ClaiMaker Weaving a Semantic Web of Research Papers
美国文学选择题2014
1. In 1837, Ralph Waldo Emerson made a speech entitled _______ at Harvard, which was hailed by Oliver Wendell Holmes as "Our intellectual Declaration of Independence."A. "Nature"B. "Self-Reliance"C. "Divinity School Address"D. "The American Scholar"2. For Melville, as well as for the reader and _______ , the narrator, Moby Dick is stilla mystery, an ultimate mystery of the universe.A. AhabB. IshmaelC. StubbD. Starbuck3. Most of the poems in Whitman's Leaves of Grass sing of the "mass" and the _______ as well.A. natureB. self-relianceC. selfD. life4. Naturalism is evolved from realism when the author's tone in writing becomes less serious and less sympathetic but more ironic and more _______ .A. rationalB. humorousC. optimisticD. pessimistic5. Dreiser's Trilogy of Desire includes three novels. They are The Financier, The Titan and _______ .A. The GeniusB. The TycoonC. The StoicD. The Giant6. The impact of Darwin's evolutionary theory on the American thought and the influence of the nineteenth-century French literature on the American men of letters gave rise to yet another school of realism: American ________ .A. local colorismB. imagismC. modernismD. naturalism7. It is on his _______ that Washington Irving's fame mainly rested.A. childhood recollectionsB. sketches about his European toursC. early poetryD. tales about America8. Which of the following works concerns most concentrated the Calvinistic view of original sin?A. The Wasteland.B. The Scarlet Letter.C. Leaves of Grass.D. As I Lay Dying9. We can perhaps summarize that Walt Whitman’s poems are characterized by all the following features except that they are _______.A. conversational and crudeB. lyrical and well-structuredC. simple and rather crudeD. free-flowing10. Who exerts the single most important influence on literary naturalism, of which Theodore Dreiser and Jack London are among the best representative writers?A. FreudB. Darwin.C. W.D. Howells.D. Emerson11. Mark Twain, one of the greatest 19th century American writers, is well known for his ____.A. international themeB. waste-land imageryC. local colorD. symbolism12. The period before the American Civil War is commonly referred to as _______.A. the Romantic PeriodB. the Realistic PeriodC. the Naturalist PeriodD. the Modern Period13. “The apparition of these faces in the crowd; / Petals on a wet, black bough.” This is the shortest poem written by（）.A. e.e. Cummings C. Ezra PoundB. T.S. Eliot D. Robert Frost14. In Henry James’ Daisy Miller, the author tries to portray the young woman as an embodiment of _______.A. the force of conventionB. the free spirit of the New WorldC. the decline of aristocracyD. the corruption of the newly rich15. "Two roads diverged in a yellow woodAnd sorry I could not travel both ..."In the above two lines of Robert Frost’s The Road Not Taken, the poet, by i mplication, was referring to _______.A. a travel experienceB. a marriage decisionC. a middle-age crisisD. one’s course of life16. The Transcendentalists believe that, first, nature is ennobling, and second, the individual is _______.A. insignificantB. vicious by natureC. divineD. forward-looking17. Which of the following is not a work of Nathaniel Hawthorne’s?A. The House of the Seven Gables.B. The Blithedale Romance.C. The Marble Falun.D. White Jacket.18. _________is often acclaimed literary spokesman of the Jazz Age.A. Carl SandburgB. Edwin Arlington RobinsonC. William FaulknerD. F. Scott Fitzgerald19. In Hawthorne’s novels and short stories, intellectuals usually appear as _______.A. commentatorsB. observersC. villainsD. saviors20. Besides sketches, tales and essays, Washington Irving also published a book on ______, which is also considered an important part of his creative writing.A. poetic theoryB. French artC. history of New YorkD. life of George Washington21. In Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby, there are detailed descriptions of big parties. The purpose of such descriptions is to show _______.A. emptiness of lifeB. the corruption of the upper classC. contrast of the rich and the poorD. the happy days of the Jazz Age22. In American literature, escaping from the society and returning to nature is a common subject. The following titles are all related, in one way or another, to the subject except _______.A. Mark Twain’s The Adventures of Huckleberry FinnB. Dreiser’s Sister CarrieC. Copper’s Leather-Stocking TalesD. Thoreau’s Walden23. Which of the following novels can be regarded as typically belonging to the school of literary modernism?A. The Sound and the FuryB. Uncle To m’s Cabin.C. Daisy Miller.D. The Gilded Age.24. Emily Dickinson wrote many short poems on various aspects of life. Which of the following is not a usual subject of her poetic expression?A. Religion.B. Life and death.C. Love and marriage.D. War and peace.25. Most recognizable literary movement that gave rise to the twentieth-century American literature, or we may say, the second American Renaissance, is the _______ movement.A. transcendentalB. leftistC. expatriateD. expressionistic26. As an autobiographical play, O'Neill's _______ （1956）has gained its status as a world classic and simultaneously marks the climax of his literary career and the coming of age of American drama.A. The Iceman ComethB. Long Day's Journey Into NightC. The Hairy ApeD. Desire Under the Elms27. Apart from the dislocation （错位）of time and the modern stream-of-consciousness, the other narrative techniques Faulkner used to construct his stories include _______ , symbolism and mythological and biblical allusions.A. impressionismB. expressionismC. multiple points of viewD. first person point of view28. Stylistically, Henry James' fiction is characterized by _______ .A. short, clear sentencesB. abundance of local imagesC. ordinary American speechD. highly refined language29. Robert Frost combined traditional verse forms with a plain speech of _______ farmers .A. SouthernB. WesternC. New HampshireD. New England30. Henry David Thoreau's work, ________has always been regarded as a masterpiece of New England Transcendentalism.A. WaldenB. The pioneersC. NatureD. Song of Myself31. The famous 20-years sleep in “Rip Van Winkle” helps to construct the story in such a way that we are greatly affected by Irving's ___.A. concern with the passage of timeB. expression of transient (短暂的）beautyC. satire on laziness and corruptibility of human beingsD. idea about supernatural manipulation of man's life32.Walt Whitman was a pioneering figure of American poetry. His innovation first of all lies in his use of __, poetry without a fixed beat or regular rhyme scheme.A. blank verseB. heroic coupletC. free verseD. iambic pentameter33. In Moby-Dick, the white whale symbolizes _______ for Melville, for it is complex, unfathomable, malignant, and beautiful as well.A. natureB. human societyC. whaling industryD. truth34. Hester, Dimmsdale, Chillingworth and Pearl are most likely the names of the characters in ___.A. The Scarlet LetterB. The House of the Seven GablesC. The Portrait of a LadyD. The pioneers35. With Howells, James, and Mark Twain active on the literary scene, _______ became the major trend in American literature in the seventies and eighties of the 19thcentury.A. sentimentalismB. romanticismC. realismD. naturalism36. After The adventures of Tom Sawyer, Twain gives a literary independence to Tom's buddy Huck in a book entitled ___.A. Life on the MississippiB. The Gilded AgeC. The Adventures of Huckleberry FinnD. A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court37. Generally speaking, all those writers with a naturalistic approach to human reality tend to be _____.A. transcendentalistsB. idealistsC. pessimistsD. impressionists38.In the last chapter of Sister Carrie, there is a description about Hurstwood, one of the protagonists of the novel, “Now he began leisurely to take off his clothes, but stopped first with his coat, and tucked it along the crack under the door. His vest he arranged in the same place.” Why did he do this? Because ________.A. he wanted to commit suicideB. he wanted to keep the room warmC. he didn’t want to be found by othersD. he wanted to enjoy the peace of mind39.The Romantic writers would focus on all the following issues EXCEPT the ___ in the American literary history.A .individual feelingsB. idea of survival of the fittestC. strong imaginationD. return to nature40. Chinese poetry and philosophy have exerted great influence over ____.A. Ezra PoundB. Ralph Waldo EmersonC. Robert FrostD. Emily Dickinson41. The Hemingway Code heroes（硬汉形象）are best remembered for their __.A. indestructible spiritB. pessimistic view of lifeC. war experiencesD. masculinity (男性，男子气）42. IN The Emperor Jones and The Hairy Ape, O'Neill adopted the expressionist techniques to portray the _____ of human beings in a hostile universe.A. helpless situationB. uncertaintyC. profound religious faithD. courage and perseverance43. The high tide of Romanticism in American literature occurred around .[A]1820[B]1850[C]1880[D]192044.The subj ect matter of Robert Frost’s Poems focuses on .[A] ordinary country people and scenes[B]battle scenes of ancient Greek and Roman legends[C]struggling masses and crowded urban quarters[D]fantasies and mythical happenings45.Which group of writers are among those who may be called early pioneers of American literature?[A]Mark Twain and Henry James.[B]Fenimore Cooper and Washington lrving.[C]Ernest Hemingway and William Faulkner[D]Jack London and O’Henry.46.To Theodore Dreiser, life is “so sad, so strange, so mysterious and so inexplicable.” No wonder the characters in his books are often subject to the control of the natural forces, especially those of _____and heredity.[A]fate[B]morality[C]social conventions[D]environment47.Hawthorne generally concerns himself with such issues as in his fiction.[A]the evil in man’s heart[B]the material pursuit[C]the racial conflict[D]the social inequality48._______ provides the main source of influence on American naturalism.[A]The puritan heritage[B]Howells’ ideas of realism[C]Darwin’s theory of evolution[D]The pioneer spirit of the wild west49.In Mark Twain’s The Adventures of huckleberry Finn, Huck writes a letter to inform against Jim, the escaped slave, and then he tears the letter up. This fact reveals that______ .[A]Huck has a mixed feeling of love and hate[B]there is a conflict between society and conscience in Huck[C]Huck is always an indecisive person[D]Huck has very little education50.Which terms can best describe the modernists’ concern of the human situation in their fiction?[A]Fragmentation （崩溃）and alienation.[B]Courage and honor.[C]Tradition and faith.[D]Poverty and desperation.51.Whitman’s poems are characterized by all the following features except .[A]a strict poetic form[B]a simple and conversational language[C]a free and natural rhythmic pattern[D]an easy flow of feelings52.All his novels reveal that, as time went on, Mark Twain became increasingly ____.[A]prolific (多产的）[B]artistic.[C]optimistic[D]pessimistic53.Which of the following is NOT a typical feature of Henry James’s writing style?[A] exquisite and elaborate language[B]minute and detailed descriptions[C]lengthy psychological analyses[D]American colloquialism54.In the beginning paragraph of Chapter 3, The Great Gatsby, Fitzgerald describes a big party by saying that “men and girls came and went like moths.” The author most likely indicates that______ .[A]there was a crowd of party-goers[B]such life does not have real meaning[C]these people were light-hearted[D]these were crazy and ignorant characters55.Which one of the following statements is NOT true of William Faulkner?[A]He is master of stream-of-consciousness narrative.[B]His writing is often complex and difficult to understand.[C]He often depicts slum life in New York and Chicago.[D]He represents a new group of Southern writers.56._________is generally regarded as the forerunner of the 20th century “stream-of-consciousness” novels and the founder of psychological realism.A. Theodore DreiserB. William FaulknerC. Henry JamesD. Mark Twain57.By the end of Sister Carrie, Dreiser writes, “It was forever to the pursuit of that radiance of delight which tints the distant hilltops of the world.” Dreiser implies that_____ .[A]there is a bright future lying ahead[B]there is no end to man’s desire[C]one should always be forward-looking[D]happiness is found in the end58. At the beginning of Faulkner’s A Rose For Emily, there is a detailed description of Emily’s old house. The purpose of such description is to imply that the person living in it ______.A. is a wealth ladyB. has good tasteC. is a prisoner of the pastD. is a conservative aristocrat59. ________ is often acclaimed literary spokesman of the Jazz Age.A. Carl SandburgB. Edwin Arlington RobinsonC. William FaulknerD. F. Scott Fitzgerald60.The theme of Washington Irving’s Rip Van Winkle is（）.A. the conflict of human psycheB. the fight against racial discriminationC. the familial conflictD. the nostalgia（怀旧之情）for the unrecoverable past61.Hemingway once described Mark Twain’s novel ______ the one book from which “all modern American literature comes.”A. The Adventures of Huckleberry FinnB. The Adventures of Tom SawyerC. The Gilded AgeD. The Man That Corrupted Hadleyburg。
根据句子学英语(十七)
The operation cannot wait.
伤口慢慢愈合了.
The wound was healing slowly.
他厌倦了享乐。
He was satiated with pleasure.
室内一片漆黑.
The room was in complete darkness.
这水不宜饮用。
He prides himself on his handwriting.
她坐着凝视着窗外。
She sat gazing out of the window.
我们最终达成了协议。
Finally we reached an agreement.
她向往她逝去的青春。
She sighed for her lost youth.
她希望与家人团聚。
She hopes reuniting with her family.
深奥的形而上学理论
A deep metaphysical theory.
他们彼此极不和.
They don't get on at all well together/with one another.
我决不会故意得罪他.
我们今年有很大亏损。
We have a great deficit this year.
这辆汽车操纵灵敏.
The car responds well to the controls.
他同意我有权上诉.
He allowed that I had the right to appeal.
他以他的书法为自豪。
他宣称蔑视钱财。
He claims to despise riches.
Larmore：public reason
charles larmore10Public Reason1For John Rawls,public reason is not one political value among others. It envelops all the different elements that make up the ideal of a constitutional democracy,for it governs“the political relation”in which we ought to stand to one another as citizens(CP,p.574). Public reason involves more than just the idea that the principles of political association should be an object of public knowledge.Its concern is the very basis of our collectively binding decisions.We honor public reason when we bring our own reason into accord with the reason of others,espousing a common point of view for settling the terms of our political life.The conception of justice by which we live is then a conception we endorse,not for the different reasons we may each discover,and not simply for reasons we happen to share, but instead for reasons that count for us because we can affirm them together.This spirit of reciprocity is the foundation of a democratic society.Public reason has emerged as an explicit theme in Rawls’s writings only after A Theory of Justice with his turn to“political liberalism”and the pursuit of a common ground on which people can stand de-spite their deep ethical and religious differences.But the concept itself has always been at the heart of his philosophy.It runs through his first book in the guise of the idea of publicity,playing an in-dispensable part in the theory of justice as fairness.The notion of fairness itself,so central to Rawls’s thought,denotes that mutual acknowledgement of principles which public reason demands and which forms the real import of the language of social contract he has used to articulate his conception of justice.Rawls’s recent writings about public reason outline a complex model of deliberative democracy,as it is called today,2and I examine 368Public Reason369 his account in detail in Sections III and IV.But I begin by unearthing its roots in his earlier idea of publicity and by showing how funda-mental is the dimension of Rawls’s philosophy to which the idea of public reason gives expression.I.publicity in a theory of justiceReaders of A Theory of Justice ought to wonder more than they do about the contractarian form in which Rawls presents his theory of justice as fairness.Even in the introductory chapter of the book,he does little to explain the need to think about justice in terms of a contract.His notion of an“original position”is meant,like“the state of nature”in the social contract tradition,to describe a situa-tion in which free and rational beings determine the principles that will regulate their subsequent conduct.Yet as Rawls admits(more forthrightly than earlier contract theorists),this initial situation has never existed and never will.The“original position”is a condition in which we imagine choosing principles of justice,not one in which as real people we ever find ourselves.Something needs to be said, therefore,about the reasons to think of principles of justice as the result of an agreement that in fact we never make.In one passage,Rawls remarks that to understand fair principles of justice as the object of agreement among free and rational persons entails seeing that“the theory of justice is a part,perhaps the most significant part,of the theory of rational choice”(TJ,p.16/15rev.). This formulation wrongly suggests that fairness derives from the rational pursuit of individual advantage,when in reality it forms an irreducibly moral notion.Of course,the Rawls of A Theory of Justice would scarcely have denied this point.Though the parties in the original position are described as deliberating in accord with the principles of rational choice,the conditions he imposes upon their choice(the“veil of ignorance”that denies them knowledge of their class position,assets,and abilities)constitute moral limits on the sorts of information it would be fair for them to ter Rawls will introduce a distinction between two capacities of reason,the “rational”and the“reasonable,”to differentiate these two elements of the original position,and he will disclaim any attempt to derive the reasonable,or the disposition to seek fair terms of cooperation, from the rational(PL,pp.48–53).Still,our question remains,What370charles larmoreuseful purpose is served by the idea of an original contract,morally defined though it is,if it refers to an agreement which is never really made?One might suppose that the structure of Rawls’s theory would have been clearer had he not made use of this idea.In an insightful review of A Theory of Justice,Ronald Dworkin noted that a hypo-thetical contract,being strictly speaking no contract at all,can have no binding force on the people supposedly subject to it.It is also an idle notion.To claim that certain principles are valid because they would be the object of rational agreement is a roundabout way,he argued,of saying that they are valid because there is reason to accept what they assert.The two principles of justice favored by Rawls have their real basis in the fundamental right to equal concern and respect which they express.3Dworkin’s skepticism about contractarian terminology has my sympathy,and I agree that a principle of respect for persons under-girds Rawls’s theory of justice.But though the idea of an original contract is,as Rawls will later say,just a“device of representation”(PL,p.24),we need to attend to all the aspects of justice which it serves to represent.In fact,conceiving of the principles of justice as the object of a rational agreement comes to more than saying that each individual concerned has reason to accept them.The language of contract also points to the good in each individual’s finding that reason in the reason that others have to accept them as well.This good lies at the core of the ideal which Rawls calls“publicity,”and a virtue of the idea of contract,as he observes(TJ,p.16/15rev.),is that it gives expression to this ideal.The point is that just as the validity of a contract does not turn solely on the terms agreed to,but also on the fact of agreement,so justice consists in more than the proper distribution of rights and assets.Principles of justice should also be public,each of us affirm-ing them in light of the fact that others affirm them too.More is necessary(we may say to fix terms)than just a scheme of distribu-tive justice,even one that each of us has reason to endorse.Equally important is the publicity of its defining principles–that our reason for accepting them turns on others having reason to accept them too. When a conception of justice enjoys this kind of common support,it figures in our thinking,as Rawls says a public conception will do(TJ, pp.55f./48rev.,133/115rev.),exactly as though it had been the resultPublic Reason371 of an agreement.Even though no formal act of agreement is needed for us to base our reasons on those of others,a“just so”story about a hypothetical contract helps to highlight this public dimension of justice.The contractarian metaphor has the merit of combining in a single image two essential conditions which the principles of justice should satisfy–their justifiability to reason and their publicity.To-gether these two conditions define Rawls’s ideal of a“well-ordered”society,which not only advances the good of its members but does so in accord with a public conception of justice.It is“a society in which(1)everyone accepts and knows that the others accept the same principles of justice,and(2)the basic social institutions gener-ally satisfy and are generally known to satisfy these principles”(TJ, p.5/4rev.).Justice would not be all that it should be without this shared affirmation.It is therefore unfortunate that Rawls does not adequately explain why publicity represents so preeminent a value.In A Theory of Jus-tice,the“publicity condition”generally enters the discussion from the side,as though merely a further desideratum that principles of justice should possess.It receives no extended treatment of its own. One can easily overlook how central it is to Rawls’s very idea of jus-tice,and the contractarian terminology can then appear as otiose as Dworkin claims.Regrettably,too,Rawls’s statements about public-ity in this book generally equate it with public knowledge,as though it entailed only that citizens know the operative principles of jus-tice and one another’s reasons for accepting them.The work he ex-pects from it shows,however,that he has something more ambitious in mind.Publicity really amounts to the demand that the reasons each person has to endorse the principles be reasons the person sees others to have to endorse them as well.It requires that the principles of justice be grounded in a shared point of view.Publicity’s true import becomes evident if we follow the role the concept plays in A Theory of Justice.It shapes the ideal of a well-ordered society,as we have seen.But it also acts as a crucial premise in the“stability argument”for the two principles of justice,and to that I now turn.Rawls begins by rejecting those“indirect”forms of utilitarianism that favor maximizing the general happiness by means of encouraging people to act on nonutilitarian principles.Such a sys-tem of justice would fail even to be an object of public knowledge(TJ, p.181/158rev.).However,he next invokes publicity in a deeper sense372charles larmoreas he argues that utility,understood as the explicit charter of soci-ety,would prove unstable since it would place too great a strain on individual self-esteem(TJ,Sec.29,69–77).Other things being equal, a conception of justice is better,he holds,the stabler it is,generating its own support so as to outweigh contrary motives.Citizens living under the institutional arrangements it recommends should tend to acquire a commitment to its principles.Stability obtains“when the public recognition of its realization by the social system tends to bring about the corresponding sense of justice”(TJ,pp.177/154rev.; also454/398rev.).The maximization of average utility is thus un-likely to generate its own support since it accords poorly with the facts of moral psychology.Its overriding devotion to efficiency will not inspire the allegiance of those whom it asks to give up their life prospects for the greater good of the whole.Only by calling upon improbable reservoirs of sympathetic identification can utilitarians hope that such a system of justice will endure.By contrast,Rawls argues,his own liberty principle secures the fundamental inviola-bility of each individual,and his difference principle ensures that everyone benefits from social cooperation.These two principles de-fine a system of justice whose operation is more likely to engage the support of all,even of those who fare worst.Unlike utilitarianism, they exemplify the idea of“reciprocity”(TJ,p.14/13rev.),an idea rather undeveloped in A Theory of Justice but lying at the center of Political Liberalism and its doctrine of public reason.Now this stability argument relies on the inner meaning of pub-licity,though to see it we must look at the argument somewhat differently than Rawls does himself.One might suppose that it re-quires principles of justice to be public simply so that everyone may know that they are in force and see what their institutions stand for.However,more must be involved.For stability is said to obtain when the“public recognition of[their]realization”,thus the knowl-edge that others too affirm these principles,fosters everyone’s con-viction that they are valid and worthy of support.Yet Rawls does not fully explain why people might be moved to espouse certain princi-ples because others espouse them as well.Indeed,he presents this argument in terms of the good which each person will discern in the liberty and difference principles from his own point of view–their guarantee of individual inviolability and their assurance that all will benefit from social cooperation(TJ,pp.177ff./154ff.rev.).ButPublic Reason373 the stability argument has to be different in character.It must show that each person can find reason to embrace these principles in the fact that others embrace them too.It should therefore indicate the good that the public affirmation of the principles may embody. Halfway through his account of the argument,Rawls takes up a line of thought that suggests what that good is.“The public recog-nition of the two principles,”he writes(TJ,p.178/155rev.),“gives greater support to men’s self-respect and this in turn increases the effectiveness of social cooperation.”Respect is indeed the good in question.But note that Rawls’s statement asserts not so much that the principles express respect as that their public recognition does so. Thus,the self-respect each person finds confirmed in them has to be part of a mutual respect which their common affirmation displays. Though Rawls is not as clear on this matter as one might wish,his discussion of“the natural duty of respect”here and later in the book entails that the good of mutual respect lies in there being a shared basis for the determination of principles of justice.We respect others as ends in themselves,he holds,when in regard to their claims and interests we act on reasons that we are prepared to explain to them in the light of mutually acceptable principles(TJ,pp.179/156rev., 337–8/297rev.).We try to see things as they do,taking our bearings from a point of view that we can all endorse together.Respect for persons implies allegiance to principles that we affirm in the light of others having a reason,indeed the same reason,to affirm them too. Naturally,respect can mean many things,but in the sense just mentioned it makes up the true nature of the publicity condition. When citizens adopt certain principles of justice for reasons they un-derstand one another to acknowledge,their joint endorsement of the principles amounts to showing one another respect.Their grounds for embracing them do not lie solely in their own,but in a shared point of view.The mutual respect demonstrated by their allegiance to this common basis is then a good which they can regard them-selves as having achieved,and that is why the scheme of justice gains in stability.Their society illustrates Rawls’s claim that“a desirable feature of a conception of justice is that it should publicly express men’s respect for one another”(TJ,p.179/156rev.).What the pub-licity requirement really comes to,therefore,is that each person’s adherence to the principles of justice should turn on reasons that he understands others to have to affirm them as well.This point374charles larmoreremains largely implicit in A Theory of Justice,but in several essays published shortly afterwards Rawls spells it out in full detail(see Section II).Once its full meaning is laid bare,we can better understand why Rawls should attach so great a value to the ideal of publicity.Only principles of justice which citizens affirm on a common basis are ones by which they can show one another respect as persons.The idea that political community should rest on this sort of mutual respect belongs to the heart of Rawls’s philosophy.It underlies one of the most telling ways he has of contrasting his view of justice as fairness with utilitarian conceptions(TJ,pp.23–7/20–24rev.,187–190/163–6rev.).“Utilitarianism,”he observes,“does not take seriously the distinction between persons.”It proposes that we adopt for society as a whole a form of practical reasoning appropriate for the single individual:just as the prudent person evaluates his possibilities with an eye to achieving the most good overall,accepting some losses for a greater gain,so a just society regards persons as different lines for an allocation of benefits and burdens that will maximize the net balance of satisfaction as judged by a sympathetic observer.To heed the separateness of persons,by contrast,is to seek principles which they can freely acknowledge before one another–principles,that is, which each can see that others have the same reasons to endorse as he.This mutual acknowledgment of principles is the very essence of what Rawls means by fairness as a conception of justice,though he brought it out better in his earlier and foundational essay“Justice as Fairness”(1958)than in the book,which cloaks it in the language of an original contract.4The idea of fairness explains the value of publicity and embodies what Rawls himself calls the natural duty of respect.One reason for his reluctance to present his theory in these terms may well be the many different meanings“respect”can have.At the end of A Theory of Justice(TJ,pp.585–6/513rev.),he declares that he has not derived the principles of justice from respect for persons because the very notion of respect calls for interpretation,which only a conception of justice can provide.The hermeneutic point is well taken.But it does not rule out the possibility that respect,in a specific sense we grasp perhaps only in the light of his theory as a whole,is a value on which that theory rests.And so,as Rawls goes on to admit,respect for persons plays two roles in his conception ofPublic Reason375 justice.It shapes the two principles themselves with their emphasis on the inviolability of the individual–the role which Dworkin was concerned to lay bare.It also figures in the demand that persons be treated“in ways that they can see to be justified”(id.).That is the role of respect underlying the ideal of publicity.II.from publicity to public reasonIn several essays published after A Theory of Justice,the notion of publicity receives more systematic attention,and not by accident. Its greater prominence reflects the new direction in Rawls’s thinking that leads to Political Liberalism.In the course of this transformation the ideal of publicity grows into his doctrine of“public reason.”For instance,Rawls acknowledges more clearly that the impor-tance of publicity in a well-ordered society is not simply a matter of its principles of justice being known to all.They should also be prin-ciples that citizens affirm on the basis of a shared rationale.Such is the intent of the distinction introduced in his Dewey Lectures(1980) (CP,pp.324–6)and contemporaneous writings(CP,p.293)between three“degrees”or“levels”of publicity.5A conception of justice satisfies the“full”publicity condition when its acceptance is not only an object of public knowledge,and not only based upon beliefs to which everyone can assent,but also thereby justified in a man-ner which all can embrace.In A Theory of Justice,Rawls generally used the term“publicity”in a sense equivalent to the first of these levels,the other two being tacitly at work in the way the stability argument capitalizes upon public knowledge of the operative con-ception of justice.Now the virtue which principles of justice have in being affirmable from a common point of view is made part of the very idea of publicity.Principles public in this strong sense should be our goal,he argues(CP,p.325)because a well-ordered society rests upon fair terms of cooperation to which free and equal persons could agree.Thus,also for the first time,Rawls connects publicity directly (and not just via the metaphor of contract)to the ideal of fairness so that its centrality to his conception of justice comes through more perspicuously than before.Rawls offers a further argument for the full publicity condition (CP,pp.325–6).Principles of justice should draw on common ground because they apply to institutions having a deep and durable effect376charles larmoreon people’s lives–not least through the machinery of legal coercion. This transparency in which people can acknowledge before one an-other the basis of their common life is“a precondition of freedom.”Plainly Rawls must mean political freedom or self-rule,where the use of force is involved.For moral principles outside the domain of justice need not,he adds,be public in this strong sense,though their effects on adherents and others alike can be equally profound. Why does Rawls thus limit the scope of the publicity condition?One tacit reason is that coercion differs so significantly from other forms of social influence(namely by its irresistibility)that it ought to be grounded in consensus.Elucidating this moral assumption would require developing the implicit idea of respect,of what it is to treat others as ends in themselves,and this Rawls has never been inclined to do(at least in his political philosophy).But another reason for the limitation is presented explicitly in the Dewey Lectures(CP,p.326).Moral notions distinct from the prin-ciples of justice often belong to religious,philosophical,or ethical doctrines on which people in modern societies are unlikely to agree, even as they can find a shared basis for settling questions of politi-cal justice.Publicity aims at a freedom of self-determination which citizens can exercise together despite their abiding disagreements. To enjoy this identity-in-difference,they must observe therefore a certain self-discipline,bringing to their deliberations about issues of justice only those convictions which can form part of a common point of view.“In public questions,”Rawls writes,“ways of rea-soning and rules of evidence for reaching true general beliefs that help settle whether institutions are just should be of a kind that ev-eryone can recognize”(CP,p.326).Here is a first statement of the theory of public reason formulated in response to the doctrinal diver-sity which will be the chief preoccupation of his emerging political liberalism.In the transitional essays of the1980’s,Rawls often describes this public form of reasoning in terms of a distinction between justifi-cation and proof.6Justification is not merely“valid argument from listed premises.”Instead,it“is addressed to others who disagree with us,and therefore it must always proceed from some consensus,that is,from premises that we and others publicly recognize as true”(CP, p.394;also pp.426–7).The contrast is overdrawn,for justification can take many forms,depending on the purpose at hand;sometimesPublic Reason377 it only consists in showing people how our assertion follows from our own beliefs.But the point Rawls has in mind is obvious.In a well-ordered society,citizens do not determine basic matters of justice by announcing to one another the conclusions they each have derived from their own first principles and then resorting to some further mechanism,such as bargaining or majority voting,to resolve the conflicts.They reason from what they understand to be a common point of view;their aim is to adjudicate disagreements by argument. As we have seen,a public life founded on mutually acknowledged principles is what fairness entails.This idea of consensus underlies the different notion of an“over-lapping consensus,”which makes its appearance in his writings of this period.7Principles of justice,he argues,ought to be the object of an overlapping consensus among citizens otherwise divided by their comprehensive ethical,religious,and philosophical doctrines. Rawls’s point has often been misunderstood.Many have supposed that he means to abandon the claim that his theory of justice is true or correct.If the nature of justice is to be defined by reference to what a society’s members happen to agree upon,how can there be any room to argue that current opinion is wrong?And why should we believe that in these matters there is much of substance that people agree upon at all?However,our earlier discussion of public-ity explains why these worries are ill-conceived.The basic sense in which principles of justice ought to be the object of consensus is that each person should have both sound and identical reasons to embrace them,for only then does their publicity give expression to mutual respect.Consensus so understood is therefore hardly iden-tical to the extent of agreement about justice that actually obtains in a society.Yet an important question is whether this shared per-spective,rooted as it must be in reasons which citizens can acknowl-edge only by abstracting from their divergent visions of the human good,nonetheless coheres with the comprehensive conceptions to which they are attached.Only if the consensus shaping their pub-lic reasoning about justice also forms an overlapping consensus,a common element in their otherwise different points of view,is the structure of their political life likely to endure.The notion of over-lapping consensus serves therefore to connect a conception of justice already arrived at,and already marked by a more fundamental kind of consensus,to the question of its stability.Rawls himself speaks in this regard of two“stages”in his theory of justice as fairness(PL,pp.64,140ff.).In the first stage the theory aims to describe fair terms of cooperation among citizens,while in the second it considers whether such principles can prove stable. The notion of overlapping consensus comes into play only at this subsequent stage.Clearly principles of justice are not being fixed by appeal to the common denominator of existing opinion.At the same time we should not overlook the idea of consensus that does figure in the initial determination of these principles.Publicity requires that they draw on reasons which all can acknowledge.As Rawls observes(PL,p.64),public reason is a value which the first stage of his argument seeks to respect.Overlapping consensus became a central notion for Rawls in the 1980s as he realized how much broader is the range of moral out-looks congruent with a commitment to justice as fairness than he had assumed.He became far more alert than before to the fact that in their comprehensive philosophical and religious conceptions of the human good,people have a natural tendency to diverge,not be-cause of prejudice or inadvertence,but because of what he called “the burdens of reason”(CP,pp.475–8)or later“the burdens of judgment”(PL,pp.54–8).The complexity of the evidence,the ne-cessity of weighing together different sorts of considerations,the need for judgment in applying key evaluative concepts,the variety of life experiences in modern society–all these factors conspire to make agreement about the nature of the good life improbable.To be sure,some comprehensive ideals deny the importance of fair terms of social cooperation,and their adherents cannot be expected to en-dorse Rawls’s two principles of justice.But there remain a great many different ethical and religious ideals which share a commitment to fairness.Their proliferation Rawls calls“reasonable pluralism”(PL, pp.36,63f.),since by reasonableness he means,as I have noted,pre-cisely such a commitment.8Reasonable pluralism is the condition we should expect to thrive under free institutions,where in the ab-sence of state power enforcing any particular doctrine the burdens of judgment drive people’s thinking in different directions.The princi-ples of justice which citizens embrace from a sense of fairness can therefore prove stable only if they cohere with the various elements of this diversity.A Theory of Justice did not itself approach the problem of sta-bility in this pluralist spirit.Part III of that book laid out a single ethical conception based on regarding an individual’s good as the ob-ject of a rational plan of life,in the light of which the citizens of a well-ordered society would be moved to act justly.Moreover,this conception,often in so many words but sometimes explicitly(TJ, p.572/501rev.),displayed the hallmarks of the Kantian ideal of in-dividual autonomy,according to which all our principles of conduct (not just those of justice)should be ones that free and equal rational beings would choose under the ideal conditions of an original posi-tion.Such a strategy embodied too narrow a view of the possibilities. Indeed,the multiplication of reasonable views of the human good is something which a modern constitutional democracy is bound to encourage,and thus Rawls’s initial solution of the stability prob-lem is caught in an internal contradiction.The way out,he came to see,lies in recognizing that in a free society many disparate compre-hensive views of life can still overlap in a public understanding of justice.It was by taking to heart the fact of reasonable pluralism and seeing the error in his earlier solution to the stability problem that Rawls went on to develop his new theory of“political liberalism”(PL, p.xlii).In the classical liberalisms of Kant and Mill,the account of justice had been presented as part of an all-encompassing moral philosophy,and A Theory of Justice followed their lead.Yet in fact neither the moral ideal of individual autonomy nor an experimen-tal attitude toward life is an essential ingredient in the rationale for his conception of justice as fairness.What is necessary,Rawls an-nounces in the first essay marking this turn in his thought,is“to apply the principle of toleration to philosophy itself.”9Justice as fair-ness,along with the reasons making up the public understanding of its basis,should be regarded as a“freestanding”conception,which people who see a greater value in tradition and belonging than the Kantian and Millian philosophies allow can still embrace. Political liberalism is not“political”in the sense that,forsaking principled argument,it reduces justice to a compromise among given interests or to the common denominator of existing opinion(CP,p. 491).That should now be plain.But it does seek principles of politi-cal association which citizens have reason to affirm together despite。
卡夫卡审判英文介绍
卡夫卡审判英文介绍Franz Kafka's "The Trial" is a profound exploration of the absurdities and horrors of bureaucracy and its impact on human life. First published in 1925, the novel tells the story of Josef K., a respectable bank clerk who is arrested one morning for an unspecified crime and thrown into a Kafkaesque world of legal confusion and bureaucratic insanity.The Trial is set in a vaguely defined city, where the law is arbitrary and the court system is a labyrinthine maze of bureaucracy and confusion. Josef K. is arrested without any clear explanation and thrown into a world where the distinction between innocence and guilt is blurred. The court system is not a place of justice but a machine for the perpetuation of power and the exercise of arbitrary authority. Josef K. finds himself caught in a vicious cycle of legal proceedings that lead nowhere, with each proceeding merely serving to justify his continued imprisonment.The novel is a powerful indictment of bureaucracy andits corrosive effect on human life. Kafka captures the numbing effect of bureaucracy on the individual, the way it robs people of their agency and turns them into pawns in a system that cares nothing for their well-being. Josef K. is a victim of this system, a man who is treated as less than human by the authorities and denied any meaningful contact with the outside world. His imprisonment becomes a living hell, a nightmarish existence that slowly destroys his sanity.Kafka's writing style is unique and powerful, employing a mix of dreamlike imagery and nightmarish scenarios to create a sense of disorientation and confusion. The language is often dense and opaque, reflecting the opacity and confusion of the court system and the world it inhabits. The Trial is a difficult book to read, but it is also a profoundly important work that demands to be read and understood.The Trial is not just a critique of bureaucracy,however. It is also a profound exploration of human nature and the way we deal with the absurdities and horrors of the world. Josef K. is a man who tries to make sense of his situation, to find a way to escape the clutches of thecourt system and regain his freedom. He seeks help from various people, from his landlady to his lawyer, but hefinds that everyone is either complicit in the system or powerless to help him. This isolation and helplessness is a profound commentary on the human condition, the way we are often left to fend for ourselves in a world that is often indifferent or hostile to our needs.The Trial is also a profoundly pessimistic work. Kafka saw the world he inhabited as a place of increasing chaos and confusion, and he saw no way out of this situation. The novel ends with Josef K. being taken to his execution, and the reader is left with a sense of hopelessness and despair. This pessimism is part of what makes the novel so powerful, however. It forces us to confront the ugly truth about the world we live in, the way that bureaucracy and power can corrupt and destroy even the best of us.In conclusion, Franz Kafka's "The Trial" is a profound and important work that deserves to be read and studied by all. It is a powerful indictment of bureaucracy and its corrosive effect on human life, and it is also a profound exploration of human nature and the way we deal with the absurdities and horrors of the world. The novel's unique writing style and powerful imagery create a sense of disorientation and confusion that is both disturbing and compelling, and its pessimistic vision of the world is both bleak and profoundly important. "The Trial" is a book that challenges our understanding of the world and forces us to think deeply about the nature of bureaucracy, power, and human life.。
专四阅读理解讽刺文章幽默语气
专四阅读理解讽刺文章幽默语气Leaders Who Use Humour and Charm to Reach the TopHumour and charm are a surprisingly powerful combination as a means of ascent in life.I have met a number of entrepreneurs who have built fortunes on the back of their wit and general popularity -and not much else. They disarm us with self-deprecation, we enjoy their company-so why wouldn't we want to do business with them? Of course, it all has to be done well; sycophancy and flat jokes do not weave the same spell.The British feel that some light relief amid the drudgery is essential for existence to be tolerable. It seems to be a cornerstone of our psychology and culture. In London, to say someone has no sense of humour is to condemn them utterly. Many important meetings I attend start with a little friendly banter to break the ice, a ritual to remind us that we are all human-rather than simply robots of commerce.I am sure foreigners must think our levity is baffling. My defence is that Brits subscribe to Horace's view: "A jest often decides matters of importance more effectively and happily than seriousness."Some years ago, a partner of mine practised what I called "management by laughter". He motivated and inspired by making the atmosphere at work fun, rather than the bullying and intimidation common in many workplaces.But the 21st-century office can be a minefield for the amateur who enjoys a giggle. I was recently warned about a trap being sprung by a professional gang from eastern Europe. They plant an attractive female staff member in an organisation. At roughly the same time, a male co-conspirator also gets a job; the connection between them is unknown to the employer. After a little while, he sends a series of highly suggestive internet jokes to the pretty female. She complains of harassment and threatens to bring an embarrassing employment tribunal involving sexual discrimination-and, once she reveals that shehas hired expert legal advisers and PR agents, the victim business settles quickly.In these litigious, politically correct times, the perils of making cheap gags can be considerable. Recently, I attended a dinner at a trade conference. The speaker was a well-known executive who told a number of jokes in poor taste, some at the expense of influential figures in the room. Just as a vulgar best man's speech at a wedding can strike the wrong note, so I sensed as we chatted after the speech that the jibes would not be swiftly forgotten.Some one once said: "Brains, integrity and force may be all very well, but what you need today is charm." This is the age of celebrity, even in the boardroom, and none of us is impervious to the presence of those legendary characters when they switch on the full blast of their glittering personality. Perhaps it is their reputation, perhaps their smile, perhaps their brilliance with words-or possibly their rapt attention.I am often struck how often young children utter the phrase "Look at me!" They want appreciation, and fundamentally not much changes, even when we are 50. Genuine approval from the boss can taste better than anything-even a pay rise.Are charm and a sense of humour acquired traits? They certainly improve with effort and practice. Ronald Reagan used his years in showbiz to hone his performance skills before succeeding in politics.I have sat with stand-up comics before they go on stage. The most brilliant appear almost nonchalant, rather than rehearsed or anxious, and their acts are mostly learnt word-perfect yet appear spontaneous.So it is with outstanding business leaders who persuade their teams to laugh and try harder: they apply themselves assiduously to the task. Most world-class chief executives possess charisma-really a captivating blend of charm and wit. And, believe me, they graft at it far more than they admit.。
了不起的盖茨比第四章英语单词知乎
了不起的盖茨比第四章英语单词知乎全文共3篇示例，供读者参考篇1The Dazzling Words of West Egg: A Student's Guide to Chapter 4 VocabularyHey there, fellow bookworms! As a self-proclaimed word nerd, I can't help but geek out over the intricate language used in literary masterpieces like The Great Gatsby. And let me tell you, Chapter 4 is an absolute feast for the senses, with its lush descriptions and evocative vocabulary that transport us straight into the heart of West Egg's glittering world.Let's kick things off with a word that perfectly encapsulates the opulent lifestyle of our enigmatic protagonist: "supercilious." When Nick describes Tom's "supercilious" manner, he's painting a vivid picture of his arrogant, condescending attitude – the kind of superiority complex that comes with being a part of the old money elite. It's a deliciously snobbish word that just rolls off the tongue.Speaking of tongue-twisters, how about "obsequious"? This gem of a word is used to depict the overly attentive andflattering behavior of the party guests towards Gatsby. Can't you just envision a swarm of sycophants fawning over the mysterious millionaire, their obsequious smiles and fawning gazes masking their true intentions? It's a word that perfectly captures the insincerity and social climbing rampant in this crowd.But amidst all the superficial grandeur, there's an undercurrent of something more sinister lurking beneath the surface. Enter "censorious," a word that aptly describes the judgmental attitudes of the old money set towards Gatsby's newly acquired wealth. With their censorious glares and whispered barbs, they make it clear that no matter how much money he has, he'll never truly belong in their exclusive circle – a harsh reality that adds a layer of pathos to Gatsby's relentless pursuit of Daisy.And let's not forget the deliciously evocative "sumptuous," a word that practically drips with luxury and indulgence. When Nick describes the "sumptuous" buffet laid out at Gatsby's party, you can almost taste the succulent dishes and imagine the decadent spread fit for a king (or, in this case, a self-made millionaire). It's a word that perfectly captures the over-the-top extravagance that Gatsby uses to try and impress his guests –and, perhaps more importantly, his lost love.But amidst all the glitz and glamour, there's a sense of disillusionment and disenchantment that permeates Chapter 4. And no word encapsulates this feeling better than "inexplicable." As Nick grapples with Gatsby's "inexplicable" desire to recreate his past with Daisy, we're reminded of the futility of trying to recapture something that's long gone – a harsh truth that adds a melancholic undertone to Gatsby's grand gestures.These are just a few of the linguistic gems that make Chapter 4 such a rich and rewarding read. From the hauteur of the old money set to the unapologetic opulence of Gatsby's parties, each word is carefully chosen to paint a vivid picture of this decadent world – a world where appearances are everything, and the pursuit of happiness often comes at a steep price.So the next time you find yourself immersed in the pages of The Great Gatsby, take a moment to savor the delicious vocabulary. Let the words linger on your tongue, allowing their nuances and connotations to transport you into the heart of West Egg's glittering realm. Because in the end, it's these carefully crafted turns of phrase that truly bring Fitzgerald's masterpiece to life.篇2The Great Gatsby Chapter 4 Vocabulary on ZhihuWhat's up, fellow bookworms and word nerds? I'm here to break down some of the juiciest vocab from Chapter 4 of the classic novel "The Great Gatsby" by F. Scott Fitzgerald. Get ready to sound like a literary genius at your next book club meeting!Let's kick things off with "riotous." This adjective means "involving wild and unrestrained behavior or emotions." In the chapter, Fitzgerald uses it to describe the colorful party scenes at Gatsby's mansion: "There was a riotous debauchery that night..."Speaking of debauchery, that's another doozy of a word we encounter. It refers to excessive indulgence in sensual pleasures like sex, alcohol, etc. The lavish parties definitely had a debauched vibe going on.Then we've got "unction," which means "a vaguely unctuous quality or the trait of being smug or self-complacent." Nick notices that some of the party guests had an "unaffected pride...and a certain unction" about them. Basically, they were pretty full of themselves in an obvious way.Let's not forget "sumptuous," meaning "extremely costly, rich, luxurious." Everything about Gatsby's parties was just sumptuous to the max - the food, drinks, whole atmosphere. Itmakes you wonder how much money that guy was blowing every weekend!One vocab word that really stuck out to me was "putrid." It's an intense adjective meaning "foul-smelling, rotten." Fitzgerald uses it to describe the humid night air closing in around the guests: "...a putrid taste on the air." Yuck, that doesn't sound fun at all!We also can't ignore "thwart," meaning "to oppose successfully; prevent from accomplishing a purpose." Apparently, there was a butler at the party who tried to thwart Gatsby's grandiose hosting style. Wonder how that went over with the big man himself?Moving on to "pique," which can mean "to provoke, arouse, or awaken" (as in curiosity or interest). Nick's interest was definitely piqued in learning more about the enigmatic Mr. Gatsby after witnessing his extravagant affairs.Then there's "reproach," which shows up as both a noun and verb in the chapter. As a noun, it means "an expression of rebuke or disapproval." As a verb, it means "to express disapproval or disappointment." Nick sensed an underlying reproach towards the partygoers for their reckless behaviors.I loved the use of "ineffable" to describe the Gatsby aura and persona. It means "incapable of being expressed or described in words." There was just something about Gatsby that was indescribable, elusive, ineffable.Finally, let's look at "intermittent" - it means "occurring at irregular intervals; not continuous or steady." This relates to the way Gatsby would briefly appear at his own parties in intermittent bursts, almost like a fleeting vision.Whew, that's a lot of advanced vocabulary to unpack! Fitzgerald's writing is so lush and evocative, playing with deep symbolism and complex themes. But breaking down these words helps decode some of the layered nuances.I'd highly recommend looking up any other unfamiliar terms as you read through this incredible novel. Getting familiar with the language gives you a fuller appreciation for Fitzgerald's storytelling mastery. His vocabulary choices were so purposeful and powerful.This chapter in particular is pivotal, as we really start to lift the veil on the mysteries surrounding the great Gatsby himself. The dazzling party scenes give a glimpse into his world of decadence and excess. But there are also those fleetingmoments of reproach, of something deeper and darker lingering beneath the sumptuous surface.By studying the sophisticated vocab, you can better understand the intricate textures and social commentary woven throughout the narrative. It's what makes this book such a captivating classic that English students analyze over and over.So keep that dictionary handy as you journey through the rest of this literary masterpiece. I guarantee you'll walk away with an expanded vocabulary and greater insight into the human experiences Fitzgerald was exploring. Honestly, what could be better than that? Now if you'll excuse me, I've got to go look up a few more fancy words...篇3The Great Gatsby Chapter 4 Vocab on ZhihuWhat's up everyone! For my English Lit class, we're reading the classic novel The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald. I have to admit, some of the vocabulary in this book is pretty tricky, especially in Chapter 4. I thought I'd make a Zhihu post going over some of the tougher words and phrases to help out any other students feeling a bit lost.Let's start with "supercilious" which is used to describe the aproned monologue of a woman speaking about her daughter. Supercilious means behaving or looking as though you think you are superior to others. So this woman was kind of acting all hoity-toity and full of herself when talking about her kid.Then we've got "ineffable" which is used to describe the energy and intimacy contained within the courting couples on Tom's veranda. Ineffable means too great or extreme to be expressed in words. So the vibe and connection between these lovebirds was just indescribable.The word "sumptuous" caught my eye too when it's used to describe the buffet tables laden with glistening hors d'oeuvre. Sumptuous means expensive and impressive. So we're talking some seriously fancy and over-the-top appetizers at this shindig.Raise your hand if you had to Google "obsequious" when Nick describes the behavior of Tom's lawn attendants. Obsequious means obedient or attentive to an excessive degree. So these poor guys were basically falling all over themselves to be really subservient toward Tom.Okay, this one is just a handy vocab word in general - "ostentation." It's used to describe how objects in one ofGatsby's rooms were "not calculated to strike" ostentation. Ostentation is the pretentious or。
考研英语阅读理解长难句真题分析详解含翻译w
考研英语阅读理解长难句真题分析详解含翻译1. The Bilski case involves a claimed patent on a method for hedging risk in the energy market.结构：The Bilski case ［主］involves ［谓］a claimed patent on amethod ［宾］for hedging risk in the energy market ［状］单词: Hedge vi.防备n.树篱防备手段词组：Hedging risk规避风险Energy market能源市场直译：比尔斯基案涉及一个声称的专利方法，为了在能源市场规避风险译文：比尔斯基案涉及到一项已申请的关于能源市场风险规避方法的专利结构:•That ruling ［主］produced ［谓］an explosion in business-method patent filings ［宾］,initially by emerging Iternet companies trying to stake out exclusive rights to specific types of online transactionsexplosion n.爆发爆炸File n.文件案件卷宗initially ad.最初Exclusive a.专有的专属的Emerging a.新兴的Merge v.合并Stake n.赌注利害关系vt.下赌注词组：Try to尽力努力stake out争夺标记直译：这个决定引起了商业方法专利申请的大爆发，最初，新兴的互联网公司努力争夺专有权，关于特殊形式的在线交易译文：这一判决使得商业方法专利申请激增，最初，只是一些新兴的网络公司试图争取对某些特定类型的在线交易的独家专有权重点：•initially ad.最初•Exclusive a.专有的专属的•Emerging a.新兴的•stake out 争夺标记Later , more established companies raced to add such patents to their files , if only as a defensive move against rivals that might beat them to the punch .•Later, more established companies ［主］raced to ［谓］add such patents to their files ［宾］z if only as a defensive move againstrivals•定语从句:that ［主］might beat ［ig］ them to the punch ［宾］单词：Established a.老牌的已建立的Defensive a.防御的rival n.竞争对手Revival n.复活再次流行复兴Punch vt.用拳猛击n.一拳力量词组：•Race to do sth角逐竞争•Established company老牌公司知名公司直译：之后，很多老牌公司竞相增加他们领域中的专利，只是作为一个防御手段抵抗抵抗竞争对手，这些对手可能会打他们一拳解析：•that引导定语从句修饰rivals,在句中作主语译文：后来，越来越多的老牌公司也开始竞相申请各类专利，仅仅作为对竞争对手的防御措施，以防竞争对手抢占先机重点：•Race to do sth角逐竞争•Established company老牌公司知名公司•that引导定语从句修饰rivals,在句中作主语In 2005 , IBM noted in a court filing that it had been issued more than 300 business-method patents , despite the fact that it questioned the legal basis for granting them .结构：•In 2005 , IBM ［主］noted ［谓］in a court filing•宾语从句：that it ［主］had been issued ［谓（被动）］more than 300 business-method patents,•despite the fact同位语从句：that it ［主］questioned ［谓］the legal basis for granting them ［宾］单词：despite a.文学的书面的词组：More than超过多于直译：2005年，IBM公司在法庭卷宗中发现它已经取得了超过300项商业方法专利，尽管这是一个事实，它质疑授予这些专利的法律基础解析: That引导宾语从句，作noted的宾语That引导同位语从句，补充说明the fact译文：2005年，IBM公司在一份法庭卷宗中发现资金被授予了超过300 多商业方法专利，尽管连它自己都质疑这种授予这中专利授权的法律依据重点：•That引导宾语从句，作noted的宾语•That引导同位语从句，补充说明the fact5. Similarly , some Wall Street investment firms armed themselves with patents for financial products , even as they took positions in court cases opposing the practice .结构：•Similarly , some Wall Street investment firms ［主］armed ［谓］themselves with patents for financial products ［宾］,even as they ［主］took ［谓］positions in court cases opposing the practice ［宾］单词：Practice n.实践惯例习惯习俗训练练习词组:Even as即使尽管直译：同样地，一些华尔街的投资公司用金融产品的专利武装自己，尽管他们在法庭案件中的立场是反对这种授予专利的做法译文：同样地，一些华尔街的投资公司也用多项金融产品的专利武装自己，尽管他在法庭案件中对此做法持反对态度重点：・Practice n.实践惯例习惯习俗训练练习・Even as即使尽管。
Julius Caesar
Brutus attempts to put the republic over his personal relationship with Caesar and kills him. Brutus makes the political mistakes that bring down the republic that his ancestors created. He acts on his passions, does not gather enough evidence to make reasonable decisions and is manipulated by Cassius and the other conspirators.
Max Weber's perspective on politican
A politician must not be a man of the "true Christian ethic", understood by Weber as being the ethic of the Sermon on the Mount, that is to say, the injunction to turn the other cheek.
Aristotle also establishes that the hero has to be “virtuous” that is to say he has to be "a morally blameless man“. The Hero's flaw is what will bring him not success, but death by the end of the work. Aristotle contests that the tragic hero has to be a man “who is not eminently good and just, whose misfortune is brought about not by vice or depravity, but by some error or frailty.”
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ClaiMaker:Weaving a Semantic Web of Research Papers Gangmin Li,Victoria Uren,Enrico Motta,Simon Buckingham Shum,John DomingueKnowledge Media Institute,The Open University,Milton Keynes,MK76AA,UK{g.li,v.s.uren, e.motta,s.buckingham.shum,j.b.domingue}@/projects/scholonto/Abstract.The usability of research papers on the Web would be enhanced by asystem that explicitly modelled the rhetorical relations between claims in relatedpapers.We describe ClaiMaker,a system for modelling readers'interpretations ofthe core content of papers.ClaiMaker provides tools to build a Semantic Webrepresentation of the claims in research papers using an ontology of relations.Wedemonstrate how the system can be used to make inter-document queries.1Introducing ScholOntoThe Web has facilitated access to many scholarly documents by making available copies of papers,technical reports etc.in digital libraries and on individuals'home pages.Reasonable keyword access is provided by Web search engines.Access via citations is available using tools such as Research Index(Citeseer)[1],and research to extend this approach to eprint servers is ongoing[2].However,there are few tools to track debate and analyse ideas in a domain.The Semantic Web[3]approach of augmenting Web documents with machine understandable information offers a potential means of addressing this need.The Scholarly Ontologies(ScholOnto)project[4,5]takes this approach.We are developing an ontology-based Claims Server to augment existing papers,by modelling authors'and readers'interpretations of them.This produces a claim space above raw digital libraries;effectively,a semantic web of inter-linked concepts.The system enables researchers to make claims concerning their view of a document's contributions and its relationship to the literature.These claims may support or contest existing claims;in contrast to most Semantic Web applications ScholOnto does not require consensus.The semantic structure of the claim space provides a basis for making queries based on the interpretation of research papers,rather than just keywords or citations.In this paper,we consider one example of an apparently simple question,which requires interpretation of multiple documents in a more specific way than is possible from plain citations:"Are there any arguments against the intellectual framework on which this paper builds?".We will show how building a semantic network of claims over a distributed document collection can start to answer such questions.2Ontology of Rhetorical RelationsWe take the position that,although what authors are discussing in a domain will,by the nature of research,be in flux,how the discourse is conducted will be stable. Consequently,the conceptual glue of ScholOnto,the links between ideas,is reified using an ontology of rhetorical relations[6].A claim triple is the assertion that aparticular relationship holds between two ideas.The relations in the ontology act as attributes in triples,in which object and value are each one of concept,set or data. Concepts are stored as short pieces of free text,and sets are collections of related concepts gathered under a free text name.A typical data object is a set of metadata giving the reference of a document in a digital library.Claims were modelled in a range of research domains,including computer supported collaborative work,text categorization,and literary criticism.Relations common to several domains were identified.We found we could classify these into groups with similar rhetorical implications:Supports/Challenges,Problem Related,Taxonomic, Causality,Similarity,and General.Each relation belongs to one group.We also found that some relations occurred in pairs of opposites,e.g.proves and refutes,where one has positive and the other negative implications.We call this property"polarity".For example,refutes has negative polarity;it implies dis proof.Referring to our question, refutes would be an"argument against".:SchProperty rdfs:subClassOf:Property.:StructuringProperty rdfs:subClassOf:SchProperty. :RhetProperty rdfs:subClassOf:SchProperty.:SupportsChallenges rdfs:subClassOf:RhetProperty. :PolarityType rdf:subClassOf:Resource.:negativePolarity rdf:type:PolarityType.:positivePolarity rdf:type:PolarityType.:polarity rdf:type:StructuringProperty. :polarity rdfs:domain:SchProperty.:polarity rdfs:range:PolarityType.:refutes rdf:type:SupportsChallenges. :refutes:polarity:negativePolarity.:proves rdf:type:SupportsChallenges. :proves:polarity:positivePolarity.Fig.1.Parts of an RDFS specification for the ScholOnto ontology(in Notation3for clarity /DesignIssues/Notation3)By defining relations in terms of type and polarity we can reason with them at a higher level of granularity than individual relations;it is not just the claims made using the refutes relation that represent"arguments against"something,but any claims made using links that have negative polarity.Furthermore,the same ontology of relations can be employed by research communities which speak different"dialects",or even different languages,simply by changing the labels of the relations,without changing the underlying functionality of ScholOnto.To illustrate claim triples,we will take a paper entitled"Evaluation of decision forests on text categorization"[7].The claims of this paper include the following:[Decision Forest Classifier](uses/applies/is enabled by)[Decision tree learning]This uses one of the General relations uses/applies/is enabled by to assert that the Decision Forest classifier studied in the paper uses a well known method,Decision tree learning.The latter concept was introduced in a different document,so this link has a contextual role:it locates the paper near similar claims.[Decision Forest classifier improves on C4.5and kNN](is inconsistent with)[SVM and kNN outperform other classifiers]This claim uses the negative,Supports/Challenges relation is inconsistent with to link one of the experimental results of this paper to a result in a third paper.In addition to its contextual role,locating the claim near other comparisons of classifiers,this claim has a rhetorical role:it contrasts pieces of evidence that make contradictory assertions.3The ClaiMaker SystemClaiMaker is implemented as a client/server system(Fig.2).The Claim Server interprets users'requests,and accesses the database and/or file server to retrieve the results.It may invoke the inference engine,based on the relation ontology,if it is necessary.Fig.2.Architecture of the ClaiMaker Claim ServerClaimMaker has a form-based interface to help ourselves and early uptake users build a claim space,which describes a collection of electronic documents.The operations it performs include:adding or importing metadata for new documents;creating new concepts,sets and links associated with a document;and browsing and querying the database about objects on the server to discover interesting facts,and potential trends. The interface leads the user through ScholOnto tasks stepwise.For example,Figure3 shows a user selecting concepts to include in a set about reminding.Fig.3.Selecting concepts to construct a setIn Figure4the user is making a claim using this set,which they have named “Importance of Reminding”and the relation is consistent with.The next step will be to click the button Search concept/set which will take them into a screen where they can make keyword searches of other users’concepts and sets,and select one to link to.Fig.4.Creating a claim using the ClaiMaker system4Providing Semantic Discovery ServicesWe will now return to our example query to demonstrate how expressing the claims made by documents using the ontology of relations gives added value over retrieval of documents based on keywords.The question as asked,"Are there any arguments against the intellectual framework on which this paper builds?”,has three components.It is looking for"arguments against",defined as negative relations of any type.It refers specifically to a"paper",and it is easy to find the set of concepts belonging to a document.It also refers to the"intellectual framework".This is an ambiguous requirement that must be constrained if it is to be modelled.For the experimental function described here,we used a pragmatic definition:the intellectual framework of a set of concepts is the extended set of concepts that are linked to/from the concepts in the original set by a positive relation.Clearly,this is a gross simplification of the notion of"intellectual framework",but it makes the problem tractable.For a given paper the discovery function does the following:1.Finds the concepts associated with that paper2.Extend the set of concepts by adding linked concepts from other papers3.Returns any arguments against the concepts in the extended setTypical results are presented below(Fig.5).Note the two numbers to the right of the claim that disagrees with one of the related issues in the query.The first,8621,is a hyperlink to the metadata of the paper that provides the backing for the claim,which includes a URL to the paper itself.The second,2,is a link to the personal details of the reader who made the claim;this allows the user,or,potentially,a discovery agent working on behalf of the user,to make a judgement about the credentials of a claim; can it be trusted?Fig.5.Arguments that contrast with the concepts in the paper by Chen&Ho[7] Term based information retrieval handles documents as isolated entities defined by the words in them.Citations in a document are noncommittal about authors’intentions in referring to other work;we cannot even tell if a paper is referenced because the authors support its position or because they are diametrically opposed to it.This simple example of a search for arguments against a position demonstrates how the ontology of relations can make the connections between ideas in different documents explicit,allowing better kinds of query.5Summary&Future WorkThe ontology we have implemented in ScholOnto permits us to represent researchers' claims about their work as a claim space over Web documents.This opens up opportunities for answering more interesting questions about scholarly discourse.We are now developing more discovery services.These will be of two types.We will start by developing specific functions of the sort discussed here.These will tackle common tasks,like finding the arguments against a position,or assessing the impact of an idea.Novice users will be able to use these to learn about the sorts of query possible in ScholOnto.In addition,we plan to develop a structural query system, exploiting the inference engine.This system will be aimed at expert users.Data visualisation will become increasingly important.We need visualisations for browsing that illustrate the claim space at different levels of granularity.A visual input system is required also.When making a list of claims it is easy to lose track of the shape of the argument that is being made,and how it relates to other parts of the ers need to be able to see the connections between their claims as they create them.We are also investigating ways to extract claims from papers semi-automatically,and to suggest semantic links,as a way of easing the claim acquisition bottleneck.The Claims Server implementation described here provides a controllable,centralised environment in which we can test our ideas.However,an agent approach[8]offers some exciting alternatives.One is a distributed ScholOnto in which authors' interpretations of their own papers are published alongside the originals.These could be perused by discovery agents.Another is a more personalised model in which a user’s agent might crawl the Web,harvesting interesting claims as they are published, and depositing them in a private knowledge base.They could then be annotated and extended,without the social constraints imposed by making claims about other researchers’work in public.Such private spaces could be shared by the members of a research group as a discussion forum.References1.Bollacker,K.D.,Lawrence,S.,Giles,C.L.:CiteSeer:an autonomous web agent for automaticretrieval and identification of interesting publications.Proc.2nd Int.Conf.on AutonomousAgents,Minneapolis,MN(1998)116-1232.Hitchcock,S.,Carr,L.Jiao,Z.,Bergmark,D.,Hall,W.,Lagoze,C.,Harnad,S.:Developingservices for open eprint archives:globalisation,integration and the impact of links.In:Proc.5th ACM Conf.on Digital Libraries,San Antonio,TX.(2000)143-1513.Berners-Lee,T.,Hendler,J.,Lassila,O.:The Semantic Web,Scientific American,May(2001)34-434.Motta,E.,Buckingham Shum,S.,Domingue,J.:Ontology-Driven Document Enrichment:Principles,Tools and Applications.Int.J.Human-Computer Studies.,52,(2000)1071-11095.Buckingham Shum,S.,Motta,E.,Domingue,J.:ScholOnto:An Ontology-Based Digital LibraryServer for Research Documents and Discourse.Int.J.Digit.Libr.,3,(2000)237-2486.Buckingham Shum,S.,Uren,V.,Li,G.,Domingue,J.,Motta,E.,Mancini,C.:DesigningRepresentational Coherence into an Infrastructure for Collective Sensemaking.In:2nd Int.Workshop on Infrastructures for Distributed Collective Practices,San Diego CA(2002)7.Chen,H.&Ho,T.K.:Evaluation of decision forests on text categorization.In:Proc.7th SPIEConference on Document Recognition and Retrieval(2000)191-1998.Hendler,J.:Agents and the Semantic Web.IEEE Intelligent Systems,16(2)(2001)30-37。