专业英语复习整理(12年)

Main PointsChapter 1 Communication: Mass and Other Forms1.The 8 elements in the communication process:A source, encoding process, message, channel, decoding process, receiver, feedback,and noise.2.The 3 types of noise:Semantic, environmental, mechanical.3.The 3 main settings for communication:Interpersonal, machine-assisted interpersonal, mass communication.4.Each element in the communication process may vary according to setting.5.Mass Communication:Refers to the process by which a complex organization, with the aid of one or more machines, produces public messages that are aimed at large, heterogeneous, and scattered audiences.6.Characteristics for a mass communicator:Traditionally, it is identified by its formal organization, gatekeepers, expensive operating costs, profit motive, and competitiveness.The internet has created exceptions to these characteristics.7.New models have been developed to illustrated Internet mass communication.A.Push Model—the traditional model of mass communication was a ―one-to-m any‖model. Under the traditional model there is little direct interaction between sources and receivers.B.Pull Model –the new model makes it possible that several different levels ofcommunication happen in a computer-mediated environment. The content is provided not only by organizations but also by individuals. It is not a one-way model. Instead, receivers can choose the time and manner of the interaction. The messages flowing to each receiver are not identical. In this new model, the receiver pulls only the information that he or she wants.munication content has become more specialized in the past 40 years, but thechannels of mass communication still have the potential to reach vast audiences.9.7 trends for modern mass communication:Audience segmentation, convergence, user-generated content, increased audience control, multiple platform, more mobility, social media.1 / 24Chapter 2 Perspectives on Mass Communication1.Functional analysis holds that something is best understood by examining how it isused.2.At the macro level of analysis, mass media perform 5 functions for society:Surveillance, interpretation, linkage, transmission of values, diversion.Dysfunctions are harmful or negative consequences of these functions.3.At the micro level of analysis, the functional approach is calleduses-and-gratifications analysis.4.The media perform 5 functions for the individual:Cognition, diversion, social utility, withdrawal.5.The critical/ cultural approach has it roots in Marxist philosophy, which emphasizedclass differences as a cause of conflict in a society.6.The critical/ cultural approach suggests that media content helps perpetuate a systemthat keeps the dominant class in power. It also notes that people can find different meanings in the same message.7.Key concepts:Text, meaning, hegemony, ideology.8.Although they are different approaches, both functional and critical/ cultural studiescan be valuable tools for the analysis of the mass communication process.Chapter 3 Historical and Cultural Context1.Printing made information available to a larger audience. It helped the development ofvernacular languages, aided the Protestant Reformation, and contributed to the spread and accumulation of knowledge.2.The telegraph and telephone were the first media to use electricity to communicate.They marked the first time the message could be separated from messenger. The telegraph helped the railroads move west and permitted the newspapers to publish more timely news. The telephone linked people together in the first instance of a communication network.3.Photography provided a way to preserve history, had an impact on art, and broughtbetter visuals to newspapers and magazines. Motion pictures helped socialize a generation of immigrants and became an important part of American culture.4.Radio and TV broadcasting brought news and entertainment into the home,transformed leisure time, and pioneered a new, immediate kind of reporting.2 / 24Television has an impact on free time, politics, socialization ,culture, and many other areas as well.5.The digital revolution changed the way information was stored and transmitted andmade e-commerce possible.6.Mobile media have changed American culture and taken over some of the functions ofmass media.7.The next communication milestone is the expanding use of social media.8.In general, it is difficult to predict the ultimate shape of a new medium. New mediachange but do not replace older media. The pace of media inventions has accelerated in recent years.Chapter 4 Newspapers1.Newspapers in colonial America were published with permission of the localgovernment. A free press did not appear until after the Revolution.2.The mass newspaper arrived in the 1830s with the publication of Benjamin Day’sNew York Sun, the first of the penny-press papers.3.The era of yellow journalism featured sensationalism, crusades, and human-interestreporting and introduced more attractive newspaper designs.4.Many newspapers were merged or folded during the early 1900s, as tabloid papersbecame popular. The trend toward consolidation would continue into the years following World War II.5.The newspaper industry is currently in a crisis as declining circulation and advertisingrevenue have made it difficult for many papers to stay in business.6. 4 types of daily papers –national newspapers, large metro dailies, midsize dailies, andsmall-town dailies.Other major types of papers –weeklies, special-service newspapers, minority newspapers.7.All papers now have online versions.8.The trend toward consolidation in the newspaper industry has ended, and manynewspapers are for sale.9.Newspapers are reexamining their business model and converging their print andonline operations.10.Newspaper audiences are measured by the Audit Bureau of Circulations. Newspaperreadership has declined for the past several decades, but online readership is growing.Chapter 5 Magazines3 / 241.The first American magazines appeared during the middle of the 18th century andwere aimed at an educated, urban, and literate audience.2.The audiences for magazines increased during the penny-press era as mass-appealpublications became prominent.3.Better printing techniques and a healthy economy helped launch a magazine boomduring the latter part of the 19th century.4.The muckrakers were magazines that published exposes and encouraged reform.5.Magazines began to specialize their content following WWI. Newsmagazines, digests,and picture magazines became popular.6.The magazine industry is experiencing a difficult time due to declining advertisingrevenue.7.Magazines are specialized, current, influential, and convenient.8.The magazine industry is dominated by large publishing companies.9.The magazine industry can be divided into the production, distribution, and retaildivisions.10.A typical magazine publishing company has several main departments: circulation,advertising, production, and editorial.11.Magazines get revenues from subscriptions, single-copy sales, and print and onlineadvertising.12.MRI is a company that measures magazine readership.Chapter 6 Books1.The book is the oldest form of mass communication. Early books were printed byhand until the invention of movable type and the printing press.2.In early America publishers were also printers. Books became more popular duringthe 17th and 18th centuries.3.From 1900-1945, the book publishing industry became more commercialized.Continuing consolidation has resulted in a modern book industry that is dominated bya few large companies.4.The digital revolution has yet to have a drastic effect on the book industry. E-bookand printing on demand have yet to become important parts of the industry. Despite the slow progress of digital content, there are signs that it is moving forward.5.The book industry consists of publishers, distributors, and retailers. The emergence ofonline booksellers has changed the way books are sold and distributed.6.The book publishing industry is trying to cope with unfavorable economic conditions.4 / 24Chapter 7 Radio1.Radio started out as point-to-point communication, much like the telephone andtelegraph. The notion of broadcasting did not come about until the 1920s.2.The decade of the 1920s was an important one in radio. Big business took control ofthe industry, receivers improved, commercials were started, networks were formed, and the FRC was set up to regulate radio.3.The coming of TV forced local stations to adopt formats, such as Top 40 or country.4.FM became the dominant form of radio in the 1970s and 1980s. sparked by aloosening of ownership rules, a wave of consolidation took place in the industry during the 1990s.5.Radio is moving slowly into the digital age. Satellite radio and Internet radio are twodigital services that will compete with traditional radio. Radio stations are introducing HD radio.6.Radio programming is provided by local stations, networks, and syndicationcompanies.7.Stations have refined their formats to reach an identifiable audience segment.8.Most radio revenue comes from local advertising. Big companies now dominatelarge-market radio.9.Radio advertising revenue has recently declined.10.National Public Radio is the best-known public broadcaster.11.Radio audiences are measured by Arbitron using a diary method or the new personalpeople meter. The demographic characteristics of the radio listener vary greatly by station format.Chapter 8 Sound Recording1.Thomas Edison pioneered the development of the phonograph, which was first usedas a device to record voice. Emile Berliner perfected the modern technique of recording music in a spiral pattern on a disk. By the end of WWI, record players were found in most American homes.2.The coming of radio and the Depression hurt the development of the recordingindustry, but the business was able to survive because of the popularity of jukeboxes.3.After WWII, the industry grew quickly because of the development of magnetic taperecording and the LP record and, most of all, because radio stations began to play recorded music as part of their formats.4.Rock-and-roll music helped spur record sales and made young people an importantpart of the market for recorded music.5 / 245.File-sharing software and legal digital downloading may transform the basic way themusic industry conducts business.6. 4 segments in the recording industry –talent, production, distribution, and retail.7. 4 big companies dominate the record business.8.Billboard magazine’s charts are the most important form of audience feedback for theindustry.9.After several years of growth, the recording industry’s revenue has declined, due inpart to file sharing on the Internet.Chapter 9 Motion Pictures1.The motion picture developed in the late 19th century. After being a main attraction innickelodeons, films moved into bigger theaters, and movie stars quickly became the most important part of the new industry. Sound came to the movies in the mid-1920s.2.Big movie studios dominated the industry until the late 1940s, when a court decisionweakened their power. Television captured much of the film audience in the 1950s.By the end of 1960s, however, Hollywood had adapted to television and was an active producer of TV shows. A major trend in modern movies is the rise of big-budget movies.3.The transition to digital moviemaking may transform the film industry.4.The movie industry consists of production, distribution, and exhibition facets. Largeconglomerates control the business. Producing a motion picture starts from a concept, proceeds to the production stage, and ends with the postproduction stage.5.Movie revenues have shown small but steady growth over the past 10 years. DVDsales and rentals and foreign box office receipts are important sources of movie income.6.Movie audiences are getting older, but a significant part of the audience is still the30-and-under age group.Chapter 10 Broadcast Television1.Electronic television developed during the 1930s. After WWII it quickly grew inpopularity and replaced radio as the main information and entertainment medium. 2. 3 networks –NBC, CBS, ABC –dominated early TV. Live drama, variety, and quizand game shows were popular during the 1950s.3.Television matured in the 1960s, and its content became more professional. Thepublic television network began in 1967. Cable TV grew slowly during this decade. 4.The 1970s saw TV programs criticized for excessive violence.6 / 245.In the 1980s and 1990s, 3 traditional TV networks lost viewers to cable and to VCRs.The Fox network became a major competitor.6.The Telecommunications Act of 1996 had a significant impact on TV stationownership and also introduced program content ratings. Rules for the eventual conversion to digital TV were announced in 1997.7.Changing from analog to digital signals will mean better pictures and sound.Consumers have to buy a new TV set or a converter to receive the new signals. TV stations may use the digital signal to broadcast high-definition television or lower-definition programs among which viewers may choose. is universal, dominant, and expensive. Its audience is currently fragmenting intosmaller segments.9.The broadcast TV industry consists of program suppliers, distributors, and localstations.10.Big conglomerates own the major TV networks, and large group owners control mostof the stations in large markets.11.Public broadcasting relies less on tax revenues and more on private sources offunding.12.The Nielsen Company complies both network and local-station television ratings.Chapter 11 Cable, Satellite, and Internet Television1.Cable TV began in 1950s as a way of bringing TV signals to places that could nototherwise receive them.2.Cable TV reached maturity by the turn of the century and was facing competitionfrom DBS satellite systems.3.The Telecommunications Act of 1996 permitted cable and telephone companies tocompete with one another.4.Internet TV developed in the late 1990s and became more popular with the growth ofbroadband.5.Cable and satellite systems are structured differently from those of conventional TV.6.Cable television is dominated by large multiple system operators. Two companies,DirecTV and the Dish Network, are the leading DBS providers.7.Internet video can be categorized by source (professional or amateur) and content(original and repurposed).er-generated video, such as those on YouTube, has became extremely popular.7 / 249.Internet video sites make money by charging a fee for their content or by sellingadvertising.10.Nielsen provides rating data for cable/satellite networks. Ratings for onlinevideo-sharing sites are provided by companies that measure Internet usage.Chapter 12 The Internet and the World Wide Web1.The computer’s ancestors were machines that performed mathematical calculations.2.By the 1970s personal computers using packaged software were on the market.3.The Internet is as network of computer networks. It was started by the U.S.Department of Defense and in its early years was used primarily by scientists. The current Internet started in the 1980s thanks to the efforts of the National Science Foundation.4.The main features of the Internet are e-mail, newsgroups, and the World Wide Web.5.The introducing of broadband Internet connections will encourage the growth ofstreaming video and microcasting.6.The Internet has had a beneficial impact on the national economy, and e-commercecontinues to grow.7.Web 2.0 refers to the contemporary Internet and the new, interactive ways that peopleare using it.8.The Internet has created social concerns about lack of gatekeepers, informationoverload, lack of privacy, and isolation.9.The Evernet may be the successor to the Internet.Chapter 13 News Gathering and Reporting1.The qualities that characterize news are----timeliness, proximity, prominence,consequence, and human interest. Economics is also important.2.News media are searching for new business models.3. 3 main types of news stories ---- hard, soft, investigative.4.The digital revolution has increased the number of available news sources,encouraged the growth of blogs, contributed to the rise of citizen journalism and hyperlocal news, and supplied new tools to reporters.5. 2 wire services ---- The Associated Press, United Press International. They providestories to print and broadcast journalists.6.Print, broadcast, and online journalism have their unique strengths and weaknesses.7.All forms of news media strive for credibility.8 / 248.Online news enables audience members to select from more news sources andcustomize their news.9.The audience for news has been declining across all media.Chapter 14 Public Relations1.Public relations is difficult to define, but most practitioners agree that PR involvescounseling management about communication strategies that can improve public opinion about an organization.2.Modern public relations began around the turn of the 20th century and has steadilyincreased in importance.3.The Internet is an important part of PR. It is used to provide information to the publicand to obtain background information for PR professionals.4.PR is practiced in numerous settings, including business, government, and thenonprofit sector.5. A PR campaign consists of the following stages –information gathering, planning,communication, and evaluation.Chapter 15 Advertising1.Advertising is any form of nonpersonal presentation and promotion of ideas, goods,and services paid for by an identified sponsor.2.Advertising can be classified by target audience, geographic focus, and purpose.3.Modern advertising began in the late 19th century and grew during the early 20thcentury as magazines and radio became mass advertising media.4.After WWII, advertising grew at a fast rate, particularly when TV came on the scene.5.The past two decades have seen the start of new channels for advertising, includingcable TV and the Internet. Online advertising has grown in the past few years.6. 3 main components of advertising industry are –advertisers, agencies, and the media.7.Advertising agencies put together large-scale campaigns for clients, consisting of amarket strategy them, ads, media time/space, and evaluation.8.Although not as visible as consumer advertising, business-to-business advertisingmakes up a significant portion of the industry.Chapter 16 Formal Controls: Laws, Rules, Regulations1.There is a strong constitutional case against prior restraint of the press.2.Reporters have special privileges that protect them in some instances from having toreveal the names of their news sources. These privileges, however, are not absolute.9 / 243.Reporters can cover matters that occur in open court with little fear of reprisal. Somepretrial proceedings can still be closed to the press.4.All but 2 states now allow cameras in the courtroom on a permanent or experimentalbasis. Cameras and microphones are still barred from federal trial courts and from the Supreme Court.5.Defamation can be either libel or slander. To prevail in a defamation suit, a publicfigure must show that the published material was false and harmful and that the media acted with actual malice when they published the information. A private citizen must also show that the material was false and harmful and that the media involved acted with negligence.6.Invasion of privacy can occur when the media intrude upon a person’s solitude,release private information, create a false impression, or wrongfully appropriate a person’s name or likeness.7.Copyright law protects authors from unfair use of their work. There are instances,however, when portions of copyrighted material can be reproduced for legitimate purposes.8.Online file-sharing systems have raised serious questions about copyrights in a digitalmedium.9.Obscenity is not protected by the First Amendment. To be legally obscene, a workmust appeal to prurient interests, depict, or describe certain sexual conduct spelled out by state law, and lack serious literary, artistic, political, or scientific value.10.Special regulations and laws apply to broadcasting. The FCC is charged withadministering the rules and regulations that deal with cable, TV, and radio. The Telecommunications Act of 1996 had a major impact on the electronic media.11.The FTC oversees advertising. Commercial speech has recently been given more FirstAmendment protection.Chapter 17 Ethics and Other Informal Controls1. 5 types of informal controls on the mass media –ethics, performance codes,organizational policies, self-criticism, outside pressure.2.The most important ethical principles that provide guidance in this area –The golden mean, the categorical imperative, the principle of utility, the veil of ignorance, the principle of self-determination.3.All the media have performance codes that guide professional behavior.4.Many media organizations have standard departments that monitor the content that ispublished or broadcast.10 / 245.The National Advertisement Review Council is the main organization that supervisesself-regulation in advertising.6.Outside pressures from advertisers can sometimes influence media conduct.7.Special-interest groups such as Action for Children’s Television have been successfulin modifying the content and practices of the TV industry.Questions for ReviewChapter 1 Communication: Mass and Other Forms1.The 8 elements in the communication process:A.Source- it initiates the process by having a thought or an idea that he or she wishes totransmit to some other entity.B.Encoding- refers to the activities that a source goes through to translate thoughts andideas into a form that may be perceived by the senses.C.Message- it is the actual physical product that the source encodes.D.Channel- it is the way the message travels to the receiver.E.Decoding- it is the opposite of the encoding process. It consists of activities thattranslate or interpret physical messages into a form that has eventual meaning for a receiver.F.Receiver- it is the target of the message.G.Feedback- refers to those responses of the receiver that shape and alter the subsequentmessages of the source.H.Noise- it is defined as anything that interferes with the delivery of the message.2.The 3 types of noise:A.Semantic noise occurs when different people have different meanings for differentwords and phrases or when the arrangement of words confuses the meaning.B.Mechanical noise occurs when there is a problem with a machine that is being used toassist communication.C.Environmental noise refers to sources of noise that are external to the communicationprocess but that nonetheless interfere with it.3.Interpersonal communication vs. machine-assisted interpersonal communication.11 / 244.How has the Internet changed the characteristics of the sources of masscommunication?5.Fixed-menu dinner ?. Vegas buffet.?A.Mass communication has gone from a sit-down dinner with a fixed menu to aVegas-style buffet. Power has shifted from the source to the receiver.B.The audience is gaining more control over the mass communicator process. Audiencemembers are more in charge of what they want to see and/ or hear and when they want to do it.Chapter 2 Perspectives on Mass Communication1.Macroanalysis vs. microanalysis.Macroanalysis—we could take the perspective of a sociologist and look through a wide-angle lens to consider the functions performed by the mass media for the entire12 / 24society. This viewpoint focuses on the apparent intention of the mass communicator and emphasized the manifest purpose inherent in the media content.Microanalysis—we could look through a close-up lens at the individual receivers of the content, the audience, and ask them to report on how they use mass media.2.Dysfunction and some examples.Dysfunction—The harmful or negative consequences caused by mass communication functions for society.Examples—A.Surveillance refers to what we popularly call the news and information role of themedia. 1) News travels much faster, especially since the advent of the electronic media. Speed sometimes leads to such problems as inaccuracies and distortions travelling as fast as truthful statements. 2) Much of what we know about the world, machine-processed, hand-me-down information. Our knowledge is based on this second-generation information, whose authenticity we do not usually question. Since we depend highly on others for news, we have to put more credibility in the media who do our surveillance. Thus, media surveillance can create unnecessary anxiety. B.Interpretation means that the mass media do not supply just facts and data. They alsoprovide information on the ultimate meaning and significance. 1) There is no guarantee that interpretations by experts are accurate and valid. 2) there is the danger that an individual may, in the long run, come to rely too heavily on the views carried in the media and lose her or his critical ability.C.Linkage means the mass media are able to join different elements of society that arenot directly connected. 1) There are many hate sites on the Internet that are used by terrorists to spread hate propaganda and to recruit new members.D.Transmission of values is called the socialization function which refers to the ways anindividual comes to adopt the behavior and values of a group. 1) Values and cultural information are selected by large organizations that may encourage the status quo. has the greatest potential for socialization. 1) TV programs might be socializedinto accepting violence as a legitimate method of problem solving. 2) The pervasiveness of television violence will encourage fearfulness about the ―real world‖.3) The minority groups transmitted by the mass media reflect the stereotypes held bythose in power.F.Entertainment is devoted primarily by TV. 1) The wide-spread use of mass media forentertainment makes it quite easy to sit back and let others entertain you. Thus, it is criticized that the mass media will turn Americans into a nation of watchers and listeners instead of doers.3.Parasocial interaction and how it works.13 / 24Parasocial interaction— The interaction occurs in a parasocial relationship in which audience use the media as a means to overcome loneliness by ways of treating a media character as though he or she is an actual friend.How it works—1) parasocial relationships like real-life relationships take time to develop; 2) just as people in real-life relationships are predictable, so are people in parasocial relationships; 3) people in real-life are three-dimensional and in parasocial relationship great care is taken to show people’s background; 4) it is interactive as that in real-life relationship; 4) in the parasocial relationships people can also have friends and acquaintances who are unique or eccentric.es-and-gratifications approach and its assumptions.Uses-and-gratifications –The model posits that audience members have certain needs or drives that are satisfied by using both nonmedia and media sources. The actual needs satisfied by the media are called media gratifications. The various uses and gratifications are classified into a six-category system: cognition, diversion, social utility, affiliation, expression, withdrawal.3 assumptions –1) audiences take an active role in their interaction with various media;2) the mass media compete with other sources of satisfaction; 3) people are aware oftheir own needs and are able to verbalize them.5.The key terms in the critical/cultural approach.A.Culture – refers to the common value, beliefs, social practices, rules, and assumptionsthat bind a group of people together.B.Text – is defined as traditional media content such as TV programs, films, ads, andbooks, or it can be something that do not fit into the traditional category, such as shopping mall, T-shirt, and beach.C.Meaning- Texts have meaning, the interpretations that audience members take awaywith them from the text. In fact, texts have many meaning; the yare polysemic.Different members of the audience will have different interpretations of the same text.D.Ideology- is contained in texts. It is a specific set of ideas or beliefs, particularlyregarding social and political subjects.E.Hegemony –has to do with power relationships and dominance. It occurs whengroups with political and economic power extend their influence over those groups who are powerless or at the margin of society. It depends on the dominated group’s accepting its position as natural and normal and believing that the status quo is in its best interest. It creates the positions of the superior add the inferior.Chapter 3 Historical and Cultural Context1.Why was the telegraph labeled ―the great annihilator of time and space‖?14 / 24。