树状图句法简论
小学数学知识点树形图
小学数学知识点树形图小学阶段是培养学生基础数学知识的重要时期，掌握数学知识点对于学生的学习和发展至关重要。
为了更好地整理和理解这些知识点，本文将运用树形图的方式，系统地呈现小学数学知识点的结构和关联。
树形图是一种以树的结构来表示事物之间的层次关系的图形工具，它将相关的概念有机地组织起来，并通过分支和节点的形式清晰地展现出各个概念之间的联系。
下面将按照数学知识的层次结构，从基础知识到拓展应用，展示小学数学知识点树形图。
【根节点】小学数学知识一级子节点：- 数与数- 自然数- 整数- 分数与小数- 负数的认识- 运算- 加法- 减法- 乘法- 除法- 应用题- 口算题- 基本运算应用- 简单问题求解- 几何图形- 点、线、面和体- 直线、曲线- 角、相交、平行- 圆、三角形、矩形、正方形 - 空间几何- 数据统计与概率- 数据的整理和分析- 图表的制作与分析- 概率的认识和计算二级子节点：- 自然数- 数字的认识和读写- 数的排序和比较- 数的拆分和组合- 数的进位和退位- 整数- 正整数和零- 负整数的认识- 整数之间的大小比较 - 整数的运算- 分数与小数- 分数的认识和表示- 分数的大小比较和排序 - 分数的加减乘除- 小数的认识和读写- 小数和分数的转换- 几何图形- 图形的基本概念和性质- 图形的分类和识别- 图形的变换和对称- 图形的透视和投影- 数据统计与概率- 数据的收集和整理- 图表的制作和分析- 数据的平均数和中位数 - 数据的概率计算三级子节点：- 加法- 数字的加法和逆运算 - 整数的加法- 分数的加法和预算- 复数的加法和运算- 减法- 数字的减法和逆运算 - 整数的减法- 分数的减法和运算- 复数的减法和运算- 乘法- 数字的乘法和逆运算- 整数的乘法- 分数的乘法和运算- 复数的乘法和运算- 除法- 数字的除法和逆运算- 整数的除法- 分数的除法和运算- 复数的除法和运算- 数据统计与概率- 数据的收集和整理方法- 常见图表的制作和分析- 四则运算与数据问题的应用 - 概率和统计的实际应用通过以上所示的小学数学知识点树形图，我们可以清晰地了解小学数学知识的结构和内在联系。
句子结构分析方法总结大全
句子结构分析方法总结大全句子结构分析是语言学和语法学中的重要研究内容，它对于理解和描述语言的语法规则以及句子的意思起着至关重要的作用。
本文将介绍几种常见的句子结构分析方法，包括树状图分析法、成分分析法、功能分析法和链式分析法，以及它们各自的特点和适用场景。
一、树状图分析法树状图分析法是一种经典且常用的句子结构分析方法，它通过绘制一棵树状图来表示句子中各个成分之间的关系。
这种方法的优点在于能够直观地展示句子的结构和成分之间的依存关系，有助于帮助读者更好地理解句子的意思。
树状图分析法通常采用自顶向下的分析方式，先确定句子的主干，再逐步添加修饰成分，最终形成完整的句子结构。
二、成分分析法成分分析法是一种基于句子成分的分析方法，它将句子划分为更小的成分单位，并通过分析这些成分在句子中的功能和作用来推断句子的整体结构。
主要的成分包括主语、谓语、宾语、定语、状语等，通过分析这些成分的出现位置和句法关系，可以确定句子的结构和句子成分之间的依存关系。
成分分析法适用于具有明显成分的句子，可以帮助读者更好地理解句子的意思和语法规则。
三、功能分析法功能分析法是一种基于句子功能的分析方法，它关注句子中不同成分的功能和作用，通过分析这些功能来推断句子的结构。
功能分析法主要关注句子成分的语义角色和作用，如主语的主动性或被动性、宾语的指代对象等。
通过分析这些功能，可以确定句子的整体结构和不同成分之间的关系。
功能分析法适用于具有明确功能的句子，可以帮助读者更加准确地理解句子的意思和信息传递。
四、链式分析法链式分析法是一种基于链式关系的分析方法，它通过识别句子中的核心词语和从属词语，并通过它们之间的链式关系来推断句子的结构。
核心词通常是表示动作或状态的词语，而从属词语则是对核心词进行补充或修饰的词语。
通过识别核心词和从属词，并将它们按照链式关系连接起来，可以构建出句子的结构。
链式分析法适用于复杂句和长句的分析，可以帮助读者更好地理解句子的逻辑和结构。
英语语言学树型图详细讲解
树形图详细讲解1. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady suddenly left.Det A N Qual Vb) The car stopped at the end of the road.Det N V P Det N P Det Nc) The snow might have blocked the road.Det N Aux Aux V Det Nd) He never appears quite mature.N Qual V Deg A2. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each.a) full of peopleAPA P Nfull of peopleb) a story about a sentimental girlNPNP PPDet N P NPDet A Na story about a sentimental girlc) often read detective storiesVPQual V NPA Noften read detective storiesd) the argument against the proposalsNPNP PPDet N P NPDet Nthe argument against the proposalse) move towards the windowVPV PPP Det Nmove towards the window3. Draw phrase structure trees for each of the following sentences.a) The jet landed.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet N Pst VThe jet landedb) Mary became very ill.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPN Pst V APDeg AMary became very illc) What will you talk about?CPNP C SN Infl NP Infl VPVP NPV P NSNP VPDet N Aux V NPDet NThe apple might hit the manORInflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet N V NPDet NThe apple might hit the mane) He often reads detective stories.SNP VPN Qual V NPA NHe often reads etective storiesORInflP(=S)NP Infl VPPresN Qual V NPA NHe often reads etective stories4. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.a) A frightened passenger landed the crippled airplane.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet A N Pst V NPDet A NA frightened passenger landed the crippled airplaneb) A huge moon hung in the black sky.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet A N Pst V PPP NPDet A NA huge moon hung in the black skyc) An unusual event occurred before the meeting.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet A N Pst V PPP NPDet NAn unusual event occurred before the meetingd) A quaint old house appeared on the grassy hill.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet A NP Pst V PPA N P NPDet A NA quaint old house appeared on the grassy hill5. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences.a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.InflP(=S)NP VPN Aux V NPDet A NPN CON N Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pantsORInflP(=S)NP VPN Infl V NPDet A NPN CON NJim has washed the dirty shirts and pantsb) Helen put on her clothes and went out.SNP VPN VP CON VPVP NP V AdvV P Det NHelen put on her clothes and went outORInflP(=S)NP Infl VPN Pst VP CON VPVP NP V AdvV P Det NHelen put on her clothes and went outc) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.SNP VPN VP CON VPVP NP VP NPV A P N V A P NMary is fond of literature but (is) tired of statistics ORInflP(=S)NP Infl VPN Pres VP CON VPVP NP VP NPV A P N V A P N Mary is fond of literature but (is) tired of statisticsd) The detective went out and the mysterious man came in.SS CON SNP VP NP VPDet N V Adv Det A N V AdvThe detective went out and the mysterious man came ine) Crusoe knows that spring will come and the snow will melt.SNP VPN V C SS CON SNP VP NP VPN Aux V Det N Aux V Crusoe knows that spring will come and the snow will melt6. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) You know that I hate war.SNP VPCPN V C SNP VPN V NPNYou know that I hate warOR CPC InflP(=S)NP Infl VPCPN Pres V C SNP VPN V NPNYou know that I hate warb) He said that Tom asked whether the class was over.SNP VPCPN V C SNP VPCPN V C SNP VPDet N VL A He said that Tom asked whether the class was overc) Gerry can’t believe the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.SNP VPN VP NPCPAux Neg V NP C SDet N NP VPN V NPDet A N Gerry can not believe the fact thatAnna flunked the English examd) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.SNP VPCPN VL A C SNP VPDet N V NP NPN Det NChris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Roycee) The children argued over whether bats had wings.SNP VPCPDet N VP C SV P NP VPN V NPNThe children argued over whether bats had wings7. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of the sentences.a) The essay that he wrote was too long.Deep structureCPC SNP VP Det N CP V APC S Deg PNP Infl VPN V NPNThe essay he wrote that was too longSurface StructureCPC SNP VP Det N CP V APC S Deg PNP NP Infl VPN N Pst V NPNThe was too longb) The dog that he keeps bites.Deep structureCPC SNP VP Det N CP VC Infl SPres NP VPN V NPNThe dog he keeps that bitesSurface StructureCPC SNP VP Det N CP VC SNP NP Infl VPN N Pres V NPNThe dog bitesc) Herbert found the man she loved.Deep structureCPC SNP VPN Infl V NPCPDet N C SNP Infl VPNPN VNHerbert found the man she loved whoSurface StructureCPC SNP VPN Infl V NPCPDet N SCNP Infl VPNP NPN VN N Herbert found thed) The girl whom he often quarrels with majors in linguistics.Deep structureCPC SNP VPDet N CP V PPP NPC Infl SNNP VPPPN Qual VP NPV P NThe girl he often quarrels with whom majors in linguisticsSurface StructureCPC SNP VPDet N CP V PPP NPC SNNP NP Infl VPPPN N Qual VP NPV P NThe girl majors in linguistics8. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of these sentences.a) Would you come tomorrow?Deep structureCPC SVPNP AdvPN Infl V Advyou would come tomorrowSurface structureCPC SVPNP AdvPInflN Infl V Advcome tomorrowb) Can you pass me the newspaper?Deep structureCPC SVPNP NP NPN Infl V N Det Nyou can pass me the newspaperSurface structureCPC SVPInfl NP NP NPN Infl V N Det Npass me the newspaperc) Should the students report the incident?Deep structureCPC SVPNP NPDet N Infl V Det Nthe students should report the incidentSurface structureCPC SVPInfl NP NPDet N Infl V Det Nreport the incidentd) What did you eat for lunch?Deep structureCPC SVPNP PPNP NPN Infl V PN Nyou did eat what for lunchSurface structureCPNP C SVPInfl NP PPNP NP N N Infl V PN Nfor lunche) Who should this be reported to ?Deep structureCPC SVPNP PPVP NPN Infl V V PNthis should be reported to whomSurface structureCPNP C SVPN Infl NP PPVP NPN Infl V V PNf) What was Helen bringing to the party?Deep structureCPC SVPNP PPNP NPN Infl V PN Det NHelen was bringing what to the partySurface structureCPNP C SVPN Infl NP PPNP NPN Infl V PN Det Nto the party21。
英语句子结构树状图
英语句子结构树状图英语的基本成分有六种：主语（subject）、谓语（predicate）、表语（predicative）、宾语（object）、定语（attribute）和状语（adverbial）.英语句子成分中，有些具有形态标志.如第一人称代词作主语就用主格“I”，作宾语用宾格“me”，作定语用所有格“my”.这些形态变化对分析辨认成分汉语与英语就句子成分表面上看来差不多，实际上有不少差别.例如：（1） Xiao Li went to bed as soon as he came home.小李回家后，立刻就睡觉了.（2） I'll go when I have had my dinner.我吃了饭就去.在英语中，同一个主语在第二次出现时不能省略，必须把每个谓语所陈述的对象都表示出来.而在汉语中，同一个主语在句中第二次出现时，就可以省略.如例（1）中，汉语说“小李回家后立刻就睡觉了”，省去了第二个分句的主语，倒可以避免造成误解.若将第二次出现的主语补出来，说成“小李回家后，他立刻就睡觉了”.听的人反而可能把那个“他”误会成另一个人.英语五种基本句型列式如下：基本句型一：S+V （主+谓）基本句型二：S+V+P （主+谓+表）基本句型三：S+V+O （主+谓+宾）基本句型四：S+V+o+O （主+谓+间宾+直宾）基本句型五：S+V+O+C （主+谓+宾+宾补） 4 追问：那主系表结构呢回答：是主系表结构中的副词啊.\x0d一.何谓主系表结构：所谓主系表结构就是英语句子中的主要成分是主语、系动词和表语.\x0dLi Lei is a Chineseboy.( Li Lei 是名词，作主语.)\x0dHe is from England.( He 是代词，作主语.)\x0dFeeding the birds is my hobby.(“ Feeding the birds ”是动名词短语，作主语.)\x0dWhat she said is right.(“ What she said ”是从句，作主语.)\x0d2.系动词（ Link verb ）：系动词本身有一定的词义，但不能独立作谓语，必须和句子中的表语一起构成谓语.简单地说，将主语和表语联系在一起，并构成一个完整句子的动词就叫做系动词.目前学到的系动词有 be ,feel ,look ,sound ,taste ,smell 等.例如：\x0dThis flower is beautiful.\x0dI felt very tired.\x0dYou look worried.\x0dIt tastes delicious.\x0d3.表语（ Predicative ）：表语是用来说明主语的身份、特征或状态的.它又叫作主语补足语.表语位于系动词之后，主要由名词、代词、形容词、数词、副词、介词短语、分词（短语）或动名词（短语）等来充当.例如：\x0dI am fine .( fine 是形容词，作表语)\x0dHe is a boy .( boy 是名词，作表语)\x0dFive plus two isseven .( seven 是数词，作表语)\x0d是主系表结构中的副词啊.。
树形图（句法）
树形图（句法）树形图详细讲解1. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady suddenly left.Det A N Qual Vb) The car stopped at the end of the road.Det N V P Det N P Det Nc) The snow might have blocked the road.Det N Aux Aux V Det Nd) He never appears quite mature.N Qual V Deg A2. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each.a) full of peopleAPA P Nfull of peopleb) a story about a sentimental girlNPNP PPDet N P NPDet A Na story about a sentimental girlc) often read detective storiesVPQual V NPA Noften read detective storiesd) the argument against the proposalsNPNP PPDet N P NPDet Nthe argument against the proposalse) move towards the windowVPP Det Nmove towards the window3. Draw phrase structure trees for each of the following sentences.a) The jet landed.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet N Pst VThe jet landedb) Mary became very ill.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPN Pst V APDeg AMary became very illc) What will you talk about?CPNP C SN Infl NP Infl VPVP NPV P NSNP VPDet N Aux V NPDet NThe apple might hit the manORInflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet N V NPDet NThe apple might hit the mane) He often reads detective stories.SN Qual V NPA NHe often reads etective storiesORInflP(=S)NP Infl VPPresN Qual V NPA NHe often reads etective stories4. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.a) A frightened passenger landed the crippled airplane.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet A N Pst V NPDet A NA frightened passenger landed the crippled airplaneb) A huge moon hung in the black sky.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet A N Pst V PPP NPDet A NA huge moon hung in the black skyc) An unusual event occurred before the meeting.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet A N Pst V PPP NPDet NAn unusual event occurred before the meetingd) A quaint old house appeared on the grassy hill.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet A NP Pst V PPA N P NPDet A NA quaint old house appeared on the grassy hill5. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences.a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.InflP(=S)NP VPN Aux V NPDet A NPN CON N Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pantsORInflP(=S)NP VPN Infl V NPDet A NPN CON NJim has washed the dirty shirts and pantsb) Helen put on her clothes and went out.SNP VPN VP CON VPVP NP V AdvV P Det NHelen put on her clothes and went outORInflP(=S)NP Infl VPN Pst VP CON VPVP NP V AdvV P Det NHelen put on her clothes and went outc) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.SNP VPN VP CON VPVP NP VP NPV A P N V A P NMary is fond of literature but (is) tired of statistics ORInflP(=S)NP Infl VPN Pres VP CON VPVP NP VP NPV A P N V A P N Mary is fond of literature but (is) tired of statisticsd) The detective went out and the mysterious man came in.SS CON SNP VP NP VPDet N V Adv Det A N V AdvThe detective went out and the mysterious man came ine) Crusoe knows that spring will come and the snow will melt.SNP VPCPN V C SS CON SNP VP NP VPN Aux V Det N Aux V Crusoe knows that spring will come and the snow will melt6. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) You know that I hate war.SNP VPCPN V C SNP VPN V NPNYou know that I hate warOR CPC InflP(=S)NP Infl VPCPN Pres V C SNP VPN V NPNYou know that I hate warb) He said that Tom asked whether the class was over.SNP VPCPN V C SNP VPCPN V C SNP VPDet N VL A He said that Tom asked whether the class was overc) Gerry can’t believe the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.SNP VPN VP NPCPAux Neg V NP C SDet N NP VPN V NPDet A N Gerry can not believe the fact thatAnna flunked the English exam d) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.SNP VPCPN VL A C SNP VPDet N V NP NPN Det NChris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Roycee) The children argued over whether bats had wings.SNP VPCPDet N VP C SV P NP VPN V NPNThe children argued over whether bats had wings7. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of the sentences.a) The essay that he wrote was too long.Deep structureCPC SNP VP Det N CP V APC S Deg PNP Infl VPN V NPNThe essay he wrote that was too longSurface StructureCPC SNP VP Det N CP V APC S Deg PNP NP Infl VPN N Pst V NPNThe was too longb) The dog that he keeps bites.Deep structureCPC SNP VP Det N CP VC Infl SPres NP VPN V NPNThe dog he keeps that bites Surface StructureCPC SNP VP Det N CP VC SNP NP Infl VPN N Pres V NPNThe dog bitesc) Herbert found the man she loved. Deep structureCPC SNP VPN Infl V NPCPDet N C SNP Infl VPNPN VNHerbert found the man she loved who Surface StructureCPC SNP VPN Infl V NPCPDet N SCNP Infl VPNP NPN VN N Herbert found thed) The girl whom he often quarrels with majors in linguistics.Deep structureCPC SNP VPDet N CP V PPP NPC Infl SNNP VPPPN Qual VP NPV P NThe girl he often quarrels with whom majors in linguisticsSurface StructureCPC SNP VPDet N CP V PPP NPC SNNP NP Infl VPPPN N Qual VP NPV P NThe girl majors in linguistics8. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of these sentences.a) Would you come tomorrow?Deep structureCPC SVPNP AdvPN Infl V Advyou would come tomorrowSurface structureCPC SVPNP AdvPInflN Infl V Advcome tomorrowb) Can you pass me the newspaper? Deep structureCPC SVPNP NP NPN Infl V N Det Nyou can pass me the newspaper Surface structureCPC SVPInfl NP NP NPN Infl V N Det Npass me the newspaperc) Should the students report the incident? Deep structureCPC SVPNP NPDet N Infl V Det Nthe students should report the incident Surface structureCPC SVPInfl NP NPDet N Infl V Det Nreport the incidentd) What did you eat for lunch?Deep structureCPC SVPNP PPNP NPN Infl V PN Nyou did eat what for lunchSurface structureCPNP C SVPInfl NP PPNP NP N N Infl V PN Nfor lunch。
语言学 第四章 树形图 句法
Chapter 4 From word to Text (Syntax)Syntax (grammar)•Syntax refers to the study of the rules governing the way different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.4.1 Syntactic relations•Syntactic relations can be analyzed into three kinds:–4.1.1 positional relation–4.1.2 relations of substitutability–4.1.3 relations of co-occurrence4.1.1 Positional Relation•For language to fulfill its communicative function, it must have a way to mark the grammatical roles of the various phrases that can occur in a clause.•The boy kicked the ballNP1 NP2Subject Object•Positional relation, or WORD ORDER, refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language.•If the words in a sentence fail to occur in a fixed order required by the convention of a language, one tends to produce an utterance either ungrammatical or nonsensical at all. For example, The boy kicked the ball–*Boy the ball kicked the–*The ball kicked the boy•The teacher saw the students•The students saw the teacher•Positional relations are a manifestation of one aspect of Syntagmatic Relations observed by F. de Saussure.–They are also called Horizontal Relations or simply Chain Relations.•Word order is among the three basic ways (word order, genetic and areal classifications) to classify languages in the world.•There are 6 possible types of language:–SVO, VSO, SOV, OVS, OSV, and VOS.–English belongs to SVO type, though this does not mean that SVO is the only possible word order.4.1.2 Relation of Substitutability•The Relation of Substitutability refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure.–The ______ smiles.manboygirl•It also refers to groups of more than one word which may be jointly substitutablegrammatically for a single word of a particular set.strong man–The tallest boy smiles.pretty girlyesterday.–He went there last week.the day before.•This is also called Associative Relations by Saussure, and Paradigmatic Relations by Hjemslev. •To make it more understandable, they are called Vertical Relations or Choice Relations.4.1.3 Relation of Co-occurrence•It means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence.•For instance, a nominal phrase can be preceded by a determiner and adjective(s) and followed by a verbal phrase.•Relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic relations, partly to paradigmatic relations.4.2 Grammatical construction and its constituents4.2.1 Grammatical Construction•Any syntactic string of words ranging from sentences over phrasal structures to certain complex lexemes.–an apple–ate an apple–Mary ate an apple4.2.2 Immediate Constituents•Constituent is a part of a larger linguistic unit. Several constituents together form a construction:–the girl (NP)–ate the apple (VP)–The girl ate the apple (S)Immediate Constituent Analysis(IC Analysis)In the case of the above example, if two constituents B (the girl) and C (ate the apple) are jointed to form a hierarchically higher constituent A (here a sentence S), then B and C are said to be the immediate constituents of A. To dismantle a grammatical construction in this way is called IC analysis.A (Sentence)B CThe boy ate the appleTwo ways: tree diagram and bracketingTree diagram:Bracketing•Bracketing is not as common in use, but it is an economic notation in representing the constituent/phrase structure of a grammatical unit.•(((The) (girl)) ((ate) ((the) (apple))))•[S[NP[Det The][N girl]][VP[V ate][NP[Det the][N apple]]]]4.2.3 Endocentric and Exocentric Constructions•Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head.–Usually noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases belong to endocentric types because the constituent items are subordinate to the Head.•Exocentric construction refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable “Centre” or “Head” inside the group, usually including–the basic sentence,–the prepositional phrase,–the predicate (verb + object) construction,–the connective (be + complement) construction.•The boy smiled.(Neither constituent can substitute for the sentence structure as a whole.)•He hid behind the door.(Neither constituent can function as an adverbial.)•He kicked the ball .(Neither constituent stands for the verb-object sequence.)•John seemed angry.(After division, the connective construction no longer exists.)4.2.4 Coordination and Subordination•Endocentric constructions fall into two main types, depending on the relation between constituents:1) Coordination•Coordination is a common syntactic pattern in English and other languages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but and or .–These two or more words or phrases or clauses have equivalent syntactic status, each of the separate constituents can stand for the original construction functionally.•Coordination of NPs:–[NP the lady] or [NP the tiger]•Coordination of VPs:–[VP go to the library] and [VP read a book ]•Coordination of PPs:–[PP down the stairs] and [PP out the door ]•Coordination of APs:–[AP quite expensive] and [AP very beautiful]•Coordination of Ss:–[S John loves Mary] and [S Mary loves John too].2) Subordination•Subordination refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other.–The subordinate constituents are words which modify the head. Consequently, they can be called modifiers.•two dogsHead•(My brother) can drink (wine).Head•Swimming in the lake (is fun).Head•(The pepper was) hot beyond endurance.Head3) Subordinate clauses•Clauses can be used as subordinate constituents. There are three basic types of subordinate clauses:–complement clauses–adjunct (or adverbial) clauses–relative clauses•John believes [that the airplane was invented by an Irishman].(complement clause)•Elizabeth opened her presents [before John finished his dinner].(adverbial clause)•The woman [that I love] is moving to the south.(relative clause)4.3. Syntactic Function•The syntactic function shows the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used.–Names of functions are expressed in terms of subjects, objects, predicators, modifiers, complements, etc.4.3.1 Subject•In some languages, subject refers to one of the nouns in the nominative case（主格）. •The typical example can be found in Latin, where subject is always in nominative case, such as pater and filius in the following examples.–pater filium amat (the father loves the son)–patrum filius amat (the son loves the father)•In English, the subject of a sentence is often said to be the agent, or the doer of the action, while the object is the person or thing acted upon by the agent.–This definition seems to work for these sentences:–Mary slapped John.■ A dog bit Bill.•but is clearly wrong in the following examples:–John was bitten by a dog.–John underwent major heart surgery.•In order to account for the case of subject in passive voice, we have two other terms “grammatical subject” (John) and “logical subject” (a dog).•Another traditional definition of the subject is “what the sentence is about” (i.e., topic). •Again, this seems to work for many sentences, such as–Bill is a very crafty fellow.•but fails in others, such as–(Jack is pretty reliable, but) Bill I don’t trust.–As for Bill, I wouldn’t take his promises very seriously.•All three sentences seem to be “about” Bill; thus we could say that Bill is the topic of all three sentences.•The above sentences make it clear that the topic is not always the grammatical subject.What characteristics do subjects have?A. Word order•Subject ordinarily precedes the verb in the statement:–Sally collects stamps.–*Collects Sally stamps.B. Pro-forms•The first and third person pronouns in English appear in a special form when the pronoun is a subject, which is not used when the pronoun occurs in other positions:–He loves me.–I love him.–We threw stones at them.–They threw stones at us.C. Agreement with the verb•In the simple present tense, an -s is added to the verb when a third person subject is singular, but the number and person of the object or any other element in the sentence have no effect at all on the form of the verb:–She angers him.–They anger him.–She angers them.D. Content questions•If the subject is replaced by a question word (who or what), the rest of the sentence remains unchanged, as in–John stole the Queen’s picture from the British Council.–Who stole the Queen’s picture from the British council?–What would John steal, if he had the chance?–What did John steal from the British Council?–Where did John steal the Queen’s picture from?E. Tag question•A tag question is used to seek confirmation of a statement. It always contains a pronoun which refers back to the subject, and never to any other element in the sentence.–John loves Mary, doesn’t he?–Mary loves John, doesn’t she?–*John loves Mary, doesn’t she?4.3.2 Predicate•Predicate refers to a major constituent of sentence structure in a binary analysis in which all obligatory constituents other than the subject were considered together.•It usually expresses actions, processes, and states that refer to the subject.–The boy is running. (process)–Peter broke the glass. (action)–Jane must be mad! (state)•The word predicator is suggested for verb or verbs included in a predicate.4.3.3 Object•Object is also a term hard to define. Since, traditionally, subject can be defined as the doer of the action, object may refer to the “receiver” or “goal” of an action, and it is further classified into Direct Object and Indirect Object.–Mother bought a doll.–Mother gave my sister a doll.IO DO•In some inflecting languages, object is marked by case labels: the accusative case (受格) for direct object, and the dative case （与格）for indirect object.–In English, “object” is recognized by tracing its relation to word order (after the verb and preposition) and by inflections (of pro-nouns).–Mother gave a doll to my sister.–John kicked me.•Modern linguists suggest that object refers to such an item that it can become subject in a passive transformation.–John broke the glass. → The glass was broken by John.–Peter saw Jane. → Jane was seen by Peter.•Although there are nominal phrases in the following, they are by no means objects because they cannot be transformed into passive voice.–He died last week.–The match lasted three hours.–He changed trains at Manchester. (*Trains were changed by him at Manchester.)4.4. Category•The term category refers to the defining properties of these general units:–Categories of the noun: number, gender, case and countability–Categories of the verb: tense, aspect, voice4.4.1 Number•Number is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes displaying such contrasts as singular, dual, plural, etc.–In English, number is mainly observed in nouns, and there are only two forms: singular and plural, such as dog: dogs.–Number is also reflected in the inflections of pronouns and verbs, such as He laughs: They laugh, this man: these men.•In other languages, for example, French, the manifestation of number can also be found in adjectives and articles.–le cheval royal (the royal horse)–les chevaux royaux (the royal horses)4.4.2 Gender•Such contrasts as “masculine : feminine : neuter”, “animate : inanimate”, etc. for the analysis of word classes.–Though there is a correlation between natural gender and grammatical gender, the assignment may seem quite arbitrary in many cases.–For instance, in Latin, ignis‘fire’ is masculine, while flamma ‘flame’ is feminine.•English gender contrast can only be observed in pronouns and a small number of nouns, and, they are mainly of the natural gender type.–he: she: it–prince: princess–author: authoress•In French, gender is manifested also both in adjectives and articles.–beau cadeau (fine gift)–belle maison (fine house)–Le cadeau est beau. (The gift is good.)–La maison est belle. (The house is beautiful.)•Sometimes gender changes the lexical meaning as well, for example, in French:–le poele (the stove)–la poele (the frying pan)–le pendule (the pendulum)–la pendule (the clock)4.4.3 Case•The case category is used in the analysis of word classes to identify the syntactic relationship between words in a sentence.–In Latin grammar, cases are based on variations in the morphological forms of the word, and are given the terms “accusative”, “nominative”, “dative”, etc.–There are five cases in ancient Greek and eight in Sanskrit. Finnish has as many as fifteen formally distinct cases in nouns, each with its own syntactic function.•In English, case is a special form of the noun which frequently corresponds to a combination of preposition and noun, and it is realized in three channels:–inflection–following a preposition–word order•as manifested in–teacher : teacher’s–with : to a man–John kicked Peter : Peter kicked John4.4.4 Agreement•Agreement (or concord) may be defined as the requirement that the forms of two or more words of specific word classes that stand in specific syntactic relationship with one another shallalso, be characterized by the same paradigmatically marked category (or categories). •This syntactic relationship may be anaphoric （照应）, as when a pronoun agrees with its antecedent,–Whose is this pen? --Oh, it’s the one I lost.•or it may involve a relation between a head and its dependent, as when a verb agrees with its subject and object:–Each person may have one coin.•Agreement of number between nouns and verbs:–This man runs. The bird flies.–These men run. These birds fly.SentenceClausePhraseWord•the three tallest girls (nominal phrase)•has been doing(verbal phrase)•extremely difficult(adjectival phrase)•to the door (prepositional phrase)•very fast(adverbial phrase)•The best thing would be to leave early.•It’s great for a man to be free.•Having finished their task, they came to help us.•John being away, Bill had to do the work.•Filled with shame, he left the house.•All our savings gone, we started looking for jobs.•It’s no use crying over spilt milk.•Do you mind my opening the window?Sentence: (traditional approach)simpleSentence complexnon-simplecompoundSentence: (functional approach)Yes/noInterrogativeIndicative wh-DeclarativeSentenceJussiveImperativeOptativeBasic sentence types: (Bolinger)•Mother fell.(Nominal + intransitive verbal)•Mother is young.(Nominal + copula + complement)•Mother loves Dad.(Nominal + transitive verbal + nominal).•Mother fed Dad breakfast.(Nominal + transitive verbal + nominal + nominal)•There is time.(There + existential + nominal)Basic sentence types: (Quirk)•SVC Mary is kind.a nurse.•SV A Mary is here.in the house.•SV The child is laughing.•SVO Somebody caught the ball.•SVOC We have proved him wrong.a fool.•SVOA I put the plate on the table.•SVOO She gives me expensive presents.4.6 Recursiveness•Recursiveness mainly means that a phrasal constituent can be embedded within another constituent having the same category, but it has become an umbrella term such important linguistic phenomena as coordination and subordination, conjoining and embedding, hypotactic and paratactic.–All these are means to extend sentences.–How long can a sentence be?•Theoretically, there is no limit to the embedding of one relative clause into another relative clause, so long as it does not become an obstacle to successful communication.•The same holds true for nominal clauses and adverbial clauses.–I met a man who had a son whose wife sold cookies that she had baked in her kitchen that was fully equipped with electrical appliances that were new …•John’s sister•John’s sister’s husband•John’s sister’s husband’s uncle•John’s sister’s husband’s uncle’s daughter, etc.•that house in Beijing•the garden of that house in Beijing•the tree in the garden of that house in Beijing•a bird on the tree in the garden of that house in Beijing4.6.1 Conjoining 连接•Conjoining: coordination.•Conjunctions: and, but, and or.–John bought a hat and his wife bought a handbag.–Give me liberty or give me death.4.6.2 Embedding嵌入•Embedding: subordination.•Main clauses and subordinate clauses.•Three basic types of subordinate clauses:–Relative clause: I saw the man who had visited you last year.–Complement clause: I don’t know whether Professor Li needs this book.–Adverbial clause: If you listened to me, you wouldn't make mistakes.4.7. Beyond the sentence(Text and discourse)•The development of modern linguistic science has helped push the study of syntax beyond the traditional sentence boundary.•Linguists are now exploring the syntactic relation between sentences in a paragraph or chapter or the whole text, which leads to the emergence of text linguistics and discourse analysis.4.7.1 Sentential Connection•Hypotactic 主次(subordinate clauses):–You can phone the doctor if you like. However, I very much doubt whether he is in.–We live near the sea. So we enjoy a healthy climate.•Paratactic 并联(coordinate clauses):–In Guangzhou it is hot and humid during the summer. In Beijing it is hot and dry.–He dictated the letter. She wrote it.–The door was open. He walked in.4.7.2 Cohesion衔接•Cohesion is a concept to do with discourse or text rather than with syntax. It refers to relations of meaning that exist within the text, and defines it as a text.•Discoursal / textual Cohesiveness can be realized by employing various cohesive devices:–Conjunction 连接–Ellipsis 省略–lexical collocation 词汇搭配–lexical repetition 词汇重复–Reference 指称–Substitution 替代, etc.•“Did she get there at six?”语言学第四章树形图句法“No, (she got there) earlier (than six).”(Ellipsis)•“Shall we invite Bill?”“No. 1 can’t stand the man.”(Lexical collocation)•He couldn’t open the door. It was locked tight.(Reference)•“Why don’t you use your own recorder?”“I don't have one.”(Substitution)•I wanted to help him. Unfortunately it was too late.(Logical connection)11 / 11。
语言学句子分析树状图的优点
语言学句子分析树状图的优点树形图中各个结点之间，有两种关系值得注意：一种是支配关系，一种是前于关系。
如果在树形图中从结x到结y有一系列的枝把它们连接起来，而且所有的枝顺着同一方向，这即表示结 x支配结 y。
例如，上面的树形图中，标有VP的结支配着标有 NUMER的结，因为连接结VP 与结NUMER的枝都一律从较高的结 VP 降到较低的结NUMER；当x 支配y时，y就叫做x 的后裔。
如果结x与结y是相异的，x支配y，而且x与y之间没有另一个相异的结，这叫做直接支配。
结y就叫做结x的直接后裔。
在上面的树形图中，标有VP的结有两个直接后裔，即标有V的结和右边的标有NP的结，V和NP这两个结称为姐妹。
支配关系中不被任何其他的结支配的结叫做根。
图中，标有 S的结就是根；被其他结支配而不支配任何其他结的结，叫做叶。
一般说来，树形图是从上到下画出的，所以，根总是在顶部，叶总是在底部。
树形图中的两个结，只有当它们之间没有支配关系的时候，才能在从左到右的方向上排序，这时，这两个结之间，就存在前于关系，左边的结前于右边的结。
在上面的树形图中，标有“铝”的结前于标有VP的结及VP所支配的结，因为结VP与结“铝”之间不存在支配关系；但是，标有“铝”的结不能前于支配它的NP及 N等结。
可见，支配关系同从左到右的前于关系是相互排斥的，也就是说，在树形图中，如果两个结x与y之间存在前于关系，那么，x 与y之间必定不能存在支配关系。
并且，如果 x前于y.则由x支配的所有的结都前于由y支配的所有的结。
根据这些基本性质，一幅树形图可以提供如下 3个方面的语法信息：①句子中的词序：树形图中的各个叶按从左到右的前于关系排列起来，就是它所表示的句子的词序。
这些叶之间是不存在支配关系的。
②句子的层次：一个结的直接后裔就是这个结的直接成分，根据结之间的直接支配关系，便可看出句子的层次关系。
③词类信息、词组类型信息、句法功能信息、词与词或者词组与词组之间的逻辑关系信息和语义关系信息等。
英语语言学树型图详细讲解
树形图详细讲解1、Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences、a) The old lady suddenly left、Det A N Qual Vb) The car stopped at the end of the road、Det N V P Det N P Det Nc) The snow might have blocked the road、Det N Aux Aux V Det Nd) He never appears quite mature、N Qual V Deg A2、The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier、Draw the appropriate tree structure for each、a) full of peopleAPA P Nfull of peopleb) a story about a sentimental girlNPNP PPDet N P NPDet A Na story about a sentimental girlc) often read detective storiesVPQual V NPA Noften read detective storiesd) the argument against the proposalsNPNP PPDet N P NPDet Nthe argument against the proposalse) move towards the windowVPV PPP Det Nmove towards the window3、Draw phrase structure trees for each of the following sentences、a) The jet landed、InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet N Pst VThe jet landedb) Mary became very ill、InflP(=S)NP Infl VPN Pst V APDeg AMary became very illc) What will you talk about?CPNP C SN Infl NP Infl VPVP NPV P NSNP VPDet N Aux V NPDet NThe apple might hit the manORInflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet N V NPDet NThe apple might hit the mane) He often reads detective stories、SNP VPN Qual V NPA NHe often reads etective storiesORInflP(=S)NP Infl VPPresN Qual V NPA NHe often reads etective stories4、The following sentences contain modifiers of various types、For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures、a) A frightened passenger landed the crippled airplane、InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet A N Pst V NPDet A NA frightened passenger landed the crippled airplaneb) A huge moon hung in the black sky、InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet A N Pst V PPP NPDet A NA huge moon hung in the black skyc) An unusual event occurred before the meeting、InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet A N Pst V PPP NPDet NAn unusual event occurred before the meetingd) A quaint old house appeared on the grassy hill、InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet A NP Pst V PPA N P NPDet A NA quaint old house appeared on the grassy hill5、The following sentences all contain conjoined categories、Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences、a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants、InflP(=S)NP VPN Aux V NPDet A NPN CON N Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pantsORInflP(=S)NP VPN Infl V NPDet A NPN CON NJim has washed the dirty shirts and pantsb) Helen put on her clothes and went out、SNP VPN VP CON VPVP NP V AdvV P Det NHelen put on her clothes and went outORInflP(=S)NP Infl VPN Pst VP CON VPVP NP V AdvV P Det NHelen put on her clothes and went outc) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics、SNP VPN VP CON VPVP NP VP NPV A P N V A P NMary is fond of literature but (is) tired of statistics ORInflP(=S)NP Infl VPN Pres VP CON VPVP NP VP NPV A P N V A P N Mary is fond of literature but (is) tired of statisticsd) The detective went out and the mysterious man came in、SS CON SNP VP NP VPDet N V Adv Det A N V AdvThe detective went out and the mysterious man came ine) Crusoe knows that spring will come and the snow will melt、SNP VPCPN V C SS CON SNP VP NP VPN Aux V Det N Aux V Crusoe knows that spring will come and the snow will melt6、The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun、Draw a tree structure for each sentence、a) You know that I hate war、SNP VPCPN V C SNP VPN V NPNYou know that I hate warOR CPC InflP(=S)NP Infl VPCPN Pres V C SNP VPN V NPNYou know that I hate warb) He said that Tom asked whether the class was over、SNP VPCPN V C SNP VPCPN V C SNP VPDet N VL A He said that Tom asked whether the class was overc) Gerry can’t believe the fact that Anna flunked the English exam、SNP VPN VP NPCPAux Neg V NP C SDet N NP VPN V NPDet A N Gerry can not believe the fact thatAnna flunked the English examd) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce、SNP VPCPN VL A C SNP VPDet N V NP NPN Det NChris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Roycee) The children argued over whether bats had wings、SNP VPCPDet N VP C SV P NP VPN V NPNThe children argued over whether bats had wings7、Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause、Draw the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of the sentences、a) The essay that he wrote was too long、Deep structureCPC SNP VP Det N CP V APC S Deg PNP Infl VPN V NPNThe essay he wrote that was too longSurface StructureCPC SNP VP Det N CP V APC S Deg PNP NP Infl VPN N Pst V NPNThe was too longb) The dog that he keeps bites、Deep structureCPC SNP VP Det N CP VC Infl SPres NP VPN V NPNThe dog he keeps that bitesSurface StructureCPC SNP VP Det N CP VC SNP NP Infl VPN N Pres V NPNThe dog bitesc) Herbert found the man she loved、Deep structureCPC SNP VPN Infl V NPCPDet N C SNP Infl VPNPN VNHerbert found the man she loved whoSurface StructureCPC SNP VPN Infl V NPCPDet N SCNP Infl VPNP NPN VN N Herbert found thed) The girl whom he often quarrels with majors in linguistics、Deep structureCPC SNP VPDet N CP V PPP NPC Infl SNNP VPPPN Qual VP NPV P NThe girl he often quarrels with whom majors in linguisticsSurface StructureCPC SNP VPDet N CP V PPP NPC SNNP NP Infl VPPPN N Qual VP NPV P NThe girl majors in linguistics8、The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation、Give the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of these sentences、a) Would you come tomorrow?Deep structureCPC SVPNP AdvPN Infl V Advyou would come tomorrowSurface structureCPC SVPNP AdvPInflN Infl V Advcome tomorrowb) Can you pass me the newspaper?Deep structureCPC SVPNP NP NPN Infl V N Det Nyou can pass me the newspaperSurface structureCPC SVPInfl NP NP NPN Infl V N Det Npass me the newspaperc) Should the students report the incident?Deep structureCPC SVPNP NPDet N Infl V Det Nthe students should report the incidentSurface structureCPC SVPInfl NP NPDet N Infl V Det Nreport the incidentd) What did you eat for lunch?Deep structureCPC SVPNP PPNP NPN Infl V PN Nyou did eat what for lunchSurface structureCPNP C SVPInfl NP PPNP NP N N Infl V PN Nfor lunche) Who should this be reported to ?Deep structureCPC SVPNP PPVP NPN Infl V V PNthis should be reported to whomSurface structureCPNP C SVPN Infl NP PPVP NPN Infl V V PN英语语言学树型图详细讲解f) What was Helen bringing to the party?Deep structureCPC SVPNP PPNP NPN Infl V PN Det NHelen was bringing what to the partySurface structureCPNP C SVPN Infl NP PPNP NPN Infl V PN Det Nto the party。
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第一篇樹狀圖句法簡論一、句子的構造：樹狀圖觀點句子是一串有規律的組合結構體。
而樹狀圖是解剖句子裡結構成分(contstituent)之間關係的最佳方式：何種結構成分在句子裡有何文法功能，都可以透過樹狀圖清楚的呈現。
例如以下樹狀圖：在此樹狀圖裡，S(sentence)代表句子；NP(noun phrase)為名詞片語；VP(verb phrase)為動詞片語；N(noun)為名詞；PP(prepositional phrase) 為介系詞片語；P(preposition) 為介系詞；DET(determiner)為名詞限定詞，例如，冠詞(a, the)、指示代名詞(this, that, these, those, etc)、量詞(many, much, more, few, etc)、所有格(my, his, John’s, etc)、數詞(one, first, two, third,etc)；而V(verb)為動詞。
每個字、片語、子句都擁有自己的文法詞類屬性，透過這種文法詞類屬性的使用，可以使結構簡單明瞭。
一個結構成分其文法範疇的界定，通常以其所出現的句子位置為原則，而不是以意義來區分。
樹狀圖上的每個文法詞類屬性符號，都可以容納無限多的相同結構成分，透過使用文法詞類屬性符號的方式，樹狀圖就可用來描繪各式各樣的句構。
這樣的結構剖析在句法學上稱為，片語結構樹狀圖(phrase structure trees)。
透過片語結構樹狀圖的結構剖析，我們便可以清楚的看出一、句子由何種結構組成二、片語由何種結構組成三、主詞和述詞含有那些結構成分四、句子裡單字和片語的結構關係五、字與字之間左右前後的文法順序關係因而，以上述some of his books are19th century的樹狀圖結構而言，我們可在此句裡，清楚地看出句子(S) 所含有的兩大結構成分：主詞(NP) 和述詞(VP)。
主詞(NP) 由主要中心名詞some和修飾some的介系詞片語of his books組成；述詞(VP) 則由動詞are和當主詞補語的NP, 19th century, 組成。
在介系詞片語of his books裡，也可清楚看出此介系詞片語是由介系詞P, of, 和當其受詞的NP, his books, 組成。
主詞補語的NP則是由名詞限定詞(DET) 和此名詞片語的主要中心名詞century組成。
二、結構成分(Constituents)什麼是結構成分？一個結構成分就是一個完整語意的句構單位，因而，每個字、片語、句子，通通都是一個結構成分。
所以，上面樹狀圖裡的結構符號S, NP, VP, PP, N, P, Det, V都各自代表著一個結構成分。
根據此定義，我們依據上面的樹狀圖，可以檢視出以下那一組結構是「結構成分」。
(i) S →結構成分(本身為一符合文法結構的句子)(ii) N + V →非結構成分(無法組成完整語意的句構單位)(iii) N + PP →結構成分(組成更大的完整NP句構單位)(iv) N + PP + V →非結構成分(無法組成完整語意的句構單位)(v) NP + VP →結構成分(組成一符合文法結構的句子S)(vi) Det + N →結構成分(組成更大的完整NP句構單位)(vii) P + N →非結構成分(無法組成完整語意的句構單位)(viii) V + NP →結構成分(組成更大的完整VP句構單位)由以上解析得知，顯然我們對句子裡的單字及片語的概念，並非只是一串隨意結構而已，事實上，我們在學習語言的時候，是用結構成分的概念來瞭解句子的。
三、樹狀圖的意義我們如果知道了句子中每個結構成分的文法詞類屬性，我們就可以透過片語結構樹狀圖，把此句的結構表現出來。
例如，His explanation is beyondme 這個句子可以透過如下片語結構樹狀圖把此句的結構表現出來：在樹狀圖裡，每個文法詞類屬性的符號都是一個結(node)。
例如，S 結 (Snode), NP 結(NP node)…等等。
S 是 NP 結和VP 結的母結 (mother node)，NP 結和VP 結則互為姐妹結(sister nodes)，同理，NP 是Det 結和N 結的母結，Det 結和N 結則互為姐妹結。
VP 則是V 結和PP 結的母結，V 結和PP 結則互為姐妹結。
PP 是P 結和NP 結的母結，P 結和NP 結則互為姐妹結。
NP 結為N 結的母結， 但是，N 結在此無姐妹結。
另外，我們也說，S 結支配 (dominate) 了以下所有的範圍，但只直接地支配 (immediately dominate) 了NP 結和VP 結。
在上圖His explanation is beyond me 這個句子裡，主詞的NP 結由於只含有Det 結和N 結，我們說NP 結不但支配 (dominate) 了Det 結和N 結，也同時直接地支配(immediately dominate) 了Det 結和N 結。
VP 結構，同理類推，VP 結支配了以下所有的範圍，但只直接地支配了V 結和PP 結。
PP 結則支配了NNPVPexplanation Vis PPPbeyond DetHis NP meNS以下所有的範圍，但只直接地支配了P結和NP結。
樹狀圖本身其實也說明了句子的文法規則，稱為片語結構規律(phrase structure rules)。
例如，以His explanation is beyond me的樹狀圖而言，S 是NP結和VP結的母結的文法規則就是，S → NP VP ( = 句子含有一個名詞片語和跟隨其後的動詞片語)；NP結是Det和N的母結的文法規則就是，NP → Det N ( = 名詞片語含有一個名詞限定詞和跟隨其後的名詞)；VP結是V和PP的母結的文法規則就是，VP → V PP ( = 動詞片語含有一個動詞和跟隨其後的介系詞片語)；PP結是P和NP的母結的文法規則就是，PP → P NP ( = 介系詞片語含有一個介系詞和跟隨其後的名詞片語)。
當句子含有子句時，結構上則須要有把句子轉變成補語的文法詞類屬性符號CP (Complementizer Phrase)，補語化結構成分片語，來表示。
例如，這一句裡的CP 含有一個把句子he is innocent 轉變成補語的補語化結構成分C(omplementizer) 及其後的子句S 。
所以，CP 結是C 和S 的母結的文法規則就是 CP C S ( =「補語化結構成分片語」含有一個補語化結構成分和跟隨其後的句子)。
四、如何建構片語結構樹狀圖一般建構片語結構樹狀圖的原則採由上往下的方式 (generating)，而由下往上的方式 (parsing) 在複雜結構上容易產生錯誤，較少採用。
以上句We believe that he is innocent 的片語結構樹狀圖建構而言，先由S 結開VPCPCthat he innocentVP NP NSVNNP We Vis AAPbelieve S始往下一直到句子本身。
步驟細分如下：步驟一、先把S是NP結和VP結的母結的文法規則，S → NP VP，用樹狀圖描繪出來：步驟二、再把NP結僅由N組成的文法規則，NP → N，用樹狀圖描繪出來：步驟三、繼續把VP結是V和CP的母結的文法規則，VP V CP，用樹狀圖描繪出來：SNPVPCPNV步驟四、把CP 結是C 和S 的母結的文法規則 CP → C S ， S → NP VP ，及NP → N 和VP → V AP ，用樹狀圖描繪出來：VPCPCVP NP NSVNNPVAAPS步驟五、最後，依詞彙的文法詞類屬性，把適當的詞彙填入最底層。
五、One-bar結構的意義是什麼？早期的句法觀念對於像 the white cat 這樣一個完整的結構成分，其樹狀圖建構如下：VPCPCthat he innocentVP NP NSVNNP We Vis AAPbelieveS但是這樣的結構被質疑句法的正確性：為何 white cat 不能視為一個完整的結構成分，因為在很多英語結構裡，類似結構是可以單獨存在的。
依照一般完整結構成分的判斷標準，可以分為以下三項：(一)、可由代名詞(proform)取代 (二)、可單獨存在(stand alone) (三)、可以在句中移動(movement) 。
例如，在像The black cat and white cat make an amusing contrast. 的句子裡，white cat 明顯為一個完整的結構成分，符合可以stand alone 的條件。
其次，它也符合用代名詞取代的條件。
例如，在以下的對話裡，Speaker A: Don ’t you see the black cat and white cat make an amusingcontrast?Speaker B: The black cat and which one make an amusing contrast?顯然，代名詞 one 取代了white cat 。
所以，white cat 應該視為一個完整的結構成分才是比較正確的結構解釋，因為此結構符合上述(一)、(二)兩項標準。
也就是說，the white cat 的樹狀圖結構應該如下：NPN catwhite AdjDetthe但如果是這樣，white cat 的文法詞類屬性是什麼呢？是NP 嗎？可是證據顯示white cat 不是NP ，因為它不能當主詞或受詞用。
例如，*White cat is charming 或 *The family has white cat 皆不符合文法。
如果不是NP ，那會是 N 嗎？可是除非white cat 是複合字，否則把white cat 視為一個詞彙範疇並不具說服力。
如果white cat 不是NP 也不是N ，那到底應是何種詞類屬性呢？句法學家認為，這種介於片語與單字之間的結構是一種中間成分(intermediate levelstructure)，大量存在英語中。
這個結構層次後來就透過X-bar 句法理論的產生，以one-bar 的符號方式來表示。
也就是說，任何結構如果是用one-bar 的符號，就表示它是一種非片語、非單字的中間成分，但也是一種完整的結構成分。
因而，the white cat 更佳的樹狀圖結構應該如下：NPDetthe?Adjwhite Ncat也由於此中間層次結構的增加，我們需要一個表示此現象的片語結構規律： NP → Det N ’。
同時，由於此中間層次並非僅在名詞片語出現，其他結構也可能含有，我們也需要一個適用於所有結構的片語結構規律：XP → modifier X ’ (X 是可變成分，代表任何可能的詞類屬性：N, V , P, ADJ, ADV …)。