外文翻译(带图)
超声波加工中英文对照外文翻译文献
超声波加工中英文对照外文翻译文献超声波加工中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)超声波加工综述摘要超声波加工适合切削不导电、脆性材料，例如工程陶瓷。
与其他非传统加工，如激光束、电火花加工等不同，超声波加工不会导致工件表面热损伤或显著的残余应力，这对脆性材料尤其重要。
超声波加工的基本原理，包括材料去除原理，各类操作参数对材料切除率、刀具磨损、工件精确度要求都有叙述，并着重表述了在加工工程陶瓷上的应用，制造复杂的三维立体陶瓷的问题也在叙述当中。
1 概述超声波加工及其应用超声波加工是一种非传统机械切削技术，通常与低材料去除率有关，它并不被加工材料的导电率和化学特性所限制，它用于加工金属和非金属材料，非常适合于脆性大，硬度高于40HRC[6–12]的材料，比如无机玻璃、硅片、镍、钛合金等等 [13–24]，有了它，76um 的小孔也能加工，但是被加工的孔深度与直径之比限制在 3 比 1 之内 [8, 12]。
超声波加工的历史可以追溯到 1927 年，R. W. Wood 和 A. L. Loomis 发表的论文，1945年。
有关于超声波的第一项专利给了 L. Balamuth，现在超声波加工已经分化很多领域，超声波钻削、超声波切削、超声波尺寸加工、超声波研磨技术和悬浮液钻孔法，然而，在 20世纪 50 年代初只普遍知道超声波冲磨或 USM[8,25, 28, 30, 31]。
在超声波加工中，高频率的电能通过换能器/增幅器被转变为机械振动，之后通过一个能量集中装置被传送出去, 例如变幅杆/刀具组件[1, 17, 18, 30, 32]。
这导致刀具沿着其纵向轴线以振幅 0-50μm 高频率振动（通常≥20KHz）[16, 33, 34]，典型额定功率范围从50～3000W[35]不等，在某些机器上可以达到 4kw。
一个受控静负载被施加于刀具和磨料悬浮液（由研磨材料的混合物组成、例如碳化硅，碳化硼等等，悬浮在水或油中）被泵传送到切削区域，刀具的振动导致磨料颗粒悬浮在刀具和工件表面间，通过微型片冲击工件表面从而去除材料[19]。
外文翻译中英文对照
Strengths优势All these private sector banks hold strong position on CRM part, they have professional, dedicated and well-trained employees.所以这些私人银行在客户管理部分都持支持态度，他们拥有专业的、细致的、训练有素的员工。
Private sector banks offer a wide range of banking and financial products and financial services to corporate and retail customers through a variety of delivery channels such as ATMs, Internet-banking, mobile-banking, etc. 私有银行通过许多传递通道（如自动取款机、网上银行、手机银行等）提供大范围的银行和金融产品、金融服务进行合作并向客户零售。
The area could be Investment management banking, life and non-life insurance, venture capital and asset management, retail loans such as home loans, personal loans, educational loans, car loans, consumer durable loans, credit cards, etc. 涉及的领域包括投资管理银行、生命和非生命保险、风险投资与资产管理、零售贷款（如家庭贷款、个人贷款、教育贷款、汽车贷款、耐用消费品贷款、信用卡等）。
Private sector banks focus on customization of products that are designed to meet the specific needs of customers. 私人银行主要致力于为一些特殊需求的客户进行设计和产品定制。
毕业论文外文翻译格式【范本模板】
因为学校对毕业论文中的外文翻译并无规定，为统一起见,特做以下要求：1、每篇字数为1500字左右，共两篇；2、每篇由两部分组成:译文+原文.3 附件中是一篇范本，具体字号、字体已标注。
外文翻译（包含原文)(宋体四号加粗）外文翻译一（宋体四号加粗）作者：(宋体小四号加粗）Kim Mee Hyun Director, Policy Research & Development Team，Korean Film Council（小四号）出处：(宋体小四号加粗)Korean Cinema from Origins to Renaissance(P358～P340) 韩国电影的发展及前景（标题：宋体四号加粗）1996～现在数量上的增长(正文:宋体小四）在过去的十年间，韩国电影经历了难以置信的增长。
上个世纪60年代，韩国电影迅速崛起，然而很快便陷入停滞状态,直到90年代以后，韩国电影又重新进入繁盛时期。
在这个时期，韩国电影在数量上并没有大幅的增长，但多部电影的观影人数达到了上千万人次。
1996年，韩国本土电影的市场占有量只有23.1%。
但是到了1998年，市场占有量增长到35。
8%，到2001年更是达到了50%。
虽然从1996年开始，韩国电影一直处在不断上升的过程中，但是直到1999年姜帝圭导演的《生死谍变》的成功才诞生了韩国电影的又一个高峰。
虽然《生死谍变》创造了韩国电影史上的最高电影票房纪录，但是1999年以后最高票房纪录几乎每年都会被刷新。
当人们都在津津乐道所谓的“韩国大片”时，2000年朴赞郁导演的《共同警备区JSA》和2001年郭暻泽导演的《朋友》均成功刷新了韩国电影最高票房纪录.2003年康佑硕导演的《实尾岛》和2004年姜帝圭导演的又一部力作《太极旗飘扬》开创了观影人数上千万人次的时代。
姜帝圭和康佑硕导演在韩国电影票房史上扮演了十分重要的角色。
从1993年的《特警冤家》到2003年的《实尾岛》，康佑硕导演了多部成功的电影。
外文文献翻译(图片版)
本科毕业论文外文参考文献译文及原文学院经济与贸易学院专业经济学（贸易方向）年级班别2007级 1 班学号3207004154学生姓名欧阳倩指导教师童雪晖2010 年 6 月 3 日目录1 外文文献译文（一）中国银行业的改革和盈利能力（第1、2、4部分） (1)2 外文文献原文（一）CHINA’S BANKING REFORM AND PROFITABILITY（Part 1、2、4） (9)1概述世界银行（1997年）曾声称，中国的金融业是其经济的软肋。
当一国的经济增长的可持续性岌岌可危的时候，金融业的改革一直被认为是提高资金使用效率和消费型经济增长重新走向平衡的必要（Lardy，1998年，Prasad，2007年）。
事实上，不久前，中国的国有银行被视为“技术上破产”，它们的生存需要依靠充裕的国家流动资金。
但是，在银行改革开展以来，最近，强劲的盈利能力已恢复到国有商业银行的水平。
但自从中国的国有银行在不久之前已经走上了改革的道路，它可能过早宣布银行业的改革尚未取得完全的胜利。
此外，其坚实的财务表现虽然强劲，但不可持续增长。
随着经济增长在2008年全球经济衰退得带动下已经开始软化，银行预计将在一个比以前更加困难的经济形势下探索。
本文的目的不是要评价银行业改革对银行业绩的影响，这在一个完整的信贷周期后更好解决。
相反，我们的目标是通过审查改革的进展和银行改革战略，并分析其近期改革后的强劲的财务表现，但是这不能完全从迄今所进行的改革努力分离。
本文有三个部分。
在第二节中，我们回顾了中国的大型国有银行改革的战略，以及其执行情况，这是中国银行业改革的主要目标。
第三节中分析了2007年的财务表现集中在那些在市场上拥有浮动股份的四大国有商业银行：中国工商银行（工商银行），中国建设银行（建行），对中国银行（中银）和交通银行（交通银行）。
引人注目的是中国农业银行，它仍然处于重组上市过程中得适当时候的后期。
第四节总结一个对银行绩效评估。
(完整版)外文翻译
外文文献原稿和译文原稿logistics distribution center location factors:(1) the goods distribution and quantity. This is the distribution center and distribution of the object, such as goods source and the future of distribution, history and current and future forecast and development, etc. Distribution center should as far as possible and producer form in the area and distribution short optimization. The quantity of goods is along with the growth of the size distribution and constant growth. Goods higher growth rate, the more demand distribution center location is reasonable and reducing conveying process unnecessary waste.(2) transportation conditions. The location of logistics distribution center should be close to the transportation hub, and to form the logistics distribution center in the process of a proper nodes. In the conditional, distribution center should be as close to the railway station, port and highway.(3) land conditions. Logistics distribution center covers an area of land in increasingly expensive problem today is more and more important. Is the use of the existing land or land again? Land price? Whether to conform to the requirements of the plan for the government, and so on, in the construction distribution center have considered.(4) commodities flow. Enterprise production of consumer goods as the population shift and change, should according to enterprise's better distribution system positioning. Meanwhile, industrial products market will transfer change, in order to determine the raw materials and semi-finished products of commodities such as change of flow in the location of logistics distribution center should be considered when the flow of the specific conditions of the relevant goods.(5) other factors. Such as labor, transportation and service convenience degree, investment restrictions, etc.How to reduce logistics cost，enhance the adaptive capacity and strain capacity of distribution center is a key research question of agricultural product logistics distribution center．At present，most of the research on logistics cost concentrates off theoretical analysis of direct factors of logistics cost, and solves the problem of over-high logistics Cost mainly by direct channel solution．This research stresses on the view of how to loeate distribution center, analyzes the influence of locating distribution center on logistics cost．and finds one kind of simple and easy location method by carrying on the location analysis of distribution center through computer modeling and the application of Exeel．So the location of agricultural product logistics distribution center can be achieved scientifically and reasonably, which will attain the goal of reducing logistics cost, and have a decision．making support function to the logisties facilities and planning of agricultural product．The agricultural product logistics distribution center deals with dozens and even hundreds of clients every day, and transactions are made in high-frequency. If the distribution center is far away from other distribution points，the moving and transporting of materials and the collecting of operational data is inconvenient and costly. costly．The modernization of agricultural product logistics s distribution center is a complex engineering system，not only involves logistics technology, information technology, but also logistics management ideas and its methods，in particular the specifying of strategic location and business model is essential for the constructing of distribution center. How to reduce logistics cost，enhance the adaptive capacity and strain capacity of distribution center is a key research question of agricultural product logistics distribution center. The so—called logistics costs refers to the expenditure summation of manpower, material and financial resources in the moving process of the goods．such as loading and unloading，conveying，transport，storage，circulating，processing, information processing and other segments. In a word。
外文翻译
有机碳和从一系列实验室合成的生物炭和生物炭与土壤混合物的养分释放Atanu Mukherjee , Andrew R. ZimmermanDepartment of Geological Sciences, University of Florida, 241 Williamson Hall, P.O. Box 112120, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA摘要生物炭作为土壤改良剂，会增加土壤的吸收能力和生产能力，但其对溶解有机碳（DOC），氮（N），磷（P）的循环和亏损的影响还不是很清楚。
在这里，纯净土壤与土壤混合物被做成批量处理加入各种新鲜的和熟化的生物炭进行提取和淋洗检验其营养释放。
在生物炭的连续批量提取中，累计亏损大约分别为总C，N 和P初始量的0.1-2 ，0.5-8 和0.5-100%。
在较低温度和草制成生物炭却有更大的释放。
氨通常是渗滤液中的最丰富的氮素形态，但是硝酸盐同样在生物炭中也很丰富。
而有机氮和磷的损失分别占总N和P的高达61％和93％。
释放的有机碳，氮和磷的量是与生物炭挥发物含量和酸性官能团密度呈现正相关的。
然而，通过含有矿物质的P样品显示，通过Mehlich-1提取的磷的释放是与灰分含量有更加密切相关的。
一系列的土壤和生物炭的混合物显示，土壤吸收生物炭的营养还是生物炭吸收土壤的营养是取决于生物炭和土壤类型的。
这项研究表明，生物炭包含有不同释放速率的养分形态，生物炭的释放速率是受土壤肥力和作物类型和时间的影响的。
1、引言生物炭是在有限的生物质或没有氧气（裂解）的条件下通过热处理得到的碳产物。
生物炭最近由于其潜力而获得关注，作为土壤改良剂使用时，会改良退化土壤的肥力和通过植物去储存大气中的碳。
最近有很多工作研究生物炭的化学特性和作用于植物与微生物的生长。
但是这些伴随生物炭改变的影响的主要机制和对环境可能造成的后果，例如有机污染物或养分释放，目前还不清楚。
外文翻译---100个改变平面设计的观念(英文为图片)
中文1850字100个改变平面设计的观念（部分）观念53 影子游戏平面设计师永久痴迷的问题之一，即是如何从平面世界中脱离出来。
他们想要让图像和文字摆脱二维水平的限制。
匈牙利裔艺术家LászlóMoholy-Nagy 终生都致力于解决这个棘手的问题。
通过摄影，以及用透镜、反射镜、滤光片来控制光影的方法，他赋予了静态的平面元素一种纵深和动态的感觉。
1929年的一本名为《14部包豪斯著作》的手册封面上，LászlóMoholy-Nagy通过从各种角度拍摄排字盘上的金属字并拼贴在一起的方法，创造了一种奇特的视觉混合物。
这些单词不仅突出于画面而且也不符合透视原理。
他意识到，将字形与它们被扭曲的影子放在一起，可以将纸面转换为一扇通往超凡脱俗的境界的窗口。
László Moholy-Nagy应该会喜欢美国艺术家Ed Ruscha的作品，他的单色的“文字作品”常和一种奇特的光影游戏联系在一起，受洛杉矶的印刷环境启发，他的作品介于电影标题序列和路边广告之间。
他创作于1990年的作品“Mighty Topic”则是以块状的大写字母为前景，而投射在背后墙上的是斜体的大小写的字母的模糊影子。
而且，投影被设计为一个陡峭的角度，一种视觉的荒谬。
然而，奇怪的是，图像并没有给人一种错误的印象，相反，它忠实地再现了一种视觉矛盾，并给南加利福尼亚州的风景、广告牌、汽车旅馆标志和大型加油站的遮檐注入了更多的个性。
2004年，巴黎Châtelet剧院宣传Richard Wagner的Tannhäuser的海报中，Rudi Meyer 用字体和阴影创造了一个幽灵似的视觉幻象。
透视上看，一个大写字母T投射出一个长长的令人生畏的十字架形状的阴影。
一个人们可能不会下意识地注意到的细节——T的角度和十字架阴影并不匹配——成就了作品给观者的怪异印象。
影子游戏经常用于舞台设计，所以并不令人意外，Rudi Meyer在为Châtelet剧院的7年任期中创造了许多这种的平面幻像。
本科毕业设计外文文献翻译
（Sheaｒ waｌl ｓt ｒuctural desigｎ ofh ｉgh-ｌev ｅl fr ａmeworkＷｕ Jiche ｎgＡbstract ： In t ｈis pape ｒ the basic c ｏｎcepts of ｍａn ｐow ｅr ｆｒom th ｅ ｆra ｍｅ sh ｅａr w ａｌl str ｕc ｔｕｒｅ, analy ｓis of the ｓtruct ｕr ａｌ des ｉgn ｏf th ｅ c ｏnt ｅnt ｏｆ t ｈe fr ａme she ａr wall, in ｃｌudi ｎg the ｓeism ｉc wa ｌl she ａr spa本科毕业设计外文文献翻译学校代码： 10128学 号：题 目：Shear wall structural design of high-level framework 学生姓名： 学 院：土木工程学院 系 别：建筑工程系 专 业：土木工程专业（建筑工程方向） 班 级：土木08-（5）班 指导教师： (副教授)ｎratiｏdesign, ａnd a concrｅtｅｓtruｃtuｒe in thｅmｏst co ｍmonｌy useｄframe shear walｌstｒｕcturｅtｈｅdesign of p ｏiｎｔs to note.Keyworｄs: cｏncrｅｔｅ; fｒaｍｅshｅａｒwall sｔｒucｔｕre；hiｇh－risｅbuildｉｎｇsThe wall is aｍoｄern high－rｉｓe buiｌdiｎgs is an iｍpo ｒｔant buiｌdinｇconｔｅnt, the ｓize of thｅfraｍe sheａr wall must comｐly with buildｉng reguｌａtｉons. The pｒｉnｃipｌe is ｔhat the largeｒsｉzｅbｕt the thｉｃknessｍuｓt ｂｅsmaller gｅoｍetric featｕrｅｓshoｕlｄｂe ｐｒeｓented ｔo the pｌatｅ,ｔｈe forｃe is close to cylｉndrｉcal.Ｔhe waｌl sｈｅar wa ｌl strｕｃｔure ｉs a flaｔcomｐonent. Itｓeｘposure to tｈe force aｌoｎg ｔhe ｐlane leｖｅl of theｒole ofｓｈear and momｅｎt, must also take ｉｎtｏａccounｔthe veｒｔical preｓsure.Opeｒate unｄer thｅcomｂiｎed actｉｏn oｆbenｄing momeｎts and axial force aｎｄsheａr forcｅbｙthe caｎtilｅｖｅr deep beａm uｎder ｔｈe acｔion of the force leveｌｔo lｏo ｋinto ｔｈe bottom mouｎted on ｔhe basｉs of. Sheaｒｗaｌl ｉｓdiｖidｅｄinｔo a whole walｌand ｔheａssoｃiated ｓｈeａr wall in thｅactual project,a wholｅwａlｌfor ｅxａmpl ｅ, suｃh as ｇenｅraｌhｏusiｎｇｃonstｒuction in tｈe gablｅｏr fish bｏne strｕcture ｆｉlｍwａｌls ａnd small opｅningｓwall.Cｏupled Sｈeａr ｗalls are ｃonnｅcted bｙｔhｅcｏupｌing ｂeam shｅａr wall.Buｔｂecause tｈeｇｅnerａlｃｏupling beaｍstｉｆfness is less thaｎｔhe wall stiｆfnｅsｓof the lｉmbs，ｓｏ. Wａlｌliｍb aｌonｅis obviｏus.The ｃｅntral beam of tｈeｉnflｅｃtion pｏｉnｔtｏpay aｔtenｔiｏｎto tｈeｗaｌl pressｕre thａn the limiｔs of the lｉmb axis. Will forｍa shortｗiｄe beａms，widｅcolｕmn wａll liｍｂｓhear wａll ｏpｅnings toｏlarge ｃomｐonｅnt aｔbothｅn ｄs ｗith jｕst the domain of vａｒiabｌe crosｓ－ｓecｔｉon ro ｄin ｔhe intｅrｎａｌforcｅｓｕnder tｈｅaｃtioｎof maｎy Ｗalｌlｉmb iｎflｅcｔion point Ｔhｅｒeｆoｒe, ｔhe cａｌcula ｔions ａｎd consｔruction sｈouldAccordinｇtｏappｒoxiｍａｔe tｈe framｅstｒucｔure to ｃonsideｒ.Tｈe desｉｇｎof ｓhｅａr walls ｓhoulｄbe based on the cｈａractｅrisｔics ｏf ａvａｒｉｅty oｆwall itseｌｆ,ａnd dｉfferｅnｔmeｃhanical ch ａrａcteｒisｔｉcｓand requireｍents,wall oｆthｅinternａｌforceｄistrｉbutｉon and failurｅmoｄｅs ｏf sｐecific and cｏmprehensive ｃonｓideration of the design rｅinｆorcemｅnt aｎd stｒuctural measｕres. Ｆrame sｈear wall ｓｔrｕctuｒe deｓiｇn is to cｏｎsider the ｓtructｕre of the oｖerall ａnａｌysis for ｂoｔh dｉrecｔｉｏｎsｏｆthｅhｏrｉzontal and vｅrtiｃalｅfｆects. Oｂtain thｅinternal force ｉs reｑuirｅd in ａccｏrdancｅｗｉｔｈtｈe bias or paｒtｉal ｐull normal sｅcｔｉon forｃｅｃaｌculatiｏn.The waｌl strｕcture oｆtheｆｒame sｈear ｗall ｓｔructural dｅsign of ｔhe coｎtent frame hｉgh-rise buildings, in ｔhe actual ｐrｏjeｃｔiｎｔhｅuse of thｅｍoｓt seisｍic ｗａlls have suffiｃient quantitｉeｓto meｅt ｔheｌｉmitsｏf the lａyer displacement, the loｃation iｓｒelａtiｖely flexiblｅ. Seiｓmic wａll for cｏntinuous layout，ｆulｌ-length ｔhroｕgh．Should bｅdesigned to avoid the waｌl mutaｔioｎs ｉn limb ｌｅｎgth and alignment is noｔuｐａnd down the ｈolｅ. The samｅtｉme．Tｈe inｓide of ｔhe hole marginｓcｏlｕｍｎshｏｕld not ｂｅｌｅssｔhan３00mm ｉｎordｅｒtｏguaraｎteｅtheｌengtｈof the colｕｍn ａs the edgｅof tｈe coｍponent and constｒａiｎt eｄgｅcｏｍponeｎts．Thｅbi-direc ｔiｏnal laｔerａl forｃe ｒesiｓting strucｔurａl fｏrm of verticａl aｎｄhorｉzontaｌwalｌcoｎnected.Eａｃh ｏｔhｅr as ｔhe ａffiｎiｔｙof the shｅar wall. Ｆor ｏnｅ, two seismic frａme sｈe ａr ｗalｌｓ,ｅｖen beam highｒatio ｓhould noｔgreateｒthan 5 aｎd a height of nｏt less thaｎ400mm.Midline colｕmnａnd beａmｓ,wall ｍｉdline shouｌdｎoｔbe greaｔer tha ｎthe ｃoｌｕmｎwidｔｈof1/4，ｉn ordｅr ｔｏreｄuce thｅtoｒsional eｆfect of the sｅiｓmｉｃacｔion ｏnｔｈｅｃolｕmn．Oｔhｅrwｉsｅcan be taken tｏstrengthｅn theｓtirruprａｔｉo iｎｔhe cｏlｕmn tｏmake ｕp.If thｅshear wａｌl sheａｒsｐａn ｔhａnｔhe ｂig twｏ. Ｅveｎthe beａｍcro ｓs-heｉｇht ratiｏgreateｒthan 2.5, ｔhen tｈe design presｓｕｒe ｏf thｅｃｕt shoulｄnoｔmａkｅａｂig 0.2. Howevｅｒ, ｉf the sheａｒwallｓheａr sｐａｎｒatiｏof ｌess than two couｐlinｇｂeａms sｐan of ｌeｓs than ２．5, then the shear coｍｐres ｓiｏn rａｔiｏis noｔgreaｔer thａn 0.15. Thｅｏther haｎｄ，ｔhe bｏttom oｆthe fraｍe ｓhｅar walｌstructure ｔo enhａnce tｈｅdｅsign sｈould ｎoｔbe leｓs thaｎ２０0mmａnd noｔlesｓthaｎstorey 1/１6，othｅｒｐaｒtｓｓhｏulｄnot be lｅss than 160mm ａnd ｎｏt ｌｅss thaｎｓtoｒey １/20. Arounｄthe wall of the frame ｓhｅar ｗall strucｔure sｈｏulｄbe set ｔo the beａm or dark bｅamａnd the sｉｄe columｎｔｏform a borｄｅr. Ｈoｒizｏntａl ｄｉｓtrｉbuｔioｎoｆsｈear waｌls cａn from the sheａr effect，tｈｉs design wｈen ｂuilｄｉng higｈｅr longeｒor fｒaｍｅｓtructｕre reinfoｒcｅment shｏuld be aｐprｏpｒiatelｙincｒeａｓed, ｅspｅcｉａlｌy in the sｅnｓitivｅｐarts of the beam pｏsition ｏr teｍperaｔuｒe, stiffnｅsｓchａnge is besｔappｒopriatｅly increased, ｔｈeｎcｏnsidｅration sｈoulｄbe ｇｉveｎｔo the wａlｌvertｉcaｌreiｎforｃemeｎt,becaｕse ｉt is mａinly fｒom the bｅnding efｆecｔ, aｎｄtake in ｓome ｍｕlti-ｓtorｅｙshｅａｒｗａll structuｒereinforcｅｄreｉnｆorceｍent rate -likｅlｅsｓconｓtｒained edgｅｏｆｔhｅcomｐonent or components reinforｃemeｎt of thｅedge ｃomｐｏnent.Referｅnces: [1 sad Hａyaｓhi,He Yaming. Ｏn the shorｔshｅar ｗall ｈigh-riｓe bｕilｄinｇｄesign ［J]．Kｅｙｕaｎ, 2008, (O2).高层框架剪力墙结构设计吴继成摘要: 本文从框架剪力墙结构设计的基本概念人手, 分析了框架剪力墙的构造设计内容, 包括抗震墙、剪跨比等的设计, 并出混凝土结构中最常用的框架剪力墙结构设计的注意要点。
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外文翻译通常，应变计应用在两个方面：在机械和结构的实验力分析中和应用力，扭矩，压力,流量以及加速度传感器结构中。
非粘贴丝式应变计通常是当作专门的转换器来使用，其结构是使用一些有预载荷的电阻丝连接成惠斯登电桥，如图4.11：在最初的预载荷中，四根金属丝的应变和电阻在理论上是相等的，它们组成一个平衡电桥，并且e0 = 0 （参考第10章电桥电路特性）。
输入端一个小的位移（满量程≈0.04 mm）将会使两根金属丝的拉力增大而使另外两根的拉力减小（假设金属丝不会变松弛），引起电阻阻值的变化，电桥失衡，输出电压与输入位移成比例。
金属丝可以由砷镍、镍铬和铁镍等多种合金制造，直径约为0.03 mm，可以承受的最大应力仅为0.002 N，灵敏系数为2到4，每个桥臂的电阻为120Ω到1000Ω, 最大激励电压5到10V，满量程输出典型值为20到50mV。
粘结丝式应变计（现在主要被粘贴箔式结构的应变计取代）应用于应力分析和作为转换器。
具有很细丝式敏感栅粘贴在待测试件表面，来感受应变。
金属丝被埋入矩形的粘合剂中，不能弯曲从而如实地反映待测试件的压缩和拉伸应力。
因为金属丝的材料和尺寸与那些非粘贴应变计相似，所以灵敏度和电阻具有了可比性。
粘贴箔式应变计采用与丝式应变计相同或类似的材料，现在主要用于多用途力分析任务及多种传感器中。
其感应元件是利用光腐蚀工艺加工成厚度小于0.0002的薄片，当其形状改变时，它具有很大的灵活性。
如图4.12：例如，这三个线形敏感栅应变计被设计成端部宽大的形状。
这种局部的增大将会减小横向灵敏度，以及在测量应变沿敏感栅单元的长度方向的分量时产生的干扰输入信号。
在丝式应变计中，这种端部形状也应用在纵向单元的连接处，以便增加横向抗干扰能力。
并且在制造过程中也非常方便在图4.12上的全部四个应变计上焊接焊盘。
采用蒸发沉积工艺制成的金属薄膜应变计与采用溅镀沉积工艺制成的应变片一样通常都作为转换器。
两种工艺首先都是使用一个合适弹性元件来转换局部应力的大小，就像使用粘贴箔式应变片一样。
就应力转换元件来说，它应该是一个薄的圆形金属光栅。
蒸发沉积工艺和溅镀沉积工艺都是使所有的应变计单元直接放在应变表面；而不是单独放上的，和粘贴式应变计一样。
在蒸发沉积工艺中，光栅在一个真空腔中，其外有绝缘材料。
加热绝缘材料让其蒸发，之后再冷凝，这样就会形成一个绝缘膜在光栅上面。
之后把合适的成型模板放在光栅上面，让金属应变材料重复的蒸发和冷凝。
在绝缘底层上形成我们想要的应变计的形状。
在溅镀过程中，一个薄的绝缘层在真空中再次沉积在整个光栅表面；但是，沉积的具体方法与蒸发沉积所用的方法不同。
之后把全部的金属应变材料层（不是模板）溅镀在绝缘底层上面。
现在把光栅从真空腔中移出来，并利用微缩图像技术，使用感光材料来描述出应变计的形状。
把光栅在放回到真空腔中，我们现在使用溅镀沉积来除去所有没有被掩盖的金属层，仅留下完整的应变计的形状。
箔膜应变计的电阻和灵敏系数通常和那些粘贴式箔应变计类似。
由于没有像粘贴式箔应变计那样使用粘合剂，所以薄膜式电阻应变计展现出了良好的频率特性和温度稳定性。
现在的溅镀技术发展为喷气发动机涡轮刀刃测量提供了的非常有用的耐高压、耐高温、耐腐蚀传感器。
粘贴半导体式应变计通常被用作转换器；但是，它们经常应用在应变非常小的地方。
它们是从采用特殊工艺的硅晶体上面切割下来的，并且N型和P型都可使用。
P型应变计在有拉伸应力的情况下电阻会增加，而N型应变计则减小。
它们的主要特点是具有特别高的灵敏系数---可以达到150。
式（4.14）表明这些高的灵敏系数主要取决于压阻效应，基于半导体的转换器一般叫做压阻转换器。
不幸的是，高的灵敏度系数通常伴随着高的温度系数，非线性和高的装配难度。
解决这些存在问题的方法，就是将其应用在传感器制造行业，但是这种转换器是无法应用到常规的应力分析中的。
扩散半导体式应变计（通常作为专用转换器），采用了在电子集成电路制造业中使用的扩散工艺。
以压力转换器为例，敏感栅采用硅材料而不是金属，而且可以通过在敏感栅上沉积杂质从而在特定的位置得到固有的应变单元以实现应变计的功能。
这种结构可以在某些场合降低成本，特别是在一个硅晶片上制造大量的敏感栅的时候。
这次讨论的余下内容主要集中在粘贴金属箔式应变计上面，因为它们是最有可能被那些单独的工程师应用在力分析和自制的转换器中。
这些应变计被安在一个绝缘薄膜上（聚酰亚胺，玻璃纤维增强酚醛等）其厚度约为0.001；由于粘结薄膜的厚度的存在，使厚度仅为0.0002的金属敏感栅在待测体的表面看起来比厚度为0.001绝缘薄膜苗条很多。
当我们想要测量弯曲应力而待测体又非常的薄的时候，这种转变非常有意义，因为应变计可以感受与待测体表面相近应变。
在力分析中，我们目标是想测量一个点的受力情况；而这在应变计中是无法实现的，因为敏感栅覆盖了一个有限的区域并且应变计显示的是这个区域的一个平均值；如果应变成线性变化，那么这个平均值就是这个应变计长度方向中点的值，如果应变不是成线性变化的话，应变计所显示的应力点就不确定了。
但是，这个不确定的范围随着应变计的尺寸减小而减小,所以当应变变化梯度很快的时候就需要尺寸小的应变计。
而实际的应变片的最小尺寸是由制造业的制造工艺和处理工艺还有装备问题所限制；最小的应变计的尺寸其长度大约在0.015（0.38mm）。
应变计可以应用在弯曲的表面。
最大弯曲半径在一些应变计中可以达到0.06。
应变计电阻的典型值一般是120，350和1000Ω，允许电流一般取决于热传导的环境，但我们一般还是取5到40mA；灵敏度系数是2 到4。
一个应变计的电阻是很容易测量的，但是测量灵敏度系数却需要把应变计粘贴到待测元件上面以便我们可以通过理论计算出应变的大小。
因为贴上的应变计无法从待测体上面拿下来，所以应变计的灵敏度系数并不是你买到的那个的实际灵敏度系数，而是在相同条件下对同一批应变计测量出的一个平均值。
因而我们利用制造业的统计质量控制技术来维持灵敏度系数的精度。
通常允许1%的误差，这也是力分析中精度的最低要求。
注意，这并不限制应变计的精度，因为转换器的校准是采用“端对端”（比如说在压力转换器中，输入压力，输出电压）所以我们并不需要知道应变计的灵敏度系数。
最大的测量误差可以在0.5%到4%；但是在特殊场合应变计设备允许测量达到0.1英寸/英寸。
应变计的疲劳特性由使用环境决定；但是通常1千万次弯曲允许±1,500微应变（即45,000磅/平方英寸在钢铁中，是常见的箔式应变计的设计满量程值）。
粘贴半导体式应变计工作满量程比较低（一般是20με），它可以设计成具有可在粗糙表面使用和具有快速响应的转换器以便应用在小范围的输入测量，而箔式应变计则需要比较平缓的弹性元件。
许多粘合剂都在改进以便可以更好的把应变计粘贴到待测体上。
应变片和粘贴方法都允许工作在-425℉ (-269℃) 到 1500℉ (816℃)的范围内。
在温度特别高的场合应采用焊接或者火焰喷涂的方法而不是采用粘合剂。
有些粘合剂可以在室温晒干，而有的需要烘焙。
晒干的时间可以从几分钟到几天。
粘结处的质量显然与应变计粘贴的正确性有关，因为我们完全依靠应变计把待测量体的形变转换到应变计的敏感栅上。
这种问题在高温、潮湿和长时间工作的环境里面尤为突出。
所以保护性的防水材料通常被用来提高可靠性。
除了单元件应变计，应变计联合起来的形式叫做应变花（如图4.13）：通常用在特殊的力分析结构或者转换器应用中。
当单个应变片以同样的式样粘贴时，这些应变计的相位就变成了主要的问题，而这个在花状制造工艺中实现要比用户利用单元件应变计自己制造要简单的多。
应变花通常用来解决那些大小和方向都不确定的表面应力的问题。
从理论上讲，采用具有3个花瓣状的应变计的测量方法可以测量出所有我们需要的数据。
因为这种测量方法是要在一个点上定义力的大小，所以从理论上讲3个应变计应该在这个点上有重合的部分。
这种“三明治”的结构（叫做层叠应变花）是非常可行的，但是，这种结构使最上的应变片远离待测量体表面，并且增加它的自热，因为它可以很好的隔离待测体表面的温度，尤其在待测体作为一个散热器的时候。
如果它的缺点比优点重要时，我们还可以使用平坦的花状设计，通常这种设计是可行的（见图4.13）。
原文Typically, the strain gauge applications in two aspects: mechanical and structural analysis of experimental force and applied force, torque, pressure, flow and the structure of accele- ration sensor. The non-paste wire strain gauge is usually as a specialized converter to use, and its structure is to use some pre-load resistance wire which is connected into a Wheat-stone bridge, shown in Figure 4.11:In the initial pre-load, strain and resistance of the four wire, in theory, be equal, they form a balanced bridge, and e0 = 0 (refer to Chapter 10 of the bridge circuit characteristics). Input of a small displacement (full range of ≈ 0.04 mm) will make two wire tensi on increases leaving another two of the tension is reduced ( assuming that the wire will not change relaxation ) caused by the change of resistance .The imbalance of the bridge, the output voltage and the input displacement is proportional to. Wire can be a variety of nickel arsenic, nickel, chromium and iron-nickel alloy, about 0.03 mm in diameter, can withstand the maximum stress is only 0.002 N, the sensitivity coefficient of 2-4, each bridge arm resistance of 120Ω to 1,000 Ω, the maximum excitation voltage 5 to 10V full scale output is typically 20 to 50mV.Bonded wire strain gauges (pasted strain gauges instead of the foil structure) used in stress analysis and as a converter. With very filaments sensitive gate paste the test surface to feel the strain. The wire is buried in the rectangular adhesive can not be bent in order to faithfully reflect the test compression and tensile stress. Material and size of the wire and those non -paste the strain meter, with comparable sensitivity and resistance.Paste the foil strain gauge wire strain gauges of the same or similar materials, is now mainly used in the multi-purpose power analysis tasks and a variety of sensors.Its sensing element is the use of light corrosion processing technology, the thickness is less than 0.0002 sheet when its shape changes, it has a great deal of flexibility. Figure 4.12:For example,the three linear sensitive gate strain meter has been designed into the end of the large shape. Such a partial increases will reduce the transverse sensitivity, as well as the interference of the input signal in the measurement of the strain component along the direc- tion of the length of the sensitive gate units. Wire strain gauges, the shape of the end of the application in the junction of the vertical unit in order to increase the lateral anti-jamming capa- bility. Soldering pads on all four strain gauges in the manufacturing process is also very convenient in Figure 4.12.Evaporation deposition process made of metal film strain gauges using the strain gauge is usually as a converter made by the sputter deposition process. The two processes are first of all use a suitable elastic element to convert the size of the local stress, like using paste foil strain gauge. On the stress transition elements, it should be a thin circular metal grating. Vapor deposition process and the sputtering deposition process so that all of the strain gauge unit directly on the strain surface; rather than individually placed, and paste the strain meter. Evaporation deposition process, the grating in a vacuum chamber, the external insulation ma- terials. Heat insulating materials allowed to evaporate, and then condensation will form an in- sulating film in the grating above. After forming the template on the grating above, so that the evaporation and condensation of metal strain duplication of material. Formed in the insulating substrates, we want the shape of the strain gauge.In the sputtering process, a thin insulating layer is again deposited in a vacuum in the entire grating surface; However, the specific method of deposition and evaporation deposition me- thod. After sputtering the metal strain material layer (not the template) in the insulation of the bottom above. The grating moved from the vacuum chamber, and a thumbnail image techno- logy, the use of photosensitive material to describe the shape of the strain gauge. The grating back into the vacuum chamber, we use sputter deposition to remove all the metal layer is not concealed, leaving only the shape of the strain gauge. Foil strain gauge resistance and sensi- tivity coefficient is usually similar to the meter and paste-type foil strain. Did not like the paste- type foil strain gauge as the use of adhesives, thin film-type resistance strain meter show good frequency characteristics and temperature stability. Sputtering the development of jet engine turbine blade measurement provides a very useful high pressure, high temperature, corrosion-resistant sensors.The paste-type semiconductor strain gauge is usually used as a converter; However, they are often applied in a very small strain. They are cut off from the top of the silicon crystal using a special process, and N-type and P-type can be used. P-type strain gages under tensile stress resistance will increase, while the N-type strain gauge decreases. Their main characte- ristics is a particularly high sensitivity coefficient - can reach 150. ( 4.14 ) shows that these high-sensitivity coefficient depends mainly on the piezoresistive effect of semiconductor- based converters is generally called the piezoresistive converter. Unfortunately, the high sen- sitivity coefficient is usually accompanied by a high temperature coefficient, nonlinear and high assembly difficulty. To solve these problems the method is applied to the sensor manu- facturing industry, but this converter can not be applied to the conventional stress analysis. Diffusion semiconductor strain gauge (usually as a dedicated conversion), the diffusion process used in the manufacturing of electronic integrated circuits. Converter, for example, pressure sensitive-gate silicon material rather than metal, and can thus by the deposition of impurities on the sensitive gate at a specific location, the inherent strain element to achievethe function of the strain gauge. This structure can reduce costs in some cases, especially in the sensitive gate when manufactured on a silicon wafer.The remainder of this discussion is mainly concentrated in the paste metal foil strain gauge above, because they are most likely to be the individual engineers used in the power of ana- lysis and self-made converter. These strain gages has been safety in an insulating film (polyi- mide, glass fiber reinforced phenolic, etc.) to a thickness of about 0.001; due to the presence of the thickness of the adhesive film, the thickness of only 0.0002 metal-sensitive gate in the test body the surface looks better than the thickness of 0.001 insulating film slim many. When we want to measure the bending stress and test the body and very thin, this shift is very meaningful, because the strain gauges can feel the test body surface similar strain. In power analysis, our goal is to measure a point of the force; strain gauge can not be achieved, because of the sensitive gate covering a limited area, and strain gauges to display an average for this region; If you should become a linear change, then the average is the strain gauge length direction of the midpoint of the values, if the strain is not a linear change, the stress points shown by the strain gauge is not identified. However, the scope of this uncertainty decreases as the strain gauge size decreases, so when the strain gradient quickly when you need the small size of the strain gauge. The minimum size of the actual strain gauge is limited by the manufacturing of the manufacturing process and handling process, there are equip- ment problems; the smallest the size of the strain gauge length about 0.015 (0.38mm). The strain gauges can be applied to curved surfaces. The maximum bending radius can be achi- eved in a number of strain gages 0.06.Typical values of the strain gage resistor 120, 350 and 1000Ω, allow current generally depends on the thermal conductivity of the environment, but we generally take 5 to 40mA; sensitivity coefficient is 2-4. The resistance of a strain gauge is easy to measure, but the measurement sensitivity coefficients need to strain gauges pasted into the top of the DUT so that we can strain the size of the theoretical calculations. An average value of the pasted strain gauges can not be won from the top of the test body, the sensitivity coefficient of the strain gauge is not you buy the actual sensitivity coefficient, but the same number of strain under the same conditions for measuring the . Therefore, we use the manufacturing of statistical quality control techniques to maintain the accuracy of the sensitivity coefficient. Usually allow a 1% error, which is the power to analyze the accuracy of the minimum requirements. Note that this does not limit the accuracy of the strain gauge calibration of the converter is using "end-to-end (for example, enter the pressure in the pressure converter, the output voltage) so we do not need to know the sensitivity coefficient of the strain gauge. Maximum measurement error of 0.5% to 4%; but for special occasions, strain gauge equipment to allow measurement of 0.1 inches / inch. Fatigue characteristics of the strain gauge is determined by the use of the environment; but usually a million times bent to allow ±1,500 micro-strain (ie 45,000 pounds / square inch in the steel foil strain gauge designfull-scale value). Paste type semiconductor strain gauge full scale the lower (yes 20με), it can be designed to have a rough surface and the rapid response of the converter in order to apply a small range of input measurement, foil strain gauge gentle elastic element.Many adhesives are improving so that you can better strain gauge pasted into the DUT. The strain gauge and paste methods are allowed to work in the -425 ° F (-269 ° C) to 1500 ° F (816 ° C) range. Particularly high temperature occasions welding or flame spraying methodshould be used instead of using adhesives. Some adhesives can be dried at room temperature, while others need to be baked. Dry time can be from minutes to days. The quality of the glued joints is clearly the correctness of the strain gauges pasted, because we are totally dependent on the strain gauge body for measuring the deformation of the strain gauge sensitive gate. This problem in the high temperature, humidity and long hours of work environment which is particularly prominent. Protective waterproof material is often used to improve reliability.In addition to the element strain gages, strain gages together form called a rosette (Figure 4.13):It is usually used in the force analysis of the structure or converter applications. When a single strain gauge paste the same style, the phase of the strain gauge into a major problem in the flower-like manufacturing process than the user element strain gauge made much simpler . The rosette is usually used to solve the problem of the size and direction do not determine the surface stress. In theory, with three petal-like strain gauge measurement method can measure all the data we need. This measurement is to be defined at one point size, so in theory the three strain gauges should be at this point, the overlap part of. This "sandwich" structure (called a stacked rosette) is very feasible, However, this structure away from the top of the strain gauge be measuring the surface and increase its self-heating, because it can be a good isolation be measured surface temperature, especially in the testbody as a radiator. If its disadvantages than advantages, we can also use the flat flower-shaped design, usually this design is feasible (see Figure 4.13).。