Chapter 8 individual differences in SLA
Individual differences
(2) Grammatical sensibility (语法敏感性), i.e. the ability to recognize the grammatical functions of words in sentences (e.g. the subject and object of a sentence) (3) Inductive language learning ability (语言学习 归纳能力), i.e. the ability to identify patterns of correspondence and relations between form and meaning (e.g. to recognize that in English to denote to direction and at location.)
Some components of language aptitude (identified by John Carroll ):
(1) Phonemic coding ability （语音编码能力）, i.e. the ability to identify the sounds of a foreign language. How to segment the phonetic system of a foreign language into phonemes? e.g. One of the Indian languages， 东乡话 or 白马藏语？
• How to make up rules based on language analysis. • How to use inference in learning and how to take notes and make summaries etc.
What is Intelligence
Spatial - capacity to perceive the visual world accurately, to perform transformations upon perceptions and to re-create aspects of visual experience in the absence of physical stimuli
Crystallized Intelligence
‐ Factual knowledge about the world
‐ The skills already learned and practiced ‐ Examples
‐ Arithmetic facts ‐ Knowledge of the meaning of words ‐ State capitals
g
Spatialflicting theories have led many psychometric theorists to propose hierarchical theories of intelligence that include both general and specific components
Spearman also believed that performance on any test of mental ability required the use of a specific ability factor that he termed “s”
s
Logical
s Mechanical
How do we know intelligence even exists?
Psychometricians specialize in measuring psychological characteristics for intelligence and personality. By using patterns of test scores, they have found evidence for general intelligence as well as for specific abilities
国际商务》查尔斯英文第九版期末复习重点
Chapter 1 globalizationWhat is globalization?The globalization of markets.It refers to the merging of historically distinct and separate national markets into one huge global marketplace.The globalization of productionIt refers to the sourcing of goods and services from locations around the globe to take advantage of national differences in the cost and quality of factors of production.Factors of production: (1) land, (2) capital, (3) labor, (4) energyWhy china losing their position of global factory?(1)A ging population.The population of the china is aging, which leads china to losing their advantage of cheaper labors that resulting the cost of production in china is going higher.(2)E xpensive land.The higher cost of land is another reason that leads to China losingits position of global factory. In the early time, it is free for foreign company to use land in China to build up a factory. But it is not free for them anymore. Because of the increasing price of land, many company are moving their factories to other countries.The differences between the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank （WB）.The IMF was established to maintain order in the international monetary system; the WB was set up to promote economic development.In a short word, the IMF always gives a hand to the countries in crisis, and it often offers the short-term loan.The WB always loan money to country build their infrastructure with long-term loan.Drivers of globalizationDeclining trade and investment barriersInternational trade occurs when a firm exports goods & services to consumers in another country.Foreign direct investment (FDI) occurs when a firm invests resources in business activities outside its home country.The role of technological changeMicroprocessors and telecommunicationsMoore’s law, which predicts that the power of microprocessor technology doubles and its cost of production falls in half every 18 months.The internet and world wide webTransportation technologyImplications for the globalization of productionImplications for the globalization of marketsThe changing demographics of the global economyThe changing world output and world trade pictureThe changing foreign direct investment pictureThe changing nature of the multinational enterpriseThe changing world orderTotalitarianism ———democracyPlan market —— free marketFactors prevent globalizationProtectionismDistanceLanguage barriersControl by government(1)Job losses in industries under attack from foreign competitors;(2)Downward pressure on the wage rates of unskilled workers;(3)Environmental degradation;(4)The cultural imperialism (帝国主义) of global media andmultinational enterprise, which was called “culturally impoverished”The differences between managing an international business and managing a purely domestic business(1)C ountries are different(2)T he range of problems confronted by managers in aninternational business is wider and the problems themselves (3)A n international business must find ways to work within thelimits imposed by government intervention in the international trade and invest system;(4)International transactions involve converting money intodifferent currenciesChapter 2national differences in political economy political economy to stress that the political, economic, and legalsystems of a country are interdependent.Political system: mean the system of government in a nation. It can be assessed according to two dimensionsThe first is the degree to which they emphasize collectivism as opposed to individualism.Collectivism: refers to a political system that stresses the primacy of collective goals over individual goals.Individualism: refers to a philosophy that an individual should have freedom in his or her economic and political pursuit.The second is the degree to which they are democratic or totalitarian.Democracy: refers to a political system in which government is by the people, exercised either directly or through elected representatives.Totalitarianism: is a form of government in which one person or political party exercise absolute control over all sphere of human life and prohibits opposing political parties.Pure market economy: all productive are privately owned, as opposed to being owned by the state.Pure command economy: the government plans the goods and services that country produces, the quantity in which they are produced, and the prices at which they are sold.Legal systemCommon law: based on tradition, precedent (先例)Civil law: based on a detailed set of laws organized into codes. Theocratic law: the law is based on religious teachings Property rights and corruptionProperty rights: refers to the legal rights over the use to which a resource is put and over the use made of any income that may be derived from that resource.Property rights can be violated in two ways—— through private action and through public action.Private action: refers to theft, piracy（非法翻印），blackmail）（勒索）, and the like by private individuals or groups.Public action and corruption: it occurs when public officials, such as politicians and government bureaucrats, extort （敲诈）income, resources, or the property itself from property holders.Chapter 3political economy and economic development GNI: is regarded as a yardstick for the economic activity of a country; it measures the total annual income received by residents of a nation.The disadvantage of GNI:GNI per person figures can be misleading because they don’t consider difference in the cost of living.To account for the difference in the cost of living, the purchasing power parity(PPP) is referred. It for different countries is then adjusted (up or down) depending upon whether the cost of living is lower or higher than the USA.Human Development Index(HDI): a tool to measure the quality of human life in different countries, which is based on three measures:(1). Life expectancy at birth (a function of health care);(2). Educational attainment (measured by a combination of the adult literacy rate and enrollment in primary, secondary, and tertiary education);(3). Whether the average income, based on PPP estimates, are sufficient to meet the basic needs of life in a country (adequate food, shelter, and health care).Innovation and entrepreneurship are the engines of growth Innovation: new products, new processes, new organization, new management practices, and new strategies.Furthermore, innovations in production and business processes lead to an increase in the productivity of labor and capital, which further boosts economic growth rates.Entrepreneurs first commercialize innovative new products and processes, and entrepreneurial activity provides much of the dynamism(活力) in an economy.The factors that innovations and entrepreneurship need:1.Market economy;2.Strong property rights;3.Democratic political system;4.Geography(地理), education, and economic development. States in transitionThe political economy of many of the world’s nation-states has changed radically since the late 1980s. two trend have been evident:First, a wave of democratic revolutions swept the world;Second, there has been a strong move away from centrally planned and mixed economies and toward a more free market economic model.The spread of democracyThree main reasons account for the spread of democracy:First, many totalitarian regimes failed to deliver economic progress to the vast bulk of their populations.Second,new information and communication technologies,including satellite television, internet have reduced a state’s ability to control access to uncensored(未经审查的) information.Third, in many countries the economic advances of the past quarter century have led to the emergence of increasingly prosperous middle and working classes who have pushed for democratic reforms.The nature of economic transformationThe shift toward a market-based economic system often entails a number of steps:1.Deregulation;2.Privatization;3.Creation of a legal system to safeguard property rights. Implications of changing political economy (for managers) Benefits1.Size of economy;2.Likely economic growth；3.First-mover advantages: advantages that accrue to early entrantsinto a market;te-mover disadvantages are the handicaps that late entrantsmight suffer.costs1.Corruption(贪污、腐败)；ck of infrastructure;3.Legal costs.risks1.Political risks: social unrest/ anti-business trends;2.Economic risks: economic mismanagement;3.Legal risks: failure to safeguard Property Rights.Chapter 4 difference in cultureWhat is culture?Complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and other capabilities acquired by man as a member of society.Values:Abstract ideas about what a group believes to be good, right, and desirable.Norms:The social rules and guidelines that prescribe appropriate behavior in particular situations.Norms can be subdivided further into two major categories: folkways and mores.Folkways are the routine conventions of everyday life, which includes rituals(礼仪) and symbolic behavior.More are norms that are seen as central to the functioning of a society and to its social life.Society:A group of people who share a common set of values and norms. The cultural norms and value system includes:1.Religion;2.Political philosophy;3.Economic philosophy;cation;nguage;6.Social structureSocial structureSocial structure refers to its basic organization, which can expend into two dimensions:First, the degree to which the basic unit of social organization is the individual, as opposed to the group.Second, the degree to which a society is stratified into classes or castes(等级)。
跨文化商务交际Chapter_8_Intercultural_Management
What is intercultural management?
跨文化管理真正作为一门科学，是在20世纪70年代后 期的美国逐步形成和发展起来的。它研究的是在跨文化 条件下如何克服异质文化的冲突，进行卓有成效的管理， 其目的在于如何在不同形态的文化氛围中设计出切实可 行的组织结构和管理机制，最合理地配置企业资源，特 别是最大限度地挖掘和利用企业人力资源的潜力和价值， 从而最大化地提高企业的综合效益。 兴起这一研究的直接原因是二战后美国跨国公司进行 跨国经营时的屡屡受挫。
企业文化中一些典型的可观察到的要素
典礼和仪式 典故 象征物
语言
Some tips about Corporate culture
A company’s culture is greatly influenced b team as they set the policies and practices for the organization. Many articles and books have been written in recent years about culture in organizations, usually referred to as “corporate culture”. Every organization has its own unique culture or value set. To be specific, corporate culture can be looked as a system. Often the people who see an organization’s culture more clearly are those from the outside, the new comers, or the consultants.
性格差异的英语作文
性格差异的英语作文英文回答：Personality differences are a fascinating aspect of human nature, shaping the unique ways we think, feel, and behave. These variations can be attributed to a complex interplay of biological, environmental, and cultural factors.Introverts and extroverts, for example, exhibit contrasting preferences for social interactions. Introverts tend to seek solitude and enjoy activities that allow them to recharge their energy levels, such as reading or spending time in nature. Extroverts, on the other hand, thrive on social connections and seek stimulation through activities that involve interacting with others, such as parties or group gatherings.Cognitive differences manifest in the ways we process information and solve problems. Individuals with analyticalminds possess a keen eye for detail and prefer to approach situations logically. They may excel in fields like mathematics or computer science. Conversely, individualswith intuitive minds rely heavily on their gut feelings and prefer a more holistic approach. They may excel in fields like art or music.Temperamental differences influence our emotional experiences and reactions. People with sanguine temperaments are generally cheerful, optimistic, and sociable. They approach life with enthusiasm and tend to be outgoing and friendly. People with melancholic temperaments, in contrast, are more prone to introversion, deep thought, and sensitivity. They may experience emotions moreintensely and have a tendency towards pessimism.Cultural differences play a significant role in shaping our personalities. The values, norms, and expectations of our respective cultures influence our beliefs, behaviors, and aspirations. For instance, individuals fromcollectivist cultures tend to prioritize group harmony and cooperation, while individuals from individualist culturesemphasize personal autonomy and self-reliance.Personality differences can both complement and challenge us in our relationships with others. Understanding and appreciating these differences can foster empathy, reduce conflict, and enhance collaboration. By embracing our unique strengths and accepting the differences of others, we create a more inclusive and harmonious society.中文回答：性格差异是人性中一个迷人的方面，塑造了我们思考、感受和行为的独特方式。
Individual difference and SLA
individual learning techniques 个体学习者的手段
对老师及课程材料的态度
personal factors
group dynamics 群体动力
attitudes to the teacher and course materials 对教师及课程材料的态度
individual learning techniques 个体学习者的手段
of tackling learning, such as notetaking, resourcing( like using dictionaries) and elaboration( relating new information to old).
How to apply rules to understand second
The role of learner factors in SLA
• personal factors
influence reflect
influence
L2 proficiency
Pay constant attention to expanding your language.
Develop the L2 as a separate system.
Take into account the demands that L2 learning imposes.
Age
• Critical period hypothesis临界期假说 the claim that human beings are only capable of learning their first language between the age of two years old and the early teens.
课件：OB-08
individual’s behavior. 5. Contrast the strengths and weaknesses of group decision
8-2
Groups
Two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who come together to
achieve particular objectives
Formal
• Defined by the organization’s structure
Role Expectations – how others believe you should act in a given situation
Role Conflict – conflict experienced when multiple roles are incompatible
Copyright ©2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall
• Norming:
3
• Group is cohesive with strong group identity
• Performing:
4
• Group fully functional and working toward goals
• Adjourning:
5
• For temporary groups: breaking up
8-14
Impact of Status
中国文化概况A-Glimpse-of-Chinese-Culture(修订版)Chapter-8
Features of Chinese Food
Yin-yang Principle Each food has its own characteristics of yin or yang. Yin foods : thin, cold ,low calories.
Boiling makes food yin. Yang foods : rich, spicy, hot ,high calories.
9
Features of Chinese Food
Seasonings
taste mainly depends on the seasonings. many tastes—salty (salt, soy sauce), sweet (sugar, honey), sour (vinegar), fragrant (sesame oil, coriander, wine), spicy(chilli, garlic, ginger), tangy(monosodium glutamate or MSG), bitter(dried tangerine, bitter apricot kernel),etc.
16
Eight Regional Cuisines
Guangdong Cuisine also known as Yuecai (粤菜). fresh, crisp, tender, lightly
seasoned. roasting, stir-frying, sautéing,
deep-frying, stewing and steaming. porridges and soups
18
Eight Regional Cuisines
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• Gardner (1979) suggests that attitudes are related to motivation by serving as supports of the learner’s overall orientation. Brown (1981) identifies 3 types of motivation: • A. global motivation (a general orientation to the goal of learning a L2); • B. situational motivation (which varies according to the situation in which learning takes place. In this case, the motivation associated with classroom learning is distinct from the motivation involved in naturalistic learning); • C. task motivation, which is the motivation for performing particular learning tasks.
John Carroll’s
• Phonemic coding ability, which consists of the ability to perceive and memorize new sounds • Grammatical sensitivity, which is the ‘individual’s ability to demonstrate awareness of the syntactical pattering of sentences of a language
Major finds
• 1. Motivation and attitudes are important factors, which help to determine the level of proficiency achieved by different learners. • 2. The effects of motivation/attitudes appear to be separate from the effects of aptitude. The most successful learners will be those who have both a talent and a high level of motivation for learning
Language aptitude
• Aptitude refers to the specific ability a learner has for learning a L2. this is hypothesized to be separate from the general ability to master academic skills, which is referred to as ‘intelligence’. • Aptitude is usually defined in terms of the tests that have been used to measure it (Carroll and Sapon’s Modern Language Aptitude Test 1959 and Pimleur’s Language Aptitude Battery 1966)
between attitudes and motivation
• Schumann (1978): attitude is a social factor on a par with variables such as ‘size of learning group’ which motivation is an affective factor alongside ‘culture shock’. • Gardner and Lambert (1972): attitude is the persistence shown by the learner in striving for a goal while motivation is the L2 learner’s overall goal or orientation.
• These tests do not measure exactly the same behaviors. Both test, however, seek to measure the abilities of learners to discriminate the meaningful sounds of a language, to associate sounds with written symbols, and to identify the grammatical regularities of a language. It is evident that this view of aptitude reflects the skills which the audio-lingual approach to language teaching, so popular in the postwar decades, emphasized.
Gardner and Lambert
• The most extensive research into the role of attitudes and motivation in SLA has been conducted by Gardner and Lambert. • Integrative motivation: it occurs when the learner wishes to identify with the culture of the L2 group. • Instrumental motivation: it occurs when the learner’s goals fro learning the L2 are functional.
• Inductive ability, which consists of the ability to notice and identify similarities and differences in both grammatical form and meaning. • Rote learning ability, i.e. the ability to form and remember associations between stimuli. This is believed to be important in vocabulary learning.
• The effects of aptitude on language learning have been measured in terms of the proficiency levels achieved by different classroom learners. The usual procedure is to obtain aptitude scores using one of the tests referred to above, and proficiency scores consisting of the results of a language test or teachers’ grades. The two sets of scores are then statistically correlated. In this way it is possible to state the degree of variance in the proficiency scores that can be statistically accounted for by aptitude.
• Not surprisingly, therefore, the study of attitudes and motivation in SLA has involved the development of concepts specific to language learning. The two concepts have been derived from the behaviors of language learners and have been only loosely related to general theories of motivation in psychology.
Chapter 8 individual differences in SLA
Language aptitude Motivation Learning strategies
• L2 learners vary on a number of dimensions to do with personality, motivation, learning style, aptitude, age. The aim of this chapter is to examine the relationship between these factors and SLA. These factors may result in differences in the route along which learners pass in SLA and the rate as well as the ultimate success of SLA.
• Although many studies can be used to support claims about the importance of aptitude as a factor in SLA, many doubts remain. Firstly, it is still not clear what cognitive processes are subsumed under the label of aptitude; secondly, What aspect of SLA is affected by aptitude, the route or rate