rut). Hence for a long time biologists believed that male deer used buck rubs not only to clean and polish antlers but also to provide practice for the ensuing male-to-male combat during the rut. However, biologists also noted deer sniff and lick an unfamiliar rub, which suggests that this visual mark on a small tree plays an important communication purpose in the social life of deer.【3】Buck rubs also have a scent produced by glands in the foreheads of deer that is transferred to the tree when the rub is made. These odors make buck rubs an important means of olfactory communication between deer. The importance of olfactory communication (using odors to communicate) in the way of life of deer was documented by a study of captive adult male deer a few decades ago, whichnoted that males rubbed their foreheads on branches and twigs, especially as autumn approached. A decade later another study reported that adult male white-tailed deer exhibited forehead rubbing just before and during the rut. It was found that when a white-tailed buck makes a rub, it moves both antlers and forehead glands along the small tree in a vertical direction. This forehead rubbing behavior coincides with a high level of glandular activity in the modified scent glands found on the foreheads of male deer; the glandular activity causes the forehead pelage (hairy covering) of adult males to be distinctly darker than in females or younger males.【4】Forehead rubbing by male deer on buck rubs presumably sends a great deal of information to other members of the same species. First, the chemicals deposited on the rub provide information on the individual identity of an animal; no two mammals produce the same scent. For instance, as we all know, dogs recognize each other via smell. Second, because only male deer rub, the buck rub and its associated chemicals indicate the sex of the deer producing the rub. Third, older, more dominant bucks produce more buck rubs and probably deposit more glandular secretions on a given rub. Thus the presence of many well-marked rubs is indicative of older, higher-status males being in the general vicinity rather than simply being a crude measure of relative deer abundance in a given area. The information conveyed by the olfactory signals on a buck rub make it the social equivalent of some auditory signals in other deer species, such as trumpeting by bull elk.【5】Because both sexes of white-tailed respond to buck rubs by smelling and licking them, rubs may serve a very important additional function. Fresher buck rubs (less than two days old), in particular, are visited more frequently by adult females than older rubs. In view of this behavior it has been suggested that chemicals present in fresh buck rubs may help physiologically induce and synchronize fertility in females that visit these rubs. This would be an obvious advantage to wide-ranging deer, especially to a socially dominant buck when courting several adult females during the autumn rut. Another visual signal produced by while-tailed deer is termed a buck scrape. Scrapes consist of a clearing (about 0.5 meter in diameter) and shallow depression made by pushing aside the leaves covering the ground; after making the scrape, the deer typically urinates in the depression. Thus, like a buck rub, a scrape is both a visual and an olfactory signal. Buck scrapes are generally created after leaf-fall in autumn, which is just before or during the rut. Scrapes are usually placed in open or conspicuous places, such as along a deer trail. Most are made by older males, although females and younger males (2.5 years old or less) occasionally make scrapes题目：1.The word "conspicuous" in the passage（paragraph 1）is closest in meaning toA.noticeable.mon.C.strange.D.particular.2.According to paragraph 1, why are small red maple trees ideal for buckrubs?A.They have smooth bark.B.They are found in the mid-eastern United States.C.They grow very slowly.D.They tend to grow in open spaces.3.The studies of forehead rubbing by deer described in paragraph 3 showed thatA.forehead rubbing encourages the growth of antlers.B.mule deer and white-tailed deer behave differently during the rut.C.the rut can occur at different times of the year.D.deer convey important information through scent.4.The word "exhibited" in the passage（paragraph 3）is closest in meaning toA.relied on.B.increased.C.displayed.D.preferred.5.Why does the author mention that "dogs recognize each other via smell"?A.T o point out the similarities between dogs and deer.B.To argue that animals communicate through scent rather than through vision.C.To support the claim that the scent of a buck rub serves to identify its maker to other deer.D.T o suggest that buck rubs can be detected by other species.6.The word "crude" in the passage（paragraph 4）is closest in meaning toA.rough.eful.C.necessary.D.obvious.7.What can be inferred from paragraph 4 about the trumpeting of bull elk?A.Trumpeting by higher-status bull elk signals their presence to other members of their species.B.Bull elk need to combine trumpeting with olfactory signals to convey information about their identity.C.Trumpeting alerts white-tailed deer to the presence of bull elk in their vicinity.D.Trumpeting provides a better measure of deer presence in a given area than buck rubs do.8.According to paragraph 4, the buck rubs occurring in a given area revealall of the following information about deer EXCEPTA.the individual identity of the deer.B.the gender of the deer.C.the likely social status of the deer.D.the number of deer in the vicinity.9.The word "induce" in the passage（paragraph 5）is closest in meaning toA.increase.B.extend.C.delay.D.stimulate.10.According to paragraph 5, which of the following is true about chemicals in buck rubs?A.They have to be at least two days old for females to be able to detect them.B.They are more effective in older buck rubs than in fresher ones.C.They may affect fertility in female deer.D.They can be more easily detected by young males than adult females.11.The word "termed" in the passage（paragraph 5）is closest in meaning toA.associated with.B.visible as.C.known as.D.provided by.12.According to the passage, in what way do buck scrapes differ from buckrubs?A.Buck scrapes are made by both male and female deer.B.Buck scrapes are purely visual signals.C.Buck scrapes are made closer to the breeding season than buck rubs.D.Buck scrapes can be smelled only by deer.13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit? This process can take a few hours to several days.A conspicuous sign indicating the presence of white-tailed deer in a woodlot is abuck rub. ■【A】A make deer makes a buck rub by striping the bark(outer layer) of a small tree with its antlers. ■【B】When completed, the buck rubis an obvious visual signal to us and presumable to other deer in the area. ■【C】Arub is usually located at the shoulder height of a deer (one meter or less above the ground) on a smooth-barked, small-diameter (16-25 millimeters) tree.■【D】The smooth bark of small red maples makes this species ideal for buck rubs in the forests of the mid-eastern United States.14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.Buck rubs and buck scrapes are two types of markings made by white-tailed deer.A.The observation that deer sniff and lick buck rubs first led scientists to connect buck rubs with combat between adult males during the breeding season.B.Buck rubs and buck scrapes are visual signals and smells that deer use to communicate a variety of information to other deer.C.The number of buck rubs and buck scrapes in a given area changes as the density of the population of male deer in the area changes.D.As they rub the bark from trees, male deer leave behind chemicals produced by the glands in their foreheads, creating a scent that other deer can detect.E.The height of a buck rub, the type of tree used, and the direction in which the deerapplies the rub can give different kinds of information to other deer.F.Buck rubs are created close to the breeding season of deer and may affect the timing of fertility in the female deer that visit the rubs.答案：1.这里说一个XX的标志可以说明白尾鹿的存在。
托福备考托福阅读34套TPO样题+解析+译文25—3 The Evolutionary Origin of Plants
托福考试 复习TPO 25—3 The Evolutionary Origin of Plants原文：【1】The evolutionary history of plants has been marked by a series ofadaptations. The ancestors of plants were photosynthetic single-celledorganisms that gave rise to plants presumably lacked true roots, stems, leaves,and complex reproductive structures such as flowers. All of these featuresappeared later in the evolutionary history of plants. Of today’s differentgroups of algae, green algae are probably the most similar to ancestral plants.This supposition stems from the close phylogenetic (natural evolutionary)relationship between the two groups. DNA comparisons have shown that greenalgae are plants’ closest living relatives. In addition, other lines ofevidence support the hypothesis that land plants evolved from ancestral greenalgae used the same type of chlorophyll and accessory pigments inphotosynthesis as do land plants. This would not be true of red and brownalgae. Green algae store food as starch, as do land plants and have cell wallsmade of cellulose, similar in composition to those of land plants. Again, thegood storage and cell wall molecules of red and brown algae are different.【2】Today green algae live mainly in freshwater, suggesting that theirearly evolutionary history may have occurred in freshwater habitats. If so, thegreen algae would have been subjected to environmental pressures that resultedin adaptations that enhanced their potential to give rise to land-dwelling ororganisms.【3】The environmental conditions of freshwater habitats, unlike those ofocean habitats, are highly variable. Water temperature can fluctuate seasonallyor even daily and changing level of rainfall can lead to fluctuations in theconcentration of chemical in the water or even to period in which the aquatichabitat dries up. Ancient fresh water green algae must have evolved featuresthat enable them to withstand extremes of temperature and periods of dryness.These adaptations served their descendant well asthey invaded land.【4】The terrestrial world is green now, but it did not start out thatway. When plants first made the transition ashore more than 400 million yearsago, the land was barren and desolate, in hospitable to life. From a plant’sevolutionary view point, however, it was also a land of opportunity, free ofcompetitors and predators and full of carbon dioxide and sunlight (the rawmaterials for photosynthesis, which are present in far higher concentrations inair than in water).So once natural selection had shaped the adaptations thathelped plants overcome the obstacles to terrestrial living, plants prosperedand diversified.【5】When plants pioneered the land, they faced a range of challengesposed by terrestrial environments. On land, the supportive buoyancy of water ismissing, the plant is no longer bathed in a nutrient solution, and air tends todry things out. These conditions favored the evolution of the structures thatsupport the body, vessels that transport water and nutrients to all parts ofplant, and structures that conserve water.The resulting adaptations to dryland include some structural features that arose early in plant evolution; nowthese features are common to virtually all land plant. They include roots orroot like structures, a waxy cuticle that covers the surfaces of leaves andstems and limits the evaporation of water, and pores called stomata in leavesand stems that allow gas exchange but close when water is scarce, thus reducingwater loss. Other adaptations occurred later in the transition to terrestriallife and now wide spread but not universal among plants. These includeconducting vessels that transport water and minerals upward from the roots andthat move the photosynthetic products from the leavesto the rest of the plantbody and the stiffening substance lignin, which support the plant body, helpingit expose maximum surface area to sunlight.【6】These adaptations allowed an increasing diversity of plant forms toexploit dry land. Life on land, however, also required new methods oftransporting sperm to eggs. Unlike aquatic and marine forms, land plants cannotalways rely on water currents to carry their sex cells and disperse theirfertilized eggs. So the most successful groups of land plants are those thatevolved methods of fertilized sex cell dispersal that are independent of waterand structures that protest developing embryos from drying out. Protectedembryos and waterless dispersal of sex cells were achieved with the origin ofseed plants and the key evolutionary innovations that they introduced: pollen,seeds, and later, flowers and fruits.题目：1.The word “presumably”(paragraph 1)i n the passage is closest in meaning toA.originally.B.supposedly.C.obviously.ually.2.According to paragraph 1, all of the following are true of ancestral plants EXCEPTA.They had cellulose-based cell walls.B.They were closely related to green algaeC.They were able to store nutrientsD.They had a sophisticated multicellular structure.3.The phrase “subjected to”(paragraph 1) in the passage is closest inA.restricted byB.distant fromC.exposed tobined with4.What can be inferred from paragraph 3 about ancient green algae?A. They lived in a generally wet environment that was sometimes dry.B.They adapted better to changes in water temperature than did to other changes in the environment.C.They inhabited areas that were close to the ocean.D.They had lived primarily on land.5.The word “desolate”in the passage is closest in meaning toA.dusty.B.hardened.C.deserted.D.dried out.6.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information inthe highlighted sentence in the passage? (A)Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.A.T errestrial plants had the advantages of not having rivals and having easy access to photosynthetic material.B.The abundance of photosynthetic material made life on land easier for pioneering plants.C.Once plants had eliminated their competitors and their predators, their evolutionary process proceeded smoothly.D.Plant evolution eliminated competitors and made the process of photosynthesis more efficient.7.According to paragraph 4, which of the following is true about theterrestrial world at the time it was colonized by plants?A.it was exposed to high levels of solar radiation.B.it contained a limited supply of carbon dioxide.C. it had developed 400 million years earlier.D. it lacked the presence of any organisms.8.the word “posed”（paragraph 4）in the passage is closest in meaning toA.shared.B.presented.C.strengthened.D.concealed.9.According to paragraph 5, all of the following are problems that early terrestrial plants had to overcome ExceptA.a tendency to become dry.B. the inability to limit surface sunlight.C.the absence of a structure to support the body of the plant.D.the inability to transport water and minerals through the plant.10.What purpose does paragraph 5 serve in the larger discussion of the origins of terrestrial plants?A.T o emphasize how long it took for ancestral plants to adjust to life on land.B.To disprove the argument that land plants adapted easily to their new terrestrial environment.C.To explain how plant colonization changed the physical environment of the terrestrial world.D.T o describe how ancestral plants solved the problems they confirmed in colonizing.11.According to Paragraph 6, The adaptation made by terrestrial plants hadwhichof the following effect?A.Plants developed reproductive strategies usable in both land and water environment.B.the plant diversity achieved in water environments diminished on land.C.seed plants became the dominant species among plants.D.a greater range of plants was able to develop.12.Which of the following best describes the author’s presentation of the information about land plants?A.the author provided and overview of the evolutionary relationships between specific species of algae and land plants.B.The author discusses the transformation plants underwent in the process of changing from an aquatic to a terrestrial environment.C.the author establishes a pattern of similarity between major land and water pant groups.D.The author resents evidence to support the hypothesis that plants first fully evolved in water before finding their way to land.13. Look at the four squares [█] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square to add the sentence to the passage. Scientists believe that chemical changes and a thicker exterior, among other things, may have helped ancient algae overcome the conditions in their environment.█【A】The environmental conditions of freshwater habitats, unlike those of oceanhabitats, are highly variable. █【B】Water temperature can fluctuate seasonally oreven daily and changing level of rainfall can lead to fluctuations in the concentration of chemical in the water or even to period in which the aquatic habitat dries up. █【C】Ancient fresh water green algae must have evolved features that enable them to withstand extremes of temperature and periods of dryness. █【D】These adaptations served their descendant well as they invaded land.14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.In moving from water to land, ancestral plants overcamemany obstacles in order to survive.A.Neither brown nor red algae are likely to be ancestors of plants because of their difference in pigmentation.B.The instability of freshwater habitats caused marine algae to develop adaptations to their harsh environment.C.The colonization of land by plants was a major revolution in the history of Earth.D.T errestrial plants adjusted to life on land by undergoing structural changes that enabled them to support themselves, resist drying, and exchange gases.E.T o colonize new terrestrial habitats, plants needed to create a way of reproducing without water.F.Once plants had overcome the challenges posed by terrestrial life, they prospered by becoming less diverse.答案：1.presumably大概，可能，所以正确答案是B的supposedly。