托福阅读tpo48 R-3原文+译文+题目+答案解析+背景知识
托福阅读tpo48R-3原文+译文+题目+答案解析+背景知识原文Passage3:ClimateandUrbanDevelopment
①Formorethanahundredyears,ithasbeenknownthatcitiesaregenerallywarmerthansurroundingruralareas.Thisregionofcitywarmth,knownastheurbanheatisland,caninfluencetheconcentrationofairpollution.However,beforewelookatitsinfluence,let’sseehowtheheatislandactuallyforms.
②Theurbanheatislandisduetoindustrialandurbandevelopment.Inruralareas,alargepartoftheincomingsolarenergyisusedinevaporatingwaterfromvegetationandsoil.Incities,wherelessvegetationandexposedsoilexist,themajorityoftheSun’senergyisabsorbedbyurbanstructuresandasphalt.Hence,duringwarmdaylighthours,lessevaporativecoolingincitiesallowssurfacetemperaturestorisehigherthaninruralareas.Thecauseoftheurbanheatislandisquiteinvolved.Dependingonthelocation,timeofyear,andtimeofday,anyorallofthefollowingdifferencesbetweencitiesandtheirsurroundingscanbeimportant:albedo(reflectivityofthesurface),surfaceroughness,emissionsofheat,emissionsofmoisture,andemissionsofparticlesthataffectnetradiationandthegrowthofclouddroplets.
③Atnight,thesolarenergy(storedasvastquantitiesofheatincitybuildingsandroads)isslowlyreleasedintothecityair.Additionalcityheatisgivenoffatnight(andduringtheday)byvehiclesandfactories,aswellasbyindustrialanddomesticheatingandcoolingunits.Thereleaseofheatenergyisretardedbythetallverticalcitywallsthatdonotallowinfraredradiationtoescapeasreadilyasdoestherelativelylevelsurfaceofthesurroundingcountryside.Theslowreleaseofheattendstokeepnighttimecitytemperatureshigherthanthoseofthefaster-coolingruralareas.Overall,theheatislandisstrongest(1)atnightwhencompensatingsunlightisabsent；(2)duringthewinter,whennightsarelongerandthereismoreheatgeneratedinthecity；and(3)whentheregionisdominatedbyahigh-pressureareawithlightwinds,clearskies,andlesshumidair.Overtime,increasingurbanheatislandsaffectclimatologicaltemperaturerecords,producingartificialwarminginclimaticrecordstakenincities.Thiswarming,therefore,mustbeaccountedforininterpretingclimatechangeoverthepastcentury.
④Theconstantoutpouringofpollutantsintotheenvironmentmayinfluencetheclimateofthecity.Certainparticlesreflectsolarradiation,therebyreducingthesunlightthatreachesthesurface.Someparticlesserveasnucleiuponwhichwaterandiceform.Watervaporcondensesontotheseparticleswhentherelativehumidityisaslowas70percent,forminghazethatgreatlyreducesvisibility.Moreover,theaddednucleiincreasethefrequencyofcityfog.
⑤Studiessuggestthatprecipitationmaybegreaterincitiesthaninthesurroundingcountryside；thisphenomenonmaybedueinparttotheincreasedroughnessofcityterrain,broughtonbylargestructuresthatcausesurfaceairtoslowandgraduallyconverge.Thispilingupofairoverthecitythenslowlyrises,muchliketoothpastedoeswhenitstubeissqueezed.Atthesametime,cityheatwarmsthesurfaceair,makingitmoreunstable,whichenhancesrisingsairmotions,which,inturn,aidsinformingcloudsandthunderstorms.Thisprocesshelpsexplainwhybothtendtobemorefrequentovercities.
⑥Onclearstillnightswhentheheatislandispronounced,asmallthermallow-pressureareaformsoverthecity.Sometimesalightbreeze—calledacountrybreeze—blowsfromthecountrysideintothecity.Iftherearemajorindustrialareasalongtheoutskirts,pollutantsarecarriedintotheheatoftown,wheretheytendtoconcentrate.Suchaneventisespeciallyprobableifverticalmixinganddispersionofpollutantsareinhibited.Pollutantsfromurbanareasmayevenaffecttheweatherdownwindfromthem.
译文：气候与城市发展
①一百多年来，大家都知道城市一般比周围的农村温度更高。被称为城市热岛的区域性温暖可以影响空气污染的聚集。然而，在着眼于它的影响之前，让我们看看热岛事实上是如何形成的。
②城市热岛是由于工业开发和城市开发产生的。在农村地区，很大一部分的入射太阳能被消耗于植被和土壤中水分的蒸发。城市的植被和裸土较少，大部分的太阳能量被城市建筑和沥青吸收。因此，在温暖的白天，城市更少的蒸发冷却使地面温度上升得比农村地区更高。城市热岛的原因很复杂。根据不同的位置、季节、一天中的不同时间，城市和周围环境之间的以下任何差异都可能是重要因素：反照率（表面反射率）、表面粗糙度、热量排放、水分排放、影响净辐射和云微滴增长的颗粒排放。
③在夜间，太阳能（储存在城市建筑和道路的巨大热量）缓慢释放到城市空气中。额外的城市热量也在夜间（当然白天也有）排放，来源包括车辆和工厂，以及工业和家庭的供热和制冷装置。热能量的释放是被高大垂直的城市墙所减缓，这些墙面使得红外线辐射不能像在附近乡村相对水平的表面那样逃离。热能的缓慢释放使得城市在夜间保持高于快速冷却农村地区的温度。总体而言，热岛在以下几个情况是最强的：（1）在夜间，当补偿性的阳光缺失的时候；（2）在冬季，当夜晚更长，有更多的热量在城市产生的时候；（3）当该地区被一个伴随轻风、晴朗天空和干燥空气的高压区控制的时候。随着时间的流逝，加剧的城市热岛影响气象温度记录，在城市中制造了人工气候变暖。因此，解释过去一个世纪的气候变化必须考虑这一变暖（现象）。
④环境中污染物的不断涌入可能影响城市气候。某些颗粒反射太阳辐射，从而减少到达表面的阳光。有些颗粒成为形成水和冰的聚集核心。当相对湿度最低70%时，水蒸气凝就能结在这些粒子上，形成大大降低能见度的灰霾。此外，增加的颗粒聚核提高了城市起雾的频率。
⑤研究表明，城市的降水量可能比周围的乡村更大；这一现象的部分原因可能是城市地形的更大的粗糙度，城市的大型建筑使得地表空气流动减缓并逐渐聚集。城市上空的空气堆积起来，然后慢慢地上升，像被挤的牙膏一样。同时，城市热量加热了表面空气，使其更加不稳定，提高了上升气流的运动，而这反过来，有助于云和雷暴的形成。这个过程有助于解释为什么这两个现象在城市中更加频繁。
⑥在晴朗平静的夜晚，当热岛效应最显著的时候，一个小的热低压区域在城市形成。有时一阵轻风——被称为乡村风——从乡村吹到城市。如果郊区有主要的工业区，污染物会被带到城市的核心，往往在这里聚集起来。如果污染物的垂直混合和扩散被抑制，这样的聚集事件就特別容易发生。来自于城市地区的污染物甚至影响它们下风区的天气。
题目
②Theurbanheatislandisduetoindustrialandurbandevelopment.Inruralareas,alargepartoftheincomingsolarenergyisusedinevaporatingwaterfromvegetationandsoil.Incities,wherelessvegetationandexposedsoilexist,themajorityoftheSun’senergyisabsorbedbyurbanstructuresandasphalt.Hence,duringwarmdaylighthours,lessevaporativecoolingincitiesallowssurfacetemperaturestorisehigherthaninruralareas.Thecauseoftheurbanheatislandisquiteinvolved.Dependingonthelocation,timeofyear,andtimeofday,anyorallofthefollowingdifferencesbetweencitiesandtheirsurroundingscanbeimportant:albedo(reflectivityofthesurface),surfaceroughness,emissionsofheat,emissionsofmoisture,andemissionsofparticlesthataffectnetradiationandthegrowthofclouddroplets.
托福阅读tpo68R-3原文+译文+题目+答案+背景知识
1
TPO68 阅读-3 Research into Aging and Extending Life Span
原文+译文+题目+答案+背景知识
原文
Research into Aging and Extending Life Span
①The mounting evidence for age genes that influence the aging process is by no
means conclusive , but it is quite impressive, coming from a variety of independent
research from aging in worms and fruit flies to antioxidants and gene repair
mechanisms, and human mutations. Still, the connections are circumstantial.
②Christopher Wills, professor of biology at the University of California in San
Diego, thinks that by 2025 science will likely isolate the mammalian age genes in
mice. We share roughly 75 percent of our genes with mice and have much the
same body chemistry; this is a strong reason to believe that an age gene found in
mice could also be at work in humans. If such genes are located, the next step
托福阅读tpo61R-3原文+译文+题目+答案+背景知识
TPO61
阅读-3
Grasses
of
the
Prairie
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原文
Grasses
of
the
Prairie
①
Around
140
TPO48托福独立写作题目文本答案解析
TPO48托福独立写作题目文本答案解析
想要快速提升自己的托福写作能力，全面的了解托福写作思路和结构是非常重要的。那么，在以下内容中就为大家带来TPO48托福独立写作题目文本及答案解析，希望能为大家的托福独立写作备考带来帮助。
W2
独立写作：
Do you agree or disagree with the following statement?
Because modern life is very complex, it is essential for young people to have the ability
to plan and organize.
Use specific reasons and examples to support your answer.
话题：Young people 青年
高分词汇：arrangement, boost, simultaneously, multiple, subject, anxiety, concentrate,
weariness, prospect, finance, consumption, commodities, target, unnecessary
思路：现代生活年轻人需要做好计划：(1)学习成绩更好;(2)严格管理金钱
范文：
点击查看完整解析：TPO48托福独立写作题目文本答案解析
托福阅读tpo56R-3原文+译文+题目+答案+背景知识
1
TPO56 阅读-3 Conditions on Early Earth and the Beginnings of Life
原文 .................................................................................................................................................. 1
译文 .................................................................................................................................................. 2
题目 .................................................................................................................................................. 3
答案 .................................................................................................................................................. 8
背景知识........................................................................................................................................... 8
托福阅读tpo66R-3原文+译文+题目+答案+背景知识
1
TPO66 阅读-3 What is Coral?
原文+译文+题目+答案+背景知识
原文
What is Coral?
①Corals belong to a group of animals called cnidarians. This group encompasses
hard and soft corals, sea fans, gorgonians, hydroids, jellyfish, and sea anemones.
Although the group is remarkably diverse, there are a few features shared by all.
They have a free-swimming larval stage and a simple body plan: a central mouth,
through which material passes in and out of the body, and a ring of tentacles. The
other distinguishing feature of the cnidarians is the presence of nematocysts
(stinging cells), which are used to catch prey.
②Individual corals are known as coral polyps; each is a single animal. In isolation a
coral polyp looks very similar to a sea anemone, but unlike sea anemones, which
live separated from each other, corals form colonies. A few species remain solitary,
托福阅读第三篇tpo75R -3原文+译文+题目+答案+背景知识
托福阅读第三篇tpo75R-3原文+译文+题目+答案+背景知识原文......................................................................................................1译文......................................................................................................4题目......................................................................................................7答案....................................................................................................13背景知识............................................................................................14
原文SeismicWaves
①Seismicwaves-energywavesproducedbyearthquakes-permitscientiststodeterminethelocation,thickness,andpropertiesofEarth'sinternalzones.Theyaregeneratedwhenrockmassesaresuddenlydisturbed,suchaswhentheybreakorrupture.Vibrationsspreadoutinalldirectionsfromthesourceofthedisturbance,travelingatdifferentspeedsthroughpartsofEarth'scrustandinteriorthatdifferinchemicalcompositionandphysicalproperties.Theprincipalcategoriesofthesewavesareprimary,secondary,andsurface.Allthreetypesofwavesarerecordedonaninstrumentcalledaseismograph.②Primarywaves,orP-waves,arethespeediestofthethreekindsofwavesandthereforethefirsttoarriveataseismographstationaftertherehasbeenanearthquake.TheytravelthroughtheuppercrustofEarthatspeedsof4to5kilometerspersecond,butnearthebaseofthecrusttheyspeedalongat6or7kilometerspersecond.Intheseprimarywaves,pulsesofenergyaretransmittedasasuccessionofcompressionsandexpansionsthatparallelthedirectionofpropagationofthewaveitself.Thus,agivensegmentofrocksetinmotionduringanearthquakeisdrivenintoitsneighborandbouncesback.Theneighborstrikesthenextparticleandreboundsandsubsequentparticlescontinuethemotion.Vibrationalenergyisanaccordion-likepush-pullmovementthatcanbetransmittedthroughsolids,liquidsandgases.Ofcourse,thespeedofPwavetransmissionwilldifferinmaterialsofdifferentdensityandelasticproperties.
托福阅读tpo57R-3原文+译文+题目+答案+背景知识
托福阅读tpo57R-3TheProblemofNarrativeClarityinSilentFilms原文.....................................................................................................................................................1译文.....................................................................................................................................................2题目.....................................................................................................................................................3答案.....................................................................................................................................................7背景知识.............................................................................................................................................8原文TheProblemofNarrativeClarityinSilentFilms①Beginningin1904,Americancommercialfilmmakingbecameincreasinglyorientedtowardstorytelling.Moreover,withthenewemphasisonone-reelfilms,narrativesbecamelongerandnecessitatedaseriesofcamerashots.Filmmakersfacedthechallengeofmakingstoryfilmsthatwouldbecomprehensibletoaudiences.Howcouldtechniquesofediting,camerawork,acting,andlightingbecombinedsoastoclarifywhatwashappeninginafilm?Howcouldthespectatorgraspwhereandwhentheactionwasoccurring?②Overthespanofseveralyears,filmmakerssolvedsuchproblems.Sometimestheyinfluencedeachother,whileatothertimestwofilmmakersmighthappenonthesametechniqueindependently.Somedevicesweretriedandabandoned.By1917,filmmakershadworkedoutasystemofformalprinciplesthatwerestandardinAmericanfilmmaking.ThatsystemhascometobecalledtheclassicalHollywoodcinema.Despitethatname,manyofthebasicprinciplesofthesystemwerebeingworkedoutbeforefilmmakingwascenteredinHollywood,and,indeed,manyofthoseprincipleswerefirsttriedinothercountries.IntheyearsbeforetheFirstWorldWar,filmstylewasstilllargelyinternational,sincefilmscirculatedwidelyoutsidetheircountryoforigin.③Thebasicproblemthatconfrontedfilmmakersearlyinthesilent-movieerawasthataudiencescouldnotunderstandthecausal,spatial,andtemporalrelationsinmanyfilms.Iftheeditingabruptlychangedlocales,thespectatormightnotgraspwherethenewactionwasoccurring.Anactor’selaboratepantomimemightfailtoconveythemeaningofacrucialaction.Areviewofa1906filmlaysouttheproblem:“Regardlessofthefactthatthereareanumberofgoodmotionpicturesbroughtout,itistruethattherearesomewhich,althoughphotographicallygood,arepoorbecausethemanufacturer,beingfamiliarwiththepictureandtheplot,doesnottakeintoconsiderationthatthefilmwasnotmadeforhimbutfortheaudience.Amovierecentlyseenwasverygoodphotographically,butthestorycouldnotbeunderstoodbytheaudience.”Inafewtheaters,alecturermightexplaintheplotasthefilmunrolled,butproducerscouldnotrelyonsuchaids.④Filmmakerscametoassumethatafilmshouldguidethespectator’sattention,makingeveryaspectofthestoryonthescreenasclearaspossible.Inparticular,filmsincreasinglysetupachainofnarrativecausesandeffects.Oneeventwouldplainlyleadtoaneffect,whichwouldinturncauseanothereffect,andsoon.Moreover,aneventwastypicallycausedbyacharacter’icalchasesorbriefmelodramasdependedmoreonphysicalactionorfamiliarsituationsthanoncharactertraits.Increasinglyafter1907,however,characterpsychologymotivatedactions.Byfollowingaseriesofcharacters’goalsandresultingconflicts,thespectatorcouldcomprehendtheaction.⑤Everyaspectofthesilent-filmstylecametobeusedtoenhancenarrativeclarity.Stagingorframingactionindepthcouldshowthespatialrelationshipsamongelements.Intertitleswrittentextsappearingperiodicallythroughoutasilentmovietoexplaintheactioncouldaddnarrativeinformationbeyondwhattheimagesconveyed.Closerviewsoftheactorscouldsuggesttheiremotionsmoreprecisely.Color,setdesign,andlightingcouldimplytimeofday,themilieuoftheaction,andsoon.⑥Someofthemostimportantinnovationsofthisperiodinvolvedthewaysinwhichcamerashotswereputtogether,oredited,tocreateastory.Inonesense,editingwasaboontothefilmmaker,permittinginstantmovementfromonespacetoanotherorcutstocloserviewstorevealdetails.Butifthespectatorcouldnotkeeptrackofthetemporalorspatialrelationsbetweenoneshotandthenext,editingmightalsoleadtoconfusion.Insomecases,intertitlescouldhelp.Editingalsocametoemphasizecontinuityamongshots.Certainvisualcuesindicatedthattimewasflowinguninterruptedlyacrosscuts.Betweenscenes,othercuesmightsuggesthowmuchtimehadbeenskippedover.Whenacutmovedfromonespacetoanother,thedirectorfoundwaystoorienttheviewer.译文无声电影中的叙事清晰度问题①自1904年起，美国的商业电影制作越来越倾向于讲故事。而且，随着对单卷电影的强调，叙事变得更长，也就需要进行一系列的拍摄。电影制作人面临的挑战是制作出观众能够理解的故事电影。如何将剪辑、摄影、表演和灯光等技术结合起来，去阐明电影中正在发生的事情?观众如何理解动作发生的时间以及地点?②在过去几年的时间里，电影制作人将这些问题解决了。有时他们相互影响，而在一些时候，两个电影制作人可能独立研发了同一个技术。一些设备被尝试后被放弃。到1917年，电影制片人已经制定出一套正式的原则体系，它也成为了美国电影制作的标准。这一体系被称为“经典好莱坞电影”。尽管有这个名字，在电影制作以好莱坞为中心之前，这个体系的许多基本原则就已经制定出来了，而且实际上其中许多原则首先是在其他国家试行的。在第一次世界大战之前的几年里，因为电影在它们的原籍国之外传播广泛，它们的风格在很大程度上仍然是国际化的。③在无声电影时代早期，电影制片人面临的一个基本问题是观众无法理解许多电影中的因果、空间和时间关系。如果编辑突然改变了地点，观众可能不知道新动作发生在哪里。演员精心制作的手势可能无法表达出关键动作的含义。一篇对1906年一部电影的评论揭示了这样一个问题:“尽管的确有很多好电影,但是一些拍摄很好的电影整体观感却很差,因为制片人熟悉电影画面和情节,没有考虑到这部电影不是为他而作，而是为观众而作。最近看的一部电影在摄影上很逼真，但故事情节却让观众看不懂。”在一些剧院，叙述者可能会在电影放映时解释情节，但制片人不能依赖这种辅助手段。④电影制片人开始认为电影应该引导观众的注意力，让故事的各个方面都尽可能清晰地展现在屏幕上。特别是，电影越来越多地建立起一系列叙事因果链。一件事显然会导致一种结果，而这种结果又会反过来引起另一种结果，如此循环。此外，事件往往是由角色的信仰或欲望引起的。人物心理在早期电影中并不是特别重要。滑稽的追逐或简短的情节剧更多地依赖于身体动作或熟悉的场景，而不是人物特征。然而，在1907年之后，人物心理逐渐成为行为的动机。通过一系列人物的目标和因此产生的冲突，观众可以理解动作。⑤无声电影风格的每一个方面都被用来提高叙事的清晰度。有深度的分阶段或成帧动作可以展示元素之间的空间关系。字幕可以在图像所传达的内容之外添加叙述信息。演员的近景镜头可以更准确地表明他们的情绪。色彩、布景设计和灯光可以暗示一天中的时间、动作的环境等等。⑥这一时期最重要的一些创新包括将镜头组合或编辑成故事的方式。从某种意义上说，剪辑对电影制作人来说是一种恩惠，允许它从一个空间迅速移动到另一个空间，或者将镜头切到更近的位置来揭示细节。但是，如果观众无法跟上一个镜头与下一个镜头之间的时间或空间联系，剪辑也可能导致混乱。在一些情况下，字幕可能会有所帮助。编剧也开始强调镜头之间的连贯性。某些视觉线索表明，时间不间断地在剪辑片段中流逝。在场景之间，其他线索可能会暗示有多少时间被跳过了。当剪辑片段从一个空间转移到另一个空间时，导演找到了引导观众的方法。题目
托福阅读tpo51R-3原文+译文+题目+答案+背景知识
TPO51
阅读-3Population
Growth
in
Nineteenth-Century
Europe
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Population
托福阅读tpo39R-3原文+译文+题目+答案+背景知识
托福阅读
tpo39
R-3
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译文
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背景知识
原文
Forest
Fire
Suppression
①
Forest
fires
have
recently
increased
in
intensity
and
extent
in
some
forest
types
throughout
the
western
United
States.
This
recent
increase
in
fires
has
resulted
partly
from
climate
change
the
recent
trend
toward
hot,
dry
summers
and
partly
from
human
activities,
for
complicated
reasons
that
foresters
came
increasingly
to
understand
about
30
years
ago
but
whose
relative
importance
is
still
debated.
One
factor
is
the
direct
effect
of
logging,
which
often
turns
a
forest
into
something
approximating
a
huge
pile
of
kindling
(wood
for
burning):
the
ground
in
a
logged
forest
may
remain
covered
with
branches
and
treetops,
left
behind
when
the
valuable
trunks
are
carted
away;
a
dense
growth
of
new
vegetation
springs
up,
further
increasing
the
forest's
fuel
loads;
and
the
trees
logged
and
removed
are
of
course
the
biggest
and
most
fire-resistant
individuals,
leaving
behind
smaller
and
more
flammable
托福听力tpo48 section2 对话讲座原文+题目+答案+译文
托福听力tpo48section2对话讲座原文+题目+答案+译文Conversation2.........................................................................................................1
原文.................................................................................................................1
题目.................................................................................................................3
答案.................................................................................................................4
译文.................................................................................................................5Lecture3.................................................................................................................6
原文.................................................................................................................6