(完整版)戴炜栋《简明语言学教程》配套笔记_自己整理版
戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》笔记和课后习题(含考研真题)详解(第二语言习得)【圣才】
第一语言习得与第二语言习得之间的联系 2. Contrastive analysis
对比分析 3. Error Analysis
错误分析 4. Interlanguage
中介语 5. The role of native language in second language learning.
本族语在第二语言学习中的作用 6. Second language learning models and input hypothesis
1. Overgeneralization 2. Cross-association V. Interlanguage VI. The role of native language in second language learning VII. Second language learning models and input hypothesis VIII. Individual differences 1. Language aptitudes 2. Motivation 3. Learning strategies 4. Age of acquisition 5. Personality IX. Second language acquisition and its pedagogical implications
第二语言习得(SLA )在二十世纪七十年代左右被正式确立为一门学科，是指对一个人习 得其母语之后如何习得一门第二语言的系统研究。
新编简明英语语言学戴炜栋版本u1--u6期末笔记整理
●语言学家：1.F.de Saussure P4Swiss linguist. He distinct the langue and parole in the early 20thcentury <course in general linguistics>写了《普通语言学》强调研究语言（what linguist should do is to abstract langue from parole）2.N ChomskAmerican linguist distinct competence and performance in the late 1950s强调研究语言能力（competence）和索绪尔的相似点●Saussure和chomsky不同之处：索绪尔从社会学角度（sociological view）他的语言概念属于社会习俗范畴（social conventions）；乔姆斯基是从心理学角度（Psychological view），认为语言能力是每个个体大脑的特征（property of mind of each individual）3.现代语言学基本上是描述性的（descriptive），传统语法是规定性的（prescriptive）4.现代语言学中共时性研究更重要（synchronic）Phonetics(语音学) Phonology（音位学）●发音器官1.pharyngeal cavity2.oral cavity3.nasal cavity●speech and writing are the two media or substances 言语和文字是自然语言的两种媒介和物质（言语比文字更加基础）●语音学从哪三个角度研究?(1)说话者角度articulatory phonetics 发声语音学（历史最悠久）(2)听话者角度auditory phonetics 听觉语音学(3)研究语音的传播方式acoustic phonetics 声学语音学●主要现在用IPA标音标，但是语言学家会用严式标音（narrowtranscription）书上举了两个字母的例子{l} leap，feel ，health {p} pit，spit （送气，不送气）p h来表送气●语音的分类：元音（voiced sound）和辅音●voiceless●元音的分类：（1）根据舌头哪一个部位最高，分为front、central、back（2）嘴巴的张合度，分为闭元音、半闭元音、半开元音、开元音（3）不圆唇的（所有前和中元音+{a：} ）和圆唇的（rounded）后元音●Segment 和syllable 前面数有几个元音辅音；后面数有几个元音●语音学和音位学的区别（1）语音学家关注{l} 的发音，清晰舌边音和模糊舌边音（2）音位学家关注{l}分布模式，即在什么位置发这个音如{l} 在元音后或辅音前，发模糊舌边音feel、quilt{l}放在元音前发清晰的舌边音leap注意：Phonology is concerned with the sound system of a particular language.(关注某种语言的语音系统)Linguistics is the scientific study of human languages in general.一、区分音素，音位，音位变体●音素：phone（1）在单词feel[fi:ł],leaf[li:f],tar[tha:],star[sta:]中,一共有7个音素,分别是[f],[i:],[ł],[l],[th].[t],[a:].（2）英语共有48个音素，其中元音20个，辅音28个。
《戴炜栋 新编简明英语语言学教程 第2版 笔记和课后习题 含》读书笔记PPT模板思维导图下载
4.3 考研真题与 典型题详解
第5章 语义学
5.2 课后习题详 解
5.1 复习笔记
5.3 考研真题与 典型题详解
第6章 语用学
6.2 课后习题详 解
6.1 复习笔记
6.3 考研真题与 典型题详解
第7章 语言变化
7.2 课后习题详 解
7.1 复习笔记
7.3 考研真题与 典型题详解
第8章 语言与社会
《 戴 炜 栋 新 编 简 明 最新版读书笔记，下载可以直接修改 英语语言学教程
第2版 笔记和课后 习题 含》
思维导图PPT模板
01 第1章 导 言
目录
02 第2章 音位学
03 第3章 形态学
04 第4章 句法学
05 第5章 语义学
06 第6章 语用学
目录ቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱ
07 第7章 语言变化
08 第8章 语言与社会
8.2 课后习题详 解
8.1 复习笔记
8.3 考研真题与 典型题详解
第9章 语言与文化
9.2 课后习题详 解
9.1 复习笔记
9.3 考研真题与 典型题详解
第10章 语言习得
10.2 课后习题 详解
10.1 复习笔记
10.3 考研真题 与典型题详解
第11章 第二语言习得
11.2 课后习题 详解
11.1 复习笔记
11.3 考研真题 与典型题详解
第12章 语言与大脑
12.2 课后习题 详解
12.1 复习笔记
12.3 考研真题 与典型题详解
读书笔记
谢谢观看
第1章 导 言
1.2 课后习题详 解
1.1 复习笔记
1.3 考研真题与 典型题详解
戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》笔记和课后习题（含考研真题）详解（音位学）【圣才出品】
戴炜栋《新编简明英语语⾔学教程》笔记和课后习题（含考研真题）详解（⾳位学）【圣才出品】第2章⾳位学2.1 复习笔记本章要点：1. Speech Organs发⾳器官2. Distinction, Classification and the Criteria of Description between Constants and Vowels辅⾳和元⾳的区别、分类及描写规则3. Phonemes and Allophones⾳位和⾳位变体4. Phonological Rules and Distinctive Features⾳系规则和区别特征5. Syllable Structure, Stress and Intonation⾳节结构、重⾳和语调本章考点：1. 语⾳学语⾳学的定义；发⾳器官的英⽂名称；英语辅⾳的定义、发⾳部位、发⾳⽅法和分类；英语元⾳的定义和分类、基本元⾳；发⾳语⾳学；听觉语⾳学；声学语⾳学；语⾳标记，国际⾳标；严式与宽式标⾳法。
2. ⾳系学⾳系学的定义；⾳系学与语⾳学的联系和区别；⾳素、⾳位、⾳位变体、最⼩对⽴体、⾃由变体的定义；⾃由变体；⾳位的对⽴分布与互补分布；区别性特征；超语段⾳位学；⾳节；重⾳(词重⾳、句⼦重⾳)；⾳⾼和语调。
本章内容索引：I. The phonic medium of languageII. Phonetics1. The definition of phonetics2. Three research fields3. Organs of speech▼4. Voiceless sounds▼5. Voiced sounds6. Orthographic representations of speech sounds—broad and narrow transcriptions7. Classification of English speech sounds(1) Definition(2) Classification of English consonants(3) Classification of English vowelsIII. Phonology1. Relationship between Phonology and phonetics2. Phone, phoneme3. Allophone4. Some rules in phonology(1) Sequential rules(2) Assimilation rule(3) Deletion rule5. Supra-segmental features—stress, tone, intonation(1) Stress(2) Tone(3) IntonationI. The phonic medium of language（语⾔的语⾳媒介）II. Phonetics（语⾳学）1. The definition of phonetics（语⾳学的定义）Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.语⾳学被定义为对语⾔的语⾳媒介的研究；它涉及所有出现在世界语⾔中的声⾳。
戴炜栋《简明语言学教程》配套笔记 英文版1
戴炜栋《简明语言学教程》配套笔记英文版1Chapter 1What is language?[A]The origins of language Some speculations of the origins of language：①The divine source The basic hypothesis：if infants were allowed to grow up without hearing any language,then they would spontaneously begin using the original god-given language.Actually,children living without access to human speech in their early years grow up with no language at all.②The natural-sound source The bow-wow theory：the suggestion is that primitive words could have been imitations of the natural sounds which early men and women heard around them.The"Yo-heave-ho"theory：the sounds produced by humans whenexerting physical effort,especially when co-operating with other humans,may be the origins of speech sounds.Onomatopoeic sounds③The oral-gesture source It is claimed that originally aset of physical gestures was developed as ameans of communication.The patterns of movement in articulation would be the same as gestural movement；hence waving tongue would develop from waving hand.④Glossogenetics(言语遗传学)This focuses mainly on the biological basis of the formation and development of human language.Physiological adaptationàdevelop naming abilityàinteractions and transactions Physical adaptation：Human teeth are upright and roughly even in height.Human lips have intricate muscle interlacing,thus making them very flexible.The human mouth is small and contains avery flexible tongue.The human larynx is lowered,creating alonger cavity called the pharynx,and making it easier for the human to choke on the pieces of food,but making the sound speech possible.The human brain is lateralized.Those analytic functions(tool-using and language)are largely confined to the left hemisphere of the brain for most humans.Two major functions of language：Interactional：a social function of language.Transactional：a function involving the communication of knowledge and information[B]The properties of language Language is asystem of arbitra ry vocal symbols used for human communication.a)System：combined together according to rules b)Arbitrary：no intrinsic connection between the word"pen"and the thing in the world which it refers to c)Vocal：the primary medium is sound for all languages d)Human：language is human-specific(交际性与信息性)Communicative rmative：Communicative：intentionally using language to communicate something Informative：through/via anumber of signals that are not intentionally sent Design features(unique properties)：the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication①Displacement(跨时空性，移位性)Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker(refer to past and future time and to other locations)②Arbitrariness(任意性)There is no logical or natural connection between alinguistic form(either sound or word)and its meaning.While language is arbitrary by nature,it is not entirely arbitrary.a)echo of the sounds of object sor activities：onomatopoeic wordsb)some compound words③Productivity(能产性，创造性)Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.(Creativity or open-endedness)④Cultural transition(文化传递性)While human capacity for language has agenetic basis(everyone was born with the ability to acquire alanguage),the details of anylanguage system are not genetically transmitted,but instead have to be taught and learnt.⑤Discreteness(可分离性)Each sound in the language is treated as discrete.⑥Duality(双重结构性，两重性或二元性)Language is organized at two levels or layers simultaneously.The lower or basic level is astructure of sounds which aremeaningless.The higher level is morpheme or word(double articulation)The above six properties may be taken as the core features of human language.Vocal-auditory channel,reciprocity,specialization,non-directionality,or rapid fade,these properties are best treated as ways of describing human language,but not as am eans ofdistinguishing it from other systems of communication.[C]The development of written language①pictograms&ideograms(象形文字和表意文字)Pictogram：when some of the pictures came to represent particular images in aconsistent way,we can begin to describe the product as aform of picture-writing,or pictograms.Ideogram：the picture developed as more abstract and used other than its entity is considered to be part of asystem of idea-writing,or ideogram Hieroglyph：古埃及象形文字②Logograms(语标书写法)When symbols come to be used to represent words in alanguage,they are described as examples of word-writing,or logograms."Arbitrariness"-a writing system which was word-based had come into existence.Cuneiform--楔形文字-the Sumerians(5000 and 6000 years ago)Chinese is one example of its modern writing system.Advantages：two different dialects can be based on the same writing system.Disadvantages：vast number of different written forms.③Syllabic writing(音节书写法)When awriting system employs aset of symbols which represent the pronunciations of syllables,it is described as syllabic writing.The Phoenicians：the first human beings that applied the full use of asyllabic writing system(ca 1000 BC)④Alphabetic writing(字母书写法)Semitic languages(Arabic and Hebrew)：first applied this rule The Greeks：taking the inherently syllabic system from the Phoenicians via the Romans Latin alphabet and Cyrillic alphabet(Slavic languages)⑤Rebus writing Robus writing evolves aprocess whereby the symbol used for an entity comes to be used for the sound of the spoken word used for that entity.Chapter 2What is linguistics?[A]The definition of linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.Process of linguistic study：①Certain linguistic facts are observed,generalization are formed；②Hypotheses are formulated；③Hypotheses are tested by further observations；④A linguistic theory is constructed.Language is asystem of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.[B]The scope of linguistics General linguistics：the study of language as awhole Phonetics：the general study of thecharacteristics of speech sounds(or the study of the phonic medium of language)(How speech sounds are produced and classified)Phonology：is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in alanguage.(How sounds form systems and function to convey meaning)Morphology：the study of the way in which morphemes are arrangedto form words(how morphemes are combined to form words)Syntax：the study of those rules that govern the combination of words to form permissible sentences(how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences)Semantics：the study of meaning in abstraction Pragmatics：the study of meaning in context of use Sociolinguistics：the study of language with reference to society Psycholinguistics：the study of language with reference to the workings of the mind Appliedlinguistics：the application of linguistics principles and theories to language teaching and learning Anthropologicallinguistics,neurological linguistics；mathematical linguistics；mathematical linguistics；computational linguistics[C]Some important distinctions in linguistics①Prescriptive vs.Descriptive②Synchronic vs.Diachronic The description of alanguage at some point in time；The description of alanguage as it changes through time.③Speech and writing Spoken language is primary,not the written④Langue and parole Proposed by Swiss linguists F.deSausse(sociological)Langue：refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of aspeech community Parole：refers to the realization of langue in actual use⑤Competence and performance Proposed by the American linguist N.Chomsky(psychological)Competence：the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language Chapter 3Phonetics and phonology[A]The definition of phonetics Phonetics：the study of the phonic medium of language：it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world's languages.Articulatory phonetics：the study of how speech sounds are made,or articulated.Acoustic phonetics：deals with the physical properties of speech as sound waves in the air.Auditory(or perceptual)phonetics：deals with the perception,via the ear,of speech sounds.Forensic phonetics：has an application in legal cases involving speaker identification and the analysis of recorded utterances.[B]Organs of speech Voiceless：when the vocal cords are spread apart,the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded.Voiced：when the vocal cords are drawn together,the air from the lungs repeated pushes them apart as it passes through,creating avibration effect.All the English vowels are typically voiced(voicing).The important cavities：The pharyngeal cavity The oral cavity The nasal cavityLips,teeth,teeth ridge(alveolus),hard palate,softpalate(velum),uvula,tip of tongue,blade of tongue,back oftongue,vocal cords[C]Orthographic representation of speech sounds Broad and narrow transcriptions IPA(International Phonetic Alphabet/Association)Broad transcription：the transcription with letter-symbols only Narrow transcription：the transcription with diacritics E.g.：[l]à[li：f]--àa clear[l](no diacritic)[l]à[bild]--àa dark[l](~)[l]à[helW]--àa dental[l]()à[pit]--àan aspirated[ph](h)à[spit]--àan unaspirated(no diacritic)[n]à[5bQtn]àa syllabic nasal[n](7)[D]Classification of English consonants In terms of manner of articulation(the manner in which obstruction is created)①Stops：the obstruction is total or complete,and then going abruptly/[b],[t]/[d],[k]/[g]②Fricatives：the obstruction is partial,and the air is forced through anarrow passage in the month[f]/[v],[s]/[z],[W]/[T],[F]/[V],[h](approximant)③Affricates：the obstruction,complete at first,is released slowly as in fricatives[tF]/[dV]④Liquids：the airflow is obstructed but is allowed to escape through the passage between part or parts of the tongue and the roof of the mouth[l]àa lateral sound；[r]àretroflex⑤Glides：[w],[j](semi-vowels)Liquid+glides+[h]àapproximants⑥Nasals：the nasal passage is opened by lowering the soft palate to let air pass through it[m],],n[By place of articulation(the place where obstruction is created)①bilabials：upper and lower lips are brought together to create obstructions/[b],[w]à(velar)②labiodentals：the lower lip and the upper teeth[f]/[v]③dentals：the tip of the tongue and the upper front teeth[W]/[T]④alveolars：the front part of the tongue on the alveolar ridge[t]/[d],[s]/[z],[n],[l],[r]⑤alveo-palatals(palato-alveolars)：tongue and the very front of the palate,near the alveolar ridge[F]/[V],[t]/[d]⑥palatal：tongue in the middle of the palate[j]⑦velars：the back of the tongue against the velum[k],[g],[N]…[w]⑧glottals：the glottal is the space between the vocal cords in the larynx[h][E]Classification of English vowels Front i：Central Back Close i`u：u Semi-close eE：Semi-open EC：Open AB QR B：①The highest position of the tongue：front,central,back；②The openness of the mouth：close,semi-close,semi-open,open；③The roundness(shape)of the month(the lips)：All the front,central vowels are unrounded vowels except[B]All the back vowels,except[A：]are rounded vowels④The length of the sound：long vowels&short vowelsLarynx(tense)or(lax)Monophthongs,diphthongs Cardinal vowels[F]The definition of phonology Phonetics is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages；how they are produced,how they differ from each other,what phonetic features they possess,how they can be classified,etc.Phonology,on the other hand,is interested in the system of sounds of aparticular languages；it aims to discover how speech sounds in alanguage form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.[G]Phone,phoneme,and allophone Phone：the different versions of the abstract unit– phoneme Phoneme：the mean-distinguishing sound in alanguage,placed in slash marks Allophone：a set of phones,all of which are versions of one phoneme[G]Phonemic contrast,complementary distribution,and minimal pair Phonemic contrast：when two phonemes can occur in the same environments in two words and they distinguish meaning,they're in phonemic contrast.E.g.pin&binà/p/vs./b/rope&robeà/p/vs./b/Complementary distribution：two or more than two allophones of the same phonemes are said to be in complementary distribution because they can not appear at the same time,or occur in different environment,besides they do not distinguish meaning.Minimal pair：when two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same plac ein the strings,the two sounds are said to form aminimal pair.When agroup of words can be differentiated,each one from the others,by changing one phoneme(always in the same position),then all of these words constitute aminimal sets.[H]Some rules in phonology①sequential rules Syllable Onset rime Nucleus coda[Consonant]vowel[consonant(s)]Phonotactics of 3Cs occurring in onset：No1：_/s/_voiceless stops：/p/,/t/,/k/_approximants：/r/,/l/,/w/,/j/No2：The affricates[tF]/[dV]and the sibilants[s],[z],[F],[V]are not to be followed by another sibilants.②assimilation rules Co-articulation effects：the process of making one sound almost at the same time as the next is called co-articulation.Assimilation&elision effects Assimilation：two phonemes occur in sequence and some aspect of one phoneme is taken or copied by the other E.g.nasalize avowel when it is followed by anasal sound.③deletion rule-Elision Definition：t he omission of asound segment which would be present in deliberate pronunciation of awordin isolation E.g.delete a[g]when it occurs before afinal nasal consonant[I]Suprasegmental features①Stress Word stress&sentence stress The stress of the English compounds always on the first element②Tone Definition：Tones are pitch variations,which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like morphemes.Tone language,like Chinese,has four tones.Level,rise,fall-rise,fall③Intonation When pitch,stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation,they are collectively known as intonation.English：the four basic types of intonation,or the four tones The falling tone,the rising tone,the fall-rising tone,and the rise-fall tone Chapter 4Morphology[A]The definition of morphology Morphology is abranch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are forme d.Inflectional morphology Derivational morphology(lexical morphology)Morpheme：the smallest meaningful components of words(A minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function)[B]Free morphemes&bound morphemes Free morphemes：can stand by themselves as single wordsàLexical morphemes[n.a.v]&functionalmorphemes[conj.prep.art.pron.]Bound morphemes：can not normally stand alone,but which are typically attached to another formàDerivational morphemes--àaffix(suffix,infix,prefix)+rootàInflectional morphemesà8 8types of inflectional morphemes in English Noun+-'s,-s[possessive；plural]Verb+-s,-ing,-ed,-en[3rd person present singular；present participle；past tense,past participle]Adj+-er,-est[comparative；superlative][C]Derivational vs.inflectional Inflectional morphemes never change the grammatical category of aword Inflectional morphemes influence the whole category；Derivational morphemes are opposite Order：root(stem)+derivational+inflectional[D]Morphological Rules N.+lyàa.；A.+lyàadv.；guard overgeneralization[E]Morphs and allomorphs Morphs：the actual forms used to realize morphemes Allomorphs：a set of morphs,all of which are versions of one morpheme,we refer to them as allomorphs of that morpheme.[F]Word-formation process①Coinageàthe invention of totally new terms②Borrowingàthe taking over of words form other languages Loan-translation(Claque)àa direct translation of the elements of awordinto the borrowing language Stand alone to be the opposite of word-formation③Compoundingàa joining of two separate words to produce asingle form Features of compounds a)Orthographically,a compound can be written as one word,with or without ahyphen in between,or as two separate words.b)Syntactically,the part of speech of the compound is generally determined by the part of speech of the second element.c)Semantically,the meaning of acompound is often idiomatic,not always being the sum total of the meanings of its components.d)Phonetically,the stress of acompound alw ays falls on the first element,While the second element receives secondary stress.④Blendingàtaking over the beginning of one word and joining it to the end of other word⑤Clippingàa word of more than one syllable reduced to ashorter form⑥Back formationàa process by which new words are formed by taking away the suffix of an existing word Hypocorismsàclipping or+ie⑦Conversionàcategory change,functional shift⑧Acronymsànew words are formed from the initial letters of aset of other words⑨Derivationàthe new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots,stems,or words⑩Abbreviationàa shortened form of aword or phrase which represents the complete form Analogy Chapter 5Grammar[A]Types of grammar The study of grammar,or the study of the structure of expressions in alanguage,has avery long tradition.①Mental grammar：a form of internal linguistic knowledge which operates in the production and recognition of appropriatelystructured expressions in that language.àPsycholog ist②Linguistic etiquette：the identification of the proper or best structures to be used in alanguage.àSociologist③The study and analysis of the structures found inalanguage,with the aim of establishing adescription of the grammar of English,e.g.as distinct from the grammar of Russia or French.àLinguist[B]The parts of speechNouns,adjectives,verbs,adverbs,prepositions,pronouns,conjunctionsàthe grammatical categories of words in sentences[C]Traditional grammar(Categories and analysis)Other categories：number,person,tense,voice and gender Agreement：English languagenatural gender Grammatical genderàFrench[D]Types of grammar concerning analysis The prescriptive approach：The view of grammar as aset of rules for the proper use of alanguage The descriptive approach：analysts collect samples of the language they are interested in and attempt to describe the regular structures of the language at it is used,not according to some view of how it should be used.[E]Structural and immediate constituent analysis(IC Analysis)Structural analysis：to investigate the distinction offorms(e.g.morphemes)in alanguage IC Analysis：how smallconstituents(Components)in sentences go together to form larger constituents[F]Labeled and bracketed sentences Hierarchical organization of the constituents in asentence Label each constituent with grammatical terms such as Art.N.NP Chapter 6Syntax[A]The definition of syntax Asubfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language[B]The basic components of asentence Sentence Subject Predicate Referring expression comprises finite verb or averb phrase and says something about the subject[C]Types of sentences Simple sentence：consists of asingle clause which contains asubject and apredicate and stands alone as its own sentence.Coordinate(Compound)sentence：contains two clauses joined by alinking word called coordinating conjunctions,such as"and","by","or"…Complex sentence：contains two,or more,clauses,one of which is incorporated into the other Embedded clauseàmatrix clause①subordinator②f unctions as agrammatical unit③may be complete[D]The linear and hierarchical structures of sentences When asentence is uttered or written down,the words of the sentence are produced one after another in asequence,which suggests the structure of asentence is linear.But the superficial arrangement of words in alinear sequence does not entail that sentences are simply linearly-structured；sentencesare organized with words of the same syntactic category,such as NP or VP,grouped together.Tree diagram of constituent structure Brackets and subscript labels[E]Some categories Syntactic categories：refer to aword or aphrase that performs aparticular grammatical function,such as the subject or the predicate Lexical categories：(parts of speech)Major lexical categories(open categories)：N.V.Adj.Adv.Minor lexical categories(closed categories)：Det.Aux.Prep.Pron.Conj.Int.Phrasal categories：NP,VP,PP,AP[F]Grammatical Relations The structural and logical functional relations of constituents It concerns the way each noun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb Subject of and direct object of Structural subject,structural object Logical subject(the doer of the action),the logical object(the recipient of the action)These two groups of subjects and objects may have different positions[G]Combinational rules Are small in numberàYield all the possible sentences Rule out the impossible ones①phrase structure rules(rewrite rules)SàNP VP(A sentence consists of,or is rewritten as,a noun phrase and averb phrase)NPà(Det.)(Adj.)N(PP)(S)An optional determiner….and obligatory noun,VPàV(NP)(POP)(S)APàA(PP)(S)PPàP NP②the recursiveness of phrase structure rules Significantly,the above rules can generate an infinite number of sentences,and sentences with infinite length,due to their recursive properties.③X-bar theory Headàan obligatory word that givers the phrase its name XP or X-phrase XPà(Specifier)X(complement)Formula：X"àSpec X'X-bar theory(X-bar schema)X'àX compl Tree diagram X"Specifier X'X complement[H]Syntactic movement and movement rules Syntactic movement：occurs when aconstituent in asentence moves out of its original place to anew place Transformational rules①NP-movement and WH-movement NP-movement：active voiceàpassive voice Postposing,preposing WH-movement：affirmativeàinterroga tive Leftward matter to the sentence initial-position②Other types of movement Aux-movement：the movement of an auxiliary to the sentence-initial position③D-structure and S-structure Two levels of syntactic representation of asentence structure：One that exists before movement takes place The other that occurs after movement takes place Formal linguistic exploration：D-structure：phrase structure rules+lexicon Sentence at the level of D-structure The application of syntactic movement rules transforms asentence from D-structure level to S-structure level Transformational-generative line of analysis④Moveα– ageneral movement rule Move any constituent to any place Certain constituents can move to only certain positions[I]Universal Grammar(UG)Principles-and-parameters theory：UG is asystem of linguistic knowledge and ahuman species-specific gift which exits in the mind or brain of anormal human being and which consists of some general principles and parameters aboutnatural languages.①general principles of UG Case condition principle：a noun phrase must have case and case is assigned by Vor Pto the object position or by Aux to the subject position Adjacency condition or Case assignment：a case assignor and acase recipient should stay adjacency to each other.It is strictly observed in English well-formed sentences,not other languages(no other phrasal category can intervene between averb and its direct object)The Adjacency condition must be subject to parametric variationin order to explain the apparent adjacency violations such as in French.②The parameters of UG Parameters are syntactic options of UGthat allow general principles to operate in one way or another and contribute to significant linguistic variations between and among natural languages.[+strict adjacency]Adjacency parameter[-strict adjacency][Rightward directionality]The Directionality Parameteràinvolves word order[Leftward directionality]En：VP word order VPàV NP Jp：VP word order VPàNP VNatural languages are viewed to vary according to parameters set on UG principles to particular values.Chapter 7Semantics[A]The definition of semantics Definition：the study of meaning from the linguistic point of view[B]Some views concerning the study of meaning①the naming theory：The linguistic forms or symbols,in other words,the words used in alanguage are taken to be labels of theobjects they stand for；words are just names or labels for things.②the conceptualist view：There's no direct link betweenalinguistic form and what it refers to(i.e.between language and the real world)；rather,in the interpretation of meaning,they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.Thought/referenceàconcept Symbol/Form(words)Referentà(real object)Proposed by Ogden&Richards③contextualism：John Firth The situational context：inaparticular spatiotemporal situation Linguistic context(co-text)：the probability of aword's co-occurrence or collocation with another word④behaviorismàBloomfield based on contextualist view Behaviorists define meaning of alanguage form as the situation in which thespeaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer S：stimulus r：response Jill Jack S---r…s---R(the small letters r,sàspeech)(the capitalized letter R,Sàpractical events)[C]Sense and reference Sense：is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form,abstract and de-contextualized.Reference：means what alinguistic form refers to in thereal,physical world；it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience Moving star Ionce was bitten by adog.Morning star Mind you.There is adog over there.[D]Major sense relations①synonymyàthe sameness or close similarity of meaninga.dialectal synonyms--synonyms used in different regional dialectsb.stylistic synonyms--synonyms differing in stylec.synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaningd.collocational synonymse.semantically different synonyms②polysemy--one word that has more than one related meaning③homonymy Homophones：when two words are identical in sound Homographs：when two words are identical in spelling Complete homonyms：when two words are identical both in spelling and in Sound Etymology④hyponymy--inclusiveness The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinator.The word which is more specific in meaning is called hyponym.Co-hyponym⑤antonymy--oppositeness Gradable antonyms Complementary antonyms Relational opposites：pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of arelationship between items⑥metonymy Meaning based on aclose connection in everyday experience,of which can be based on acontainer-contents relation,a whole-part relation,or arepresentative-symbol relationship⑦collocation Organize the knowledge of words in terms of frequently occurring together。
戴伟栋 新编简明英语语言学教程笔记(1)
戴版语言学Chapter One----IntroductionPart one----What is linguistics?1. Definition----linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.Scientific means it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.No Article before language in this definition means that linguistics studies language in general. Linguists‘ task: basically study and understand the general principles upon which all languages are built.I nterest of linguists is ―what is said‖2. The scopes of linguisticsGeneral linguistics----the study of language as a whole-----the core of linguisticsPhonetics----the study of sounds used in linguistic communication.Phonology----the study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meanings in communication.Morphology----the study of the way in which the symbols are arranged and combined to form words.Syntax-----the study of the rules for sentence formationSemantics-----the study of meaning.Pragmatics----the study of meaning in the context of language use.Above are made up of the core of linguisticsSociolinguistics-----the study of all social aspects of language and its relation with society from the core of the branch.Psycholinguistics-----the study of language processing, comprehending and production, as well as language acquisition.Applied linguistics-----the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching , especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.3. Some important distinctions in linguistics.(1) prescriptive vs. descriptiveprescriptive----the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for ―correct and standard‖ behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say. Descriptive----the linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use. Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive.(2) Synchronic vs. diachronicSynchronic----the description of a language at some point of time in history.Diachronic----the description of a language as it changes through time----the historical development of language over a period of time----another name: historical linguistics.A synchronic approach enjoys priority over a diachronic one.(3) Speech vs. writingTwo major media of linguistic communicationSpeech is prior to writing:(1)writing system is always ―invented‖ by its users to record speech.(2)speech plays a greater role than writing in information conveyance.(3)speech is acquired as mother tongue while writing is learned and taught.(4)speech reveals true features of human speech while writing language is only the ―revised‖ record of speech.(4) Langue vs. paroleProposed by Swiss linguist----F. de Saussure----sociological view.Purpose: discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.Langue----the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of s speech community.----abstract & stable.Parole-----the realization of language in actual use----concrete & varied(5) Competence vs. performanceProposed by American linguist Noam Chomsky----psychological viewPurpose: discover and specify the internalized sets of rules.Competence----the ideal user‘s knowledge of the rules of his language.Performance----the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.(6) Traditional grammar and modern linguisticsThe beginning of modern linguistics-- the publication of Saussure‘s ―Course in General Linguistics‖ in early 20thModern linguistics differs traditional grammar:(1) descriptive vs. prescriptive.(2) spoken language vs. written language.(3)ML doesn‘t force languages into a Latin-based framework.Part Two----What is language?1. Definition----language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. System----elements of language are combined according to rules.Arbitrary----there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what symbol stands for.V ocal----the primary medium for all language is sound.Human----language is human-specific.2. Design features----proposed by American linguist Charles Hockett.(5/12)Design features: the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication-----human-specific.(1) Arbitrariness----there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.Exceptions: Onomatopoeic words and some compound words are not entire arbitrary.(2) Productivity----language is creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users----users can produce and understand sentences that they have never heard before.(3) Duality----(another name: double articulation.) Language is a system which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. The lower lever is the structure of meaningless sounds and the higher level is the structure of meaning.----sound & meaning(4) Displacement----language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, in a faraway places------ It doesn‘t matter how far away the topic is of conversation is in time or space-----free from the barriers caused byseparation in time and place.(5) Cultural transmission----the capacity for language is genetically based while the details of and language system should be taught and learned.-----language is passed down from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.3. The functions of language.(1) Informative: The main function of language that when people use language to communicate with each other, their experience in the real world, record or describe the ―content‖ of the reality, they are actually taking advantage of this function.----the most important function.(2) Interpersonal: people establish and maintain their identity in the society by this function.(3) Performative: this is a function whereby the language influences directly on the reality, such as the sentence of imprisonment by the judge, the naming of a certain ship and the curses as believed by the ancient people.(4) Emotive: this function is performed by those linguistic elements used to express strong feelings, such as exclamatory expressions.(5) Phatic: this is function realized by those ―Phatic language‖, aiming to establishing a harmonious and intimate relationship among people. Examples in Chinese:吃了没？in English: Good norning. & A nice day, isn‘t it?(6) Recreational: This function means that sometimes people may enjoy language for language‘s sake, i.e. no using language in any practical purposes, such as tongue-twisters and children‘s babbles and chanter‘s chanting.(7) Metalingual: people may use language to talk about, explain or even change language itself. This is the metalingual function of language. For example, we may use ―book‖ to refer to the existing object in the real world, and yet may also use ―the word book‖ to stand by the concept ―book‖ as embodied in language.Chapter 2: PhonologyPart One: The phonic Medium of LanguageLinguists concern only with the sounds that are produced by humans through their speech organs and have a role to play in linguistic communication.phonic medium : The meaningful speech sound in human communication.Speech sounds: the individual sounds within phonic medium are the speech sounds.Part Two: Phonetics1. What is phonetics?phonetics : The study of phonic medium of language and it is concerned with all sounds in the world‘s languages.Classification:articulatory phonetics : It studies sounds from the speaker‘s point of view, i.e. how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds. -------speakerauditory phonetics: The studies sounds from the hearer‘s point of view, i.e. how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.-----heareracoustic phonetics: It studies the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves, the physical means by which sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.-----physicalproperties2. Organs of Speech1 the pharyngeal cavity----throat.2 the oral cavity-------------mouth.------tongue: most flexible.3 the nasal cavity-----------nose. In English, there are three nasal sounds, namely, [m], [n], [η]. voicing: the way that sounds are produced with the vibration of the vocal cords.voiceless: the way that sounds are produced with no vibration of the vocal cords.3. Orthographic representation of speech sounds----broad and narrow transcriptions.IPA: short for International Phonetic Alphabets, a system of symbols consists of letters and diacritics, used to represent the pronunciation of words in any language.broad transcription: The use of letter symbols only to show the sounds or sounds sequences in written form.narrow transcription: The use of letter symbol, together with the diacritics to show sounds in written form.diacritics: The symbols used in the narrow transcription to show detailed articulatory features of sounds.aspiration: A little puff of air that sometimes follows a speech sound.4. Classification of English Speech SoundsClassification:consonant: a speech sound in which the air stream is obstructed in one way or another.vowel : a speech sound in which the air stream from the lung meets with no obstruction.1 Classification of English consonants:1 Manner of articulation: The manner in which obstruction is created.Stops: [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [g].Fricatives: [f], [v], [s], [z], [θ], [], [∫] [3], [h].Affricates: [t∫],[d3]Liquids: [l], [r].Nasals: [m], [n], [η]Glides: [w], [j].------semi-vowels2 place of articulation : The place where obstruction is created.Bilabial: [p], [b], [m], [w].Labiodental: [f], [v]Dental: [θ], [ ]Alveolar: [t], [d], [s], [z], [n], [l], [r]Palatal: [∫] [3], [t∫],[d3], [j].Velar: [k], [g], [η]Glottal: [h].Manner of articulation, place of articulation and voicing/ voiceless help describe a consonant.2 Classification of English V owels.1 the position of the tongue:front: [i:], [i], [e], [ε], [æ], [a]central: [з:], [з], [/\]back: [u:], [u], [o], [o:], [a:]2 the openness of the mouth.Close vowels: [i:], [i], [u:], [u],Semi-close: [e], [з:]Semi-open: [з], [o:]Open vowels: [æ], [a], [/\],[o], [a:]3 shape of the lips:unrounded: [i:], [i], [e], [ε], [æ], [a], [з:], [з], [/\],[a:]rounded: [u:], [u], [o], [o:].4 length of the sound:long vowels: [i:], [з:], [u:], [o:], [a:]short vowels: [i], [e], [ε], [æ], [a], [з], [/\],[u], [o].5 monophthong : the individual vowel.-----above vowels are all monophthongs.diphthong : The vowel which consists of two individual vowels, and functions as a single one. [ei], [ai], [oi], [iз], [au], [зu], [eз], [uз]----eight diphthongs.Part Three: Phonology1. Phonology and Phoneticsphonetics : The study of phonic medium of language and it is concerned with all sounds in the world‘s languages.phonology : The description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meaning.Similarity: all concerned with the same aspect of language----the speech sounds.Differences: approach and focus.1 Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages-----how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified.2 Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language from patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.E.g. allophones clear [l] and dark [l]:Phonetically speaking, they are interested in the differences how they are pronounced. Phonologically speaking, they are the same in functioning conveyance of the meanings.2. Phone, Phoneme, and Allophonephone : The speech sound we use when speaking a language, which does not necessarily distinguish meaning in the English language.phoneme : The smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two sounds. allophone : any different forms of the same phoneme in different phonetic environments, e.g. clear [l] and dark [l] of the same [l], aspirated [p] and unaspirated [p] of the same [p] in different phonetic environments.3. Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pairphonemic contrast : two similar sounds occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning.E.g. [b] in [bit] and [p] in [pit] form phonemic contrast.complementary distribution : allophones of t he same phoneme and they don‘t distinguish meaning but complement each other in distribution. E.g. clear [l] and dark [l] respectively in the pronunciation of light and feel.minimal pair: two different forms are identical in every way except one sound and occurs in thesame position. The two sounds are said to form a minimal pair. E.g. bat and bet are a minimal pair.4. Some Rules in Phonology1 sequential rules: The rules to govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.2 assimilation rule: The rule assimilates one sound to another by copying a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.3 deletion rule: The rule that a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. 5. Suprasegmental Features----stress, tone, intonationsuprasegmental features: The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments----syllable, word, sentence are called suprasegmental features, which include stress, tone and intonation.1 Stress:Classification: word stress & sentence stress.Word Stress:1 The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning.A shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged. E.g. ‗impott (n)----im‘port (v), ‗record (n)-----re‘cord (v)‗blackbird (compound)-----‗black ‗bird (noncompound)2 The meaning-distinctive role played by word stress is also manifested in the combinations of –ing forms and nouns. E.g. ‘dining room(compound)----sleeping ‘baby (noncompound) Sentence Stress:Sentence stress: It refers to the relative force given to the components of a sentence.he parts of speech that are normally stressed in an English sentence are: N, V, Adj., Adv., Numerals, demonstrative pronouns. E.g. He is driving my car.------He drive, my, car.2 Tone:tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.Tone (pitch variation) can distinguish meaning in such languages as Chinese, but English is not a tone language.3 Intonation:intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.Intonation plays a very important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English. ------four basic types of intonation, namely, the falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rise tone, the rise-fall tone.The falling tone------what is said is a straight forward, matter-of-fact statement.The rising tone-------make a question of what is said.The fall-rise tone----indicate that there is an implied message in what is said.Chapter 3: MorphologyPart One: Morphology1. Open class and closed classopen class: A group of words, which contains an unlimited number of items, and new words canbe added to it.----content words. E.g. beatnik: a member of the Beat generation, or a person who rejects or avoids conventional behaviour.closed class: A relatively few words, including conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns, and new words are not usually added to them.------function words.2. Internal structure if words and rules for word formationmorphology: A branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words and rules for word formation.Part Two: Morphemes----the minimal units of meaningmorpheme: The smallest unit of meaning of a language. It can not be divided without altering or destroying its meaning.bound morpheme: Morpheme that can not be used alone, and it must be combined wit others. E.g. –ment.free morpheme: a morpheme that can stand alone as a word.affix: a letter or a group of letter, which is added to a word, and which changes the meaning or function of the word, including prefix, infix and suffix.suffix: The affix, which is added to the end of a word, and which usually changes the part of speech of a word.prefix: The affix, which is added to the beginning of a word, and which usually changes the meaning of a word to its opposite.Part three: Derivational and inflectional morphemesderivational morpheme: Bound morpheme, which can be added to a stem to form a new word. inflectional morpheme: A kind of morpheme, which are used to make grammatical categories, such as number, tense and case. E.g. –ed and –ing endings are inflectional morphemes. inflection: the morphological process which adjusts words by grammatical modification, e.g. in The rains came, rain is inflected for plurality and came for past tense.Part Four: Morphological rules of word formationmorphological rules: The ways words are formed. These rules determine how morphemes combine to form words.Part Five Compoundscompound words: A combination of two or more words, which functions as a single wordthe noteworthy:1 When two words are in the same grammatical category, the compound will be in this category:E.g. post box, landlady (n+n=n), blue-black, icy-cold (adj.+adj.=adj.)2 In many cases, the two words fall into different categories, then the class of second or final word will be the grammatical category if the compound.E.g. under ‗take (v), in‘action (n), up‘lift (v)3 It is often the case that compounds have different stress patterns from the noncompounded word sequence.E.g. ‗redcoat, ‗greenhouse are compounds, but red coat and green house are not.4 The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts.E.g. bigwig, highbrow, jack-in-a-box, turncoatConclusion: Morphological rules reveal the relations between words and provide the means for forming new words. It is these rules that enable us to coin new words. Compounding is a very common and frequent process for enlarging the vocabulary of the English language.Chapter 4: SyntaxPart One: What is Syntax?syntax: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.Part Two: Categories1. Word-level categoriescategory: It refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.syntactic categories: Words can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called syntactic categories.Major lexical categories: (as heads) N, V, A, PWord-level categoriesMinor lexical categories: det. Deg. Qua. Aux. con.major lexical category: one type of word level categories, which often assumed to be the heads around which phrases are built, including N, V, Adj, and Prep.minor lexical category: one type of word level categories, which helps or modifies major lexical category.Three criteria to determine a word‘s category?1 Meaning:1 Word categories often bear some relationship with its meaning:■Nouns typically denote entities such as human beings and objects.■Verbs, characteristically designate action, sensation and sta tes.2 The meaning associated with nouns and verbs can be elaborated in various ways:■The property or attribute of the entities denoted by nouns can be elaborated by adjectives.■The properties and attributes of the actions, sensations and states designat ed by verbs can typically be denoted by adverbs.3 It is misleading to assume that a word‘s category can be told straightforward from its meaning.■ Nouns such as dilemma and friendship do not concretely reveal their entities.■ Some words such as love and hate which indicate actions tend to be verbs but they can also be used as nouns.■ Words with the same or similar meanings sometimes belong to different word categories, such as be aware of and know about.2 Inflection:1 Words of different categories take different inflections. Words of different categories take different inflection.■ Nouns such as boy and desk take the plural affix –s.■ Verbs such as work and help take –ed and –ing.■ Adjectives such as quiet and clever take –er and –est.2 Although in flection is very helpful in determining a word‘s category, it does not always suffice.■ Nouns like moisture, fog, do not take plural form –s.■ Adjectives like frequent and intelligent do not take –er or –est.3 Distribution:Distribution is what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word.■ Nouns can typically appear with a determiner like the girl and a card.■ Verbs with an auxiliary such as should stay and will go.■ Adjectives with a degree word such as very cool and too bright.Conclusion: Thu s, a word‘s distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.2. Phrase categories and their structuresphrase: syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase, the category of which is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built.phrase category: the phrase that is formed by combining with words of different categories. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, NP, VP, PP, AP.Whether formed of one or more than one word, phrases consist of two levels, phrase level and word level.NP VP AP PP <---------- phrase levelN V A P < ---------- word levelPhrase that are formed of more than one word usually contain head, specifier and complement. head: The word round which phrase is formed is termed head.specifier: The words on the left side of the heads are said to function as specifiers. complement: The words on the right side of the heads are complements.Part Three Phrase Structure Rulephrase structure rule: The special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.NP----- > (Det) N (PP)…. AP---- > (Deg) A (PP)….VP ---- > (Qual) v (NP)…. PP---- > (Deg) P (NP)….1. XP RuleIn NP, AP, VP, PP phrases, the specifier is attached at the top level to the left of head while complement is attached to the right. These similarities can be summarized with the help of the template , in which X stands for the head N, V,A,P.: The XP rule: XP-----> (specifier) X (complement)XP rule: In all phrases, the specifier is attached at the top level to the left of the head while the complement is attached to the right. These similarities can be summarized as an XP rule, in which X stands for the head N,V,A or P.2. X▔ TheoryX▔theory: A theoretical concept in transformational grammar which restricts the form of context-free phrases structure rules.The intermediate level formed by the head and the complement between word level and phrase level is represented by the symbol X▔. Thus the new three-level structures can be written as follows:a. XP----- > (specifier) X▔b. X▔----> X (complement)3. Coordination Rulecoordination: Some structures are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and or or. Such phenomenon is known as coordination. Suchstructures are called coordination structures.Four important properties:1 There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction.2 A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3 Coordinated categories must be of the same type4 The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.Coordination Rule: X------ > X *Con XPart Four: Phrase elements1. Specifiersspecifier: The words on the left side of the heads and which are attached to the top level, are specifiers.Specifiers have both special semantic and syntactic roles:■ Semantically, they help make more precise the meaning of the head.■ Syntactically, they ty pically mark a phrase boundary.The syntactic category of the specifier differs depending on the category of the head.2. Complementscomplement: The words on the right side of the heads are complements.Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head. They are attached to the right of the head in English.subcategorization: the information about a word‘s complement is included in the head and termed suncategorization.XP ----- > (Specifier) X (Complements*)― * ‖ means the fact that complements, however many there are, occur to the right of the head in English.Miss Hebert believes that she will win.―that‖ ------ complementizer: Words which introduce the sentence complement are termed complementizer.―she will win‖ ---- complement clause: The sentence introduced by the complementizer.―that she will win‖ ---- complement phrase: the elements, including a complementizer and a complement clause.―Miss Hebert believes‖---- matrix clause: the contrusction in which the complement phrase is embedded.3. modifiersmodifier: the element, which specifies optionally expressible properties of heads is called modifier.XP------ > (Spec) (Mod) X (Complement*) (Mod)This rule allows a modifier to occur either before the head or after it. Where there is a complement, a modifier that accurs after the head will normally occur to the right of the complement as well. Part Five : Sentences (The S Rule)zs1 The S rule : S ----> NP VP (This analysis is based on the assumptionn that unlike other phrases, which contains a head, a complement and a pecifier, S does not have an internal structure.)2 Another view : Many linguists beliebve that sentences, like other phrases, also have their own heads. They take abstract category inflection as their heads, which indicates the sentence‘s tense and agreement, Like other phrases, Infl takes an NP as its specifier and a VP as its complement.1 Infl realized by a tense label-----The boy found the book.2 Infl position realized by an auxiliary----A boy will find the book.Part Six : Transformations1. Auxiliary movementtransformation : a special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another.The yes-no question structures are built in two steps :1 The usual XP rule is used to form a structure in which the auxiliary occupies its normal position in Infl, between subject and the VP.2 In forming a yes-no question requires a transformation known as inversion to move the auxiliary from the Infl position to a position to the left of the subject, C position.inversion : the process of transformation that moves the auxiliary from the Infl position to a position to the left of the subject, is called inversion.Such type of inversion operation involving the movement of a word from the head position in one phrase into the head position in another is known as head movement.2. Do InsertionHow to form a yes-no question that does not contain an overt Infl such as ― Birds fly.‖Linguists circumvents this problem by adding the special auxiliary verb do. So we can formulate an insertion rule:Do insertion: Insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position.Do insertion : In the process of forming yes-no question that does not contain an overt Infl, interrogative do is inserted into an empty Infl positon to make transformation work.3. Deep structure and surface structuredeep structure : A level of abstract syntactic representation formed by the XP rule.surface structure : A level of syntactic representation after applying the necessary syntactic movement, i.e., transformation, to the deep structure.The XP rule---> Deep structure ---> Transformation ---> Surface structure. (Subcategorization restricts choice of complements.)4. Wh MovementWh question : In English, the kind of questions beginning with a wh- word are called wh question. Wh movement :The transformation that will move wh phrase from its position in deep structure to a position at the beginning of the sentence. This transformation is called wh movement. 【Practice】Draw a tree diagram of the sentence:She has finally found the man who she loves.5. Moveａand constraints on transformationsmove α: a general rule for all the movement rules, where ‗alpha‗ is a cover term fo r any element that can be moved from one place to another.Constraints: 1 Inversion can move an auxiliary from the Infl to the nearest C position, but not to a more distant C position.E.g.: Deep structure: Mike should know that the train might be late.T: Should Mike know w hether the train might be late? (√)F: Might Mike should know whether the train be late? (×)。
戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》笔记和课后习题(含考研真题)详解(形态学)【圣才】
Morphology studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which
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圣才电子书 十万种考研考证电子书、题库视频学习平台Байду номын сангаас
圣才电子书 十万种考研考证电子书、题库视频学习平台
第 3 章 形态学
3.1 复习笔记
本章要点： 1. Open class and closed class
开放词类与封闭词类 2. Morpheme
语素 3. Analyzing word structure
分析词语结构 4. Derivational and inflectional morphemes
words are formed, including inflection and word formation. 形态学研究词的内部结构以及构词规则，包括屈折变化和构词法两个领域。
II. Open class and closed class（开放类和封闭类） 1. Open class words: in English, nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs make up the largest part of the vocabulary. They are the content words of a language. 开放性词类：在英语中，名词、动词、形容词和副词占词汇的绝大部分。它们是一门语 言中的实义词，经常有新词产生。 2. Closed class words: The other syntactic categories include “grammatical” or “functional” words. Conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns consist of relatively few words and new words are not usually added to them. 封闭性词类：其他的句法范畴包括“语法性的”或者“功能性的”词。连词、介词、冠 词和代词相对较少，通常不会增加新词。
戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》笔记和课后习题(含考研真题)详解-第3~5章【圣才出品】
派生和曲折诧素 5. Morphological rules of word formation
词诧构成的形态觃则 6. Derivation
派生 7. Compounds
合成词
本章考点： 词法的定义；封闭词不开放词；曲折词不派生词；构词法(合成不派生)；词素的定义；
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圣才电子书 十万种考研考证电子书、题库规频学习平台
IV. Analyzing Word Structure（分析词汇结构） 1. Roots: constitute the core of the word and carries the major component of its
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圣才电子书 十万种考研考证电子书、题库规频学习平台
形态学研究词的内部结构以及构词觃则，包括屈折变化和构词法两个领域。
II. Open class and closed class（开放类和封闭类） 1. Open class words: in English, nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs make up the largest part of the vocabulary. They are the content words of a language. 开放性词类：在英诧中，名词、动词、形容词和副词占词汇的绝大部分。它们是一门诧 言中的实义词，经常有新词产生。 2. Closed class words: The other syntactic categories include “grammatical” or “functional” words. Conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns consist of relatively few words and new words are not usually added to them. 封闭性词类：其他的句法范畴包括“诧法性的”戒者“功能性的”词。连词、介词、冠 词和代词相对较少，通常丌会增加新词。
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Chapter 1 IntroductionWhat is linguistics? 什么是语言学[A] The definition of linguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language (对语言进行的科学研究)Process of linguistic study:① Certain linguistic facts are observed, generalization are formed;② Hypotheses are formulated;③ Hypotheses are tested by further observations;④ A linguistic theory is constructed.[B] The scope of linguistics General linguistics普通语言学: the study of language as a whole从整体研究1.Phonetics: the general study of the characteristics of speech sounds (or the study of the phonic medium of language) (How speech sounds are produced and classified)2.Phonology: is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language.(How sounds form systems and function to convey meaning)3.Morphology: the study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words (how morphemes are combined to form words)4.Syntax: the study of those rules that govern the combination of words to form permissible sentences (how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences)5.Semantics: the study of meaning in abstraction6.Pragmatics: the study of meaning in context of useSociolinguistics: the study of language with reference to societyPsycholinguistics: the study of language with reference to the workings of the mindApplied linguistics: the application of linguistics principles and theories to language teaching and learning Anthropological linguistics, neurological linguistics; mathematical linguistics; mathematical linguistics; computational linguistics[C] Some important distinctions in linguistics① Prescriptive vs. Descriptive 规定性与描写性② Synchronic vs. Diachronic 共时性与历时性（现代英语多研究共时性）The description of a language at some point in time;The description of a language as it changes through time.③ Speech and writing 言语与文字Spoken language is primary, not the written④ Langue and parole 语言和言语Proposed by Swiss linguists F. de Sausse (sociological)⑦glottal喉音: the glottal is the space between the vocal cords in the larynx [h][E] Classification of English vowels （英语元音的分类）① The highest position of the tongue: front, central, back;② The openness of the mouth: close, semi-close, semi-open, open;③ The roundness (shape) of the month (the lips):All the front, central vowels are unrounded vowels except [ ]All the back vowels, except [A:] are rounded vowels④ The length of the sound: long vowels & short vowelsLarynx → (tense) or (lax)Monophthongs, diphthongsCardinal vowels[F] The definition of phonology（音位学）Phonetics is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc. Phonology, on the other hand, is interested in the system of sounds of a particular languages; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.[G] Phone, phoneme, and allophone（音素、音位、音位变体）Phone: a phone is a phonetic unit or segment （因素是一个语音单位或者说语音段）Phoneme: a phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value, it is an abstract unit. （音位是一个音位学的单位，而且是一个有区别意义的单位，是一个抽象的单位）Allophone: the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.（在不同的语音环境下代表某个音位的音素被称为该音位的音位变体）[H] Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, minimal pair（音位对立、互补分布、最小对立体）Phonemic contrast: when two phonemes can occur in the same environments in two words and they distinguish meaning, they’re in phonemic contrast.E.g. pin & bin → /p/ vs. /b/ rope & robe → /p/ vs. /b/ （要会判断！）Complementary distribution: two or more than two allophones of the same phonemes are said to be in complementary distribution because they can not appear at the same time, or occur in different environment, besides they do not distinguish meaning.Minimal pair: when two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sounds are said to form a minimal pair.When a group of words can be differentiated, each one from the others, by changing one phoneme (always in the same position), then all of these words constitute a minimal sets.[I] Some rules in phonology。