建筑外文翻译---高层结构与钢结构
Talling building and Steel constructionAlthough there have been many advancements in building construction technology in general. Spectacular archievements have been made in the design and construction of ultrahigh-rise buildings.The early development of high-rise buildings began with structural steel framing.Reinforced concrete and stressed-skin tube systems have since been economically and competitively used in a number of structures for both residential and commercial purposes.The high-rise buildings ranging from 50 to 110 stories that are being built all over the United States are the result of innovations and development of new structual systems.Greater height entails increased column and beam sizes to make buildings more rigid so that under wind load they will not sway beyond an acceptable limit.Excessive lateral sway may cause serious recurring damage to partitions,ceilings.and other architectural details. In addition,excessive sway may cause discomfort to the occupants of the building because their perception of such motion.Structural systems of reinforced concrete,as well as steel,take full advantage of inherent potential stiffness of the total building and therefore require additional stiffening to limit the sway.In a steel structure,for example,the economy can be defined in terms of the total average quantity of steel per square foot of floor area of the building.Curve A in Fig .1 represents the average unit weight of a conventional frame with increasing numbers of stories. Curve B represents the average steel weight if the frame is protected from all lateral loads. The gap between the upper boundary and the lower boundary represents the premium for height forthe traditional column-and-beam frame.Structural engineers have developed structural systems with a view to eliminating this premium.Systems in steel. Tall buildings in steel developed as a result of several types of structural innovations. The innovations have been applied to the construction of both office and apartment buildings.Frame with rigid belt trusses. In order to tie the exterior columns of a frame structure to the interior vertical trusses,a system of rigid belt trusses at mid-height and at the top of the building may be used. A good example of this system is the First Wisconsin Bank Building(1974) in Milwaukee.Framed tube. The maximum efficiency of the total structure of a tall building, for both strength and stiffness,to resist wind load can be achieved only if all column element can be connected to each other in such a way that the entire building acts as a hollow tube or rigid box in projecting out of the ground. This particular structural system was probably used for the first time in the 43-story reinforced concrete DeWitt Chestnut Apartment Building in Chicago. The most significant use of this system is in the twin structural steel towers of the 110-story World Trade Center building in New York Column-diagonal truss tube. The exterior columns of a building can be spaced reasonably far apart and yet be made to work together as a tube by connecting them with diagonal members interesting at the centre line of the columns and beams. This simple yet extremely efficient system was used for the first time on the John Hancock Centre in Chicago, using as much steel as is normally needed for a traditional 40-story building.Bundled tube. With the continuing need for larger and taller buildings, the framed tube or the column-diagonal truss tube may be used in a bundled formto create larger tube envelopes while maintaining high efficiency. The 110-story Sears Roebuck Headquarters Building in Chicago has nine tube, bundled at the base of the building in three rows. Some of these individual tubes terminate at different heights of the building, demonstrating the unlimited architectural possibilities of this latest structural concept. The Sears tower, at a height of 1450 ft(442m), is the world’s tallest building.Stressed-skin tube system. The tube structural system was developed for improving the resistance to lateral forces (wind and earthquake) and the control of drift (lateral building movement ) in high-rise building. The stressed-skin tube takes the tube system a step further. The development of the stressed-skin tube utilizes the façade of the building as a structural element which acts with the framed tube, thus providing an efficient way of resisting lateral loads in high-rise buildings, and resulting in cost-effective column-free interior space with a high ratio of net to gross floor area.Because of the contribution of the stressed-skin façade, the framed members of the tube require less mass, and are thus lighter and less expensive. All the typical columns and spandrel beams are standard rolled shapes,minimizing the use and cost of special built-up members. The depth requirement for the perimeter spandrel beams is also reduced, and the need for upset beams above floors, which would encroach on valuable space, is minimized. The structural system has been used on the 54-story One Mellon Bank Center in Pittburgh.Systems in concrete. While tall buildings constructed of steel had an early start, development of tall buildings of reinforced concrete progressed at a fast enough rate to provide a competitive chanllenge to structural steel systems forboth office and apartment buildings.Framed tube. As discussed above, the first framed tube concept for tall buildings was used for the 43-story DeWitt Chestnut Apartment Building. In this building ,exterior columns were spaced at 5.5ft (1.68m) centers, and interior columns were used as needed to support the 8-in . -thick (20-m) flat-plate concrete slabs.Tube in tube. Another system in reinforced concrete for office buildings combines the traditional shear wall construction with an exterior framed tube. The system consists of an outer framed tube of very closely spaced columns and an interior rigid shear wall tube enclosing the central service area. The system (Fig .2), known as the tube-in-tube system , made it possible to design the world’s present tallest (714ft or 218m)lightweight concrete building ( the 52-story One Shell Plaza Building in Houston) for the unit price of a traditional shear wall structure of only 35 stories.Systems combining both concrete and steel have also been developed, an examle of which is the composite system developed by skidmore, Owings &Merril in which an exterior closely spaced framed tube in concrete envelops an interior steel framing, thereby combining the advantages of both reinforced concrete and structural steel systems. The 52-story One Shell Square Building in New Orleans is based on this system.Steel construction refers to a broad range of building construction in which steel plays the leading role. Most steel construction consists of large-scale buildings or engineering works, with the steel generally in the form of beams, girders, bars, plates, and other members shaped through the hot-rolled process. Despite the increased use of other materials, steelconstruction remained a major outlet for the steel industries of the U.S, U.K, U.S.S.R, Japan, West German, France, and other steel producers in the 1970s.Early history. The history of steel construction begins paradoxically several decades before the introduction of the Bessemer and the Siemens-Martin (openj-hearth) processes made it possible to produce steel in quantities sufficient for structure use. Many of problems of steel construction were studied earlier in connection with iron construction, which began with the Coalbrookdale Bridge, built in cast iron over the Severn River in England in 1777. This and subsequent iron bridge work, in addition to the construction of steam boilers and iron ship hulls , spurred the development of techniques for fabricating, designing, and jioning. The advantages of iron over masonry lay in the much smaller amounts of material required. The truss form, based on the resistance of the triangle to deformation, long used in timber, was translated effectively into iron, with cast iron being used for compression members-i.e, those bearing the weight of direct loading-and wrought iron being used for tension members-i.e, those bearing the pull of suspended loading.The technique for passing iron, heated to the plastic state, between rolls to form flat and rounded bars, was developed as early as 1800;by 1819 angle irons were rolled; and in 1849 the first I beams, 17.7 feet (5.4m) long , were fabricated as roof girders for a Paris railroad station.Two years later Joseph Paxton of England built the Crystal Palace for the London Exposition of 1851. He is said to have conceived the idea of cage construction-using relatively slender iron beams as a skeleton for the glass walls of a large, open structure. Resistance to wind forces in the Crystal palacewas provided by diagonal iron rods. Two feature are particularly important in the history of metal construction; first, the use of latticed girder, which are small trusses, a form first developed in timber bridges and other structures and translated into metal by Paxton ; and second, the joining of wrought-iron tension members and cast-iron compression members by means of rivets inserted while hot.In 1853 the first metal floor beams were rolled for the Cooper Union Building in New York. In the light of the principal market demand for iron beams at the time, it is not surprising that the Cooper Union beams closely resembled railroad rails.The development of the Bessemer and Siemens-Martin processes in the 1850s and 1860s suddenly open the way to the use of steel for structural purpose. Stronger than iron in both tension and compression ,the newly available metal was seized on by imaginative engineers, notably by those involved in building the great number of heavy railroad bridges then in demand in Britain, Europe, and the U.S.A notable example was the Eads Bridge, also known as the St. Louis Bridge, in St. Louis (1867-1874), in which tubular steel ribs were used to form arches with a span of more than 500ft (152.5m). In Britain, the Firth of Forth cantilever bridge (1883-90) employed tubular struts, some 12 ft (3.66m) in diameter and 350 ft (107m) long. Such bridges and other structures were important in leading to the development and enforcement of standards and codification of permissible design stresses. The lack of adequate theoretical knowledge, and even of an adequate basis for theoretical studies, limited the value of stress analysis during the early years of the 20th century,asiccasionally failures,such as that of a cantilever bridge in Quebec in 1907,revealed.But failures were rare in the metal-skeleton office buildings;the simplicity of their design proved highly practical even in the absence of sophisticated analysis techniques. Throughout the first third of the century, ordinary carbon steel, without any special alloy strengthening or hardening, was universally used.The possibilities inherent in metal construction for high-rise building was demonstrated to the world by the Paris Exposition of 1889.for which Alexandre-Gustave Eiffel, a leading French bridge engineer, erected an openwork metal tower 300m (984 ft) high. Not only was the height-more than double that of the Great Pyramid-remarkable, but the speed of erection and low cost were even more so, a small crew completed the work in a few months.The first skyscrapers. Meantime, in the United States another important development was taking place. In 1884-85 Maj. William Le Baron Jenney, a Chicago engineer , had designed the Home Insurance Building, ten stories high, with a metal skeleton. Jenney’s beams were of Bessemer steel, though his columns were cast iron. Cast iron lintels supporting masonry over window openings were, in turn, supported on the cast iron columns. Soild masonry court and party walls provided lateral support against wind loading. Within a decade the same type of construction had been used in more than 30 office buildings in Chicago and New York. Steel played a larger and larger role in these , with riveted connections for beams and columns, sometimes strengthened for wind bracing by overlaying gusset plates at the junction of vertical and horizontal members. Light masonry curtain walls, supported ateach floor level, replaced the old heavy masonry curtain walls, supported at each floor level , replaced the old heavy masonry.Though the new construction form was to remain centred almost entirely in America for several decade, its impact on the steel industry was worldwide. By the last years of the 19th century, the basic structural shapes-I beams up to 20 in. ( 0.508m) in depth and Z and T shapes of lesser proportions were readily available, to combine with plates of several widths and thicknesses to make efficient members of any required size and strength. In 1885 the heaviest structural shape produced through hot-rolling weighed less than 100 pounds (45 kilograms) per foot; decade by decade this figure rose until in the 1960s it exceeded 700 pounds (320 kilograms) per foot.Coincident with the introduction of structural steel came the introduction of the Otis electric elevator in 1889. The demonstration of a safe passenger elevator, together with that of a safe and economical steel construction method, sent building heights soaring. In New York the 286-ft (87.2-m) Flatiron Building of 1902 was surpassed in 1904 by the 375-ft (115-m) Times Building ( renamed the Allied Chemical Building) , the 468-ft (143-m) City Investing Company Building in Wall Street, the 612-ft (187-m) Singer Building (1908), the 700-ft (214-m) Metropolitan Tower (1909) and, in 1913, the 780-ft (232-m) Woolworth Building.The rapid increase in height and the height-to-width ratio brought problems. To limit street congestion, building setback design was prescribed. On the technical side, the problem of lateral support was studied. A diagonal bracing system, such as that used in the Eiffel Tower, was not architecturally desirable in offices relying on sunlight for illumination. The answer was foundin greater reliance on the bending resistance of certain individual beams and columns strategically designed into the skeletn frame, together with a high degree of rigidity sought at the junction of the beams and columns. With today’s modern interior lighting systems, however, diagonal bracing against wind loads has returned; one notable example is the John Hancock Center in Chicago, where the external X-braces form a dramatic part of the structure’s façade.World War I brought an interruption to the boom in what had come to be called skyscrapers (the origin of the word is uncertain), but in the 1920s New York saw a resumption of the height race, culminating in the Empire State Building in the 1931. The Emp ire State’s 102 stories (1,250ft. [381m]) were to keep it established as the hightest building in the world for the next 40 years. Its speed of the erection demonstrated how thoroughly the new construction technique had been mastered. A depot across the bay at Bayonne, N.J., supplied the girders by lighter and truck on a schedule operated with millitary precision; nine derricks powerde by electric hoists lifted the girders to position; an industrial-railway setup moved steel and other material on each floor. Initial connections were made by bolting , closely followed by riveting, followed by masonry and finishing. The entire job was completed in one year and 45 days.The worldwide depression of the 1930s and World War II provided another interruption to steel construction development, but at the same time the introduction of welding to replace riveting provided an important advance.Joining of steel parts by metal are welding had been successfully achieved by the end of the 19th century and was used in emergency ship repairs during World War I, but its application to construction was limited untilafter World War II. Another advance in the same area had been the introduction of high-strength bolts to replace rivets in field connections.Since the close of World War II, research in Europe, the U.S., and Japan has greatly extended knowledge of the behavior of different types of structural steel under varying stresses, including those exceeding the yield point, making possible more refined and systematic analysis. This in turn has led to the adoption of more liberal design codes in most countries, more imaginative design made possible by so-called plastic design ?The introduction of the computer by short-cutting tedious paperwork, made further advances and savings possible.高层结构与钢结构近年来，尽管一般的建筑结构设计取得了很大的进步，但是取得显著成绩的还要属超高层建筑结构设计。
土木工程专业外文翻译--高层建筑
外文原文Tall BuildingsAlthough there have been many advancements in building construction technology in general, spectacular achievements have been made in the design and construction of ultrahigh-rise buildings.The early development of high-rise buildings began with structural steel framing. Reinforced concrete and stressed-skin tube systems have since been economically and competitively used in a number of structures for both residential and commercial purposes. The high-rise buildings ranging from 50 to 110 stories that are being built all over the United States are the result of innovations and development of new structural systems.Greater height entails increased column and beam sizes to make buildings more rigid so that under wind load they will not sway beyond an acceptable limit. Excessive lateral sway may cause serious recurring damage to partitions, ceilings, and other architectural details. In addition, excessive sway may cause discomfort to the occupants of the building because of their perception of such motion. Structural systems of reinforced concrete, as well as steel, take full advantage of the inherent potential stiffness of the total building and therefore do not require additional stiffening to limit the sway.In a steel structure, for example, the economy can be defined in terms of the total average quantity of steel per square foot of floor area of the building. Curve A in Fig. 1 represents the average unit weight of a conventional frame with increasing numbers of stories. Curve B represents the average steel weight if the frame is protected from all lateral loads. The gap between the upper boundary and the lower boundary represents the premium for height for the traditional column-and-beam frame; Structural engineers have developed structural systems with a view to eliminating this premium.Systems in steel. Tall buildings in steel developed as a result of several types of structural innovations. The innovations have been applied to the construction of both office and apartment buildings.Frames with rigid belt trusses. In order to tie the exterior columns of a frame structure to the interior vertical trusses, a system of rigid belt trusses at mid-height and at the top of the building may be used. A good example of this system is the First Wisconsin Bank Building (1974) in Milwaukee.Framed tube. The maximum efficiency of the total structure of a tall building, for bothstrength and stiffness, to resist wind load can be achieved only if all column elements can be connected to each other in such a way that the entire building acts as a hollow tube or rigid box in projecting out of the ground. This particular structural system was probably used for the first time in the 43-story reinforced concrete DeWitt Chestnut Apartment Building in Chicago. The most significant use of this system is in the twin structural steel towers of the 110-story World Trade Center building in New York.Column-diagonal truss tube. The exterior columns of a building can be spaced reasonably far apart and yet be made to work together as a tube by connecting them with. Diagonal members intersecting at the center line of the columns and beams. This simple yet extremely efficient system was used for the first time on the John Hancock Center in Chicago, using as much steel as is normally needed for a traditional story building.Fig. 1. Graphical relationship between design quantities of steel and building heights for a typical building frame. Curves A and B correspond to the boundary conditions indicated in the two building diagrams. 1 psf = 0. 048kPa.Bundled tube. With the continuing need for larger and taller buildings, the framed tube or the column-diagonal truss tube may be used in a bundled form to create larger tube envelopes while maintaining high efficiency. The i10-story Sears Roebuck Headquarters Building in Chicago has nine tubes, bundled at tile base of the building in three rows. Some of these individual tubes terminate at different heights of the building, demonstrating the unlimited architectural possibilities of this latest structural concept. The Sears tower, at a height of 1450 ft (442 m), is the world's tallest building.Stressed-skin tube system. The tube structural system was developed for improving the resistance to lateral forces (wind or earthquake) and the control of drift (lateral building movement) in high-rise building. The stressed-skin tube takes the tube system a step further. The development of the stressed-skin tube utilizes the facade of the building as a structural element which acts with the framed tube, thus providing an efficient way of resisting lateral loads in high-rise buildings, and resulting in cost-effective column-free interior space with a high ratio of net to gross floor area.Because of the contribution of the stressed-skin facade, the framed members of the tube require less mass, and are thus lighter and less expensive. All the typical columns and spandrel beams are standard rolled shapes, minimizing the use and cost of special built-up members. The depth requirement for the perimeter spandrel beams is also reduced, and the need for upset beams above floors, which would encroach on valuable space, is minimized.The structural system has been used on the 54-story One Mellon Bank Center in Pittsburgh.Systems in concrete. While tall buildings constructed of steel had an early start, development of tall buildings of reinforced concrete progressed at a fast enough rate to provide a competitive challenge to structural steel systems for both office and apartment buildings.Framed tube. As discussed above, the first framed tube concept for tall buildings was used for the 43-story DeWitt Chestnut Apartment Building. In this building, exterior columns were spaced at 5.5-ft (1.68-m) centers, and interior columns were used as needed to support the 8-in.-thick (20-cm) flat-plate concrete slabs.Tube in tube. Another system in reinforced concrete for office buildings combines the traditional shear wall construction with an exterior framed tube. The system consists of an outer framed tube of very closely spaced columns and an interior rigid shear wall tube enclosing the central service area. The system (Fig.2), known as the tube-in-tube system, made it possible to design the world's present tallest (714 ft or 218m) lightweight concrete Building in Houston)for structure of only 35 s oriel building the unit 52 —story One Shell Plaza of a traditional shear wallSystems compiling both concrete and steel have also been developed ，an example of which is the composite system developed by Skidmore ，Owings & Merrill in which an exterior closely spaced framed tube in concrete envelops an interior steel framing ，thereby combining the advantages of both reinforced concrete and structuralsteel systems．The 52—story One Shell Square Building in New Orleans is based on this system．NEW WORDS AND PHRASES1．spectacular 壮观的，惊人的，引人注意的2．sway 摇动，摇摆，歪，使倾斜3．residential 居住的，住宅的，作住家用的4．commercial 商业的，商业上的，商务的5．innovation 革新，创新，新方法，新事物6．boundary 分界线，边界7．eliminate 排除，消除，除去8．apartment 公寓住宅，单元住宅9．column 柱，支柱，圆柱，柱状物10．demonstrate 示范，证明，演示，11．project 凸出，投射，计划，工程12．stress 应力，压力13．truss 构架，桁架14．bundle 捆，束，包15．terminate 使终止，使结尾，结束16．facade （房屋的）／E 面，立面，表面17．perimeter 周，周围，周界，周长18．encroach 侵犯，侵占，蚕食19. high • rise building 高层建筑20．reinforced concrete 钢筋混凝土21 . spandrel beam 窗下墙的墙托梁22. shear wall 剪力墙中文译文高层建筑大体上建筑施工工艺学方面已经有许多进步, 在超高层的设计和施工上已经取得了惊人的成就。
毕业论文外文翻译-高层建筑结构
毕业论文外文翻译-高层建筑结构High-Rise Building StructureAbstract:High-rise buildings have become common in modern cities across the world. Structural considerations play a crucial role in the planning and design of these buildings. The structural system of a high-rise building must be able to support its own weight as well as any additional loads imposed by occupancy and natural forces such as wind and earthquakes. This paper provides an overview of the structural systems commonly used in high-rise buildings, including reinforced concrete, steel, and hybrid systems. It also discusses the advantages and disadvantages of each system and the factors that affect their selection based on the specific requirements of a building.Introduction:In modern cities, high-rise buildings have become an increasingly popular option for meeting the growing need for office and residential space. High-rise buildings have several advantages, including the efficient use of land, the ability to accommodate large numbers of people, and the provision of spectacular views. To achieve these benefits, it is important to develop a safe and efficient structural system for high-rise buildings.Structural Considerations for High-Rise Buildings:Structural considerations are critical for high-rise buildings. Such structures must be able to support their own weight, as well as resist loads imposed by occupancy and natural forces such as wind and earthquakes. The structural system must also be able to maintain stability throughout the building's lifespan, while providing adequate safety for its occupants.Common Structural Systems for High-Rise Buildings:Reinforced Concrete System:One of the most commonly used structural systems for high-rise buildings is reinforced concrete. This system is desirable because of its strength, durability, and fire resistance. Concrete is also easily moldable, which allows for various shapes and sizes to be used in the building design.Steel System:The steel structural system is another popular choice for high-rise buildings. Steel structures have a high strength-to-weight ratio, which makes them a good choice for taller and lighter buildings. They are also easily adaptable and have high ductility, making them more resistant to earthquake damage.Hybrid System:Hybrid structural systems, which combine the advantages of reinforced concrete and steel, have become increasingly popular in recent years. These systems include concrete encased steel frames, concrete-filled steel tubes, and steel reinforced concrete.Factors Affecting Selection:The selection of a structural system for a high-rise building depends on several factors, including the building height, location, climate, design requirements, and budget. For example, in areas with high wind loads, a steel or hybrid system may be preferable due to its high strength and ductility. In areas with high seismic activity, a reinforced concrete system may be more appropriate because of its superior resistance to earthquake damage.Advantages and Disadvantages of Structural Systems:Each structural system has its advantages and disadvantages. The reinforced concrete system is strong, durable, and fire resistant, but is also heavy and requires a longer construction period. The steel system is adaptable and has a high strength-to-weight ratio, but is also susceptible to corrosion and may require regular maintenance. The hybrid system combines the benefits of both systems but may be more expensive than either system alone.Conclusion:Structural considerations are critical for the planning and design of high-rise buildings. Reinforced concrete, steel, and hybrid systems are the most commonly used structural systems for high-rise buildings. The selection of a system depends on several factors, including the building height, location, climate, design requirements, and budget. Each system has its advantages and disadvantages, and careful consideration of these factors is necessary to develop a safe and efficient structural system for high-rise buildings.。
结构专业英汉对照
PASAR结构专业英汉对照一、规范或图集《建筑结构可靠度设计统一标准》：Unified standard for reliability design of building structures《建筑结构荷载规范》：Load code for the design of building structures《钢结构设计规范》：Code for design of steel structures《建筑抗震设计规范》：Code for seismic design of buildings《混凝土结构设计规范》：Code for design of concrete structures《建筑地基基础设计规范》：Code for design of building foundation《门式刚架轻型房屋钢结构技术规程》：Technical specification for steel structure of light-weight Buildings with gabled frames《钢筋混凝土筒仓设计规范》：Code for design of reinforced concrete silos《砌体结构设计规范》：Code for design of masonry structures《高层建筑混凝土结构技术规程》：Technical specification for concrete structures of tall building《高层民用建筑钢结构技术规程》：Technical specification for steel structure of tall buildings《混凝土结构加固设计规范》：Design code for strengthening concrete structure 《钢结构加固技术规范》：Technical specification for strengthening steel structures 《工业建筑防腐蚀设计规范》：Code for Anticorrosion Design of IndustrialConstructionsPermanent load：恒载Live load: 活载Snow load:雪荷载Snow region : 雪压分布区Reference snow pressure:基本雪压Wind load：风荷载Wind region:风压分布区Reference wind pressure:基本风压Terrain roughness:地面粗糙度Crane load:吊车荷载Seismicity 6 points：地震烈度6点（不能简单认为中国规范6度）二、常用语1、混凝土结构Concrete structure :混凝土结构（包括素砼结构、钢筋砼结构、预应力砼结构）Plain concrete structure:素混凝土结构Reinforced Concrete structure :钢筋混凝土结构Prestressed Concrete structure :预应力混凝土结构Cast-in-situ Concrete structure :现浇混凝土结构Structural joint:结构缝（分割混凝土结构间隔的总称）Expansion joint:伸缩缝Deep beam:深梁Steel bar :普通钢筋Reinforcing bar ：钢筋（通常指受力钢筋）Reinforcing rod：钢筋（在钢筋混凝土中使用的各种钢筋）Hoop reinforcement:箍筋（螺旋形箍筋除外）Stirrup:箍筋spacing of stirrups:箍筋间距spiral reinforcements:螺旋筋fabric reinforcements:钢筋网Transverse reinforcement:横向钢筋（垂直纵向受力钢筋的箍筋或间接钢筋）Hot rolled deformed bars :热轧带肋钢筋Hot rolled plain round bars :热轧光圆钢筋Anchorage length:锚固长度Concrete cover：混凝土保护层Topping:面层(也可指砂浆)Bar diameter:钢筋直径Foundation:基础Concrete wall:混凝土墙（泛指用混凝土做的墙体）Frame beams:框架梁Frame columns:框架柱Columns of bent:排架柱Columns supporting structural transfer member:框支柱Shear walls and coupling beams:剪力墙和连梁Cantilever beam:悬臂梁Slab:板（泛指混凝土板及其他板）Slab on ground：地面上的混凝土板Suspended slabs:楼面板Ratio of reinforcement:配筋率Embedded parts:预埋件Lap length：搭接长度Rejointing :勾缝，填缝Fist pour:第一期浇灌Second pour：第二期浇灌Fine aggregate concrete:细石混凝土Concrete with strength level is no lower than C30:混凝土强度等级不低于C30（《建筑地基基础设计规范》描述）The concrete strength grade shall not be less than C30: 混凝土强度等级不低于C30（《混凝土结构设计规范》描述）The stressed steel bars adopt the HRB400,Stirrups adopt HRB300:受力钢筋采用HRB400，箍筋采用HRB300Anchorage of steel reinforcement:钢筋的锚固The impermeability grade of concrete:混凝土抗渗等级2、地基基础Earth work:地基工程Ground(foundation soils):地基Retaining wall：挡（土）墙Gravity Retaining wall：重力式挡墙Pedestals：设备底座Characteristic value of subsoil bearing capacity:地基承载力特征值Ground treatment(ground improvement):地基处理Strip footing under column:柱下条形基础Pile foundation:桩基础End-bearing pile :端承桩50 thick concrete blinding：50厚混凝土基础垫层Concrete blinding C15 : C15混凝土垫层C15 plain concrete:C15 素混凝土Residual soil：原积土Design grade of foundation:基础设计等级Grade A：甲级Anti-floating checking：抗浮验算Rock, gravelly soil, sandy soil, silty soil, cohesive soil, artificial fill:岩石，碎石土，砂土，粉土，黏性土，人工填土Plain fill:素填土Compacted fill:压实填土Miscellaneous fill:杂填土Compacted coefficient:压实系数Embedded depth of foundation:基础埋置深度3、钢结构Steel work:钢结构工程Steel structure:钢结构Pure frames:(无支撑)纯框架Braced frames:有支撑框架Wind column:抗风柱Wind beam:抗风梁或抗风系杆Brackets:牛腿Connector（Connecting pieces）:连接件Supports(bearings):支座Hinged bearing：铰支座，铰支承Composite steel and concrete beam:钢与混凝土组合梁Beam:梁Column:柱Leaning column：摇摆柱（框架内两端为铰接不能抵抗侧向荷载的柱）Purlin :檩条Girt:围梁，也可指墙面檩条Manhole：人孔Eot crane: 电动桥式起重机Underslung crane:悬挂吊车Crane rail:吊车轨道Crane stop :吊车车挡Crane girders(Crane beam &Crane runway):吊车梁Planed and tightly fitted:刨平顶紧Cantrex rail clip:吊车轨道固定夹10 PL. Stiffener: 10厚加劲板PL 10: 10厚钢板6 Gap: 6mm缝隙Column web：柱腹板Web plate:腹板Column flange:柱翼缘板Flange plate:翼缘板Web stiffener:腹板加劲板(Column )cap plate: (柱)顶板(Column) base plate: (柱)底板M20 bolt: M20螺栓4 Holes φ20：4个φ20孔High strength bolt(H.D bolt)：高强螺栓Commercial bolt：普通螺栓4M20 anchor bolts: 4M20 地脚螺栓4M16 Chemical anchors: 4M16化学螺栓Bolt property grade:螺栓的性能等级（8.8级或10.9级）Stud:栓钉Stair tread：楼梯踏步Handrail：扶手栏杆Platform:平台（一般的操作或检修平台）50 Grouting：50厚灌浆层（还指钢平台上铺的混凝土板）32 Grating :32厚钢格栅Corrugated steel plate(Checkered plate)：花纹钢板Vertical brace:竖直支撑（垂直剪刀撑）Horizontal brace:水平支撑Ties:系杆Sag rod:直拉条Angle brace：隅撑The lace on built-up members:组合构件的缀条Shear resistant key(Shear key):抗剪件Cable tray support：电缆槽支架Pipe support:管道支架Stiffener both sides:两边布置加劲板Splice:拼接（钢构件设置的拼接）Plate 10:10厚钢板（PL 10）Filler plate:填板Check nut （locknut）:防松螺母（可指地脚螺栓柱脚钢板上的第二颗螺母）Truss:桁架Truss member:桁架杆件Web member:腹杆Chord :弦杆，也可指拱的跨度End post:（桁架）端部受压杆Weld:焊接Weld tube :焊接管Weld:焊缝Butt weld:对接焊缝Fillet weld:角焊缝Groove:坡口The quality level of welds shall not be lower than class 2:焊缝质量等级不低于2级Full penetration:全熔透Topping coat：外涂层，面漆Finishing coat：面漆Primer:底漆Priming:上底漆Blast cleaning:喷砂清洗，喷砂除锈Dry film :干膜Slip coefficient at friction interface:摩擦面的抗滑移系数Fire protection coating:防火涂料Beam-to-beam connection:梁梁连接节点Beam-to-column connection:梁柱连接节点Rigid connection:刚接Hinged connection：铰接H-section:H型截面box-section:箱型截面The inserted column base:插入式柱脚The encased column base：埋人式柱脚The encasing column base：外包式柱脚Span:跨度Bay:开间Bay spacing:柱距Slope:坡度Roof slope 5°: 屋面坡度5度Eaves:屋檐Eaves gutter(gutter):天沟Canopy:雨棚，挑棚Detailing requirements:构造要求4、改造工程Strengthening work:加固工程Existing：现有的，列如：Existing foundation:现有基础Existing structure member:原构件Strengthening of existing structures:对已有结构加固Structure member strengthening with reinforced concrete:增大截面加固法Structure member strengthening with externally bonded steel frame:外粘型钢加固法Structure member strengthening with externally bonded reinforced materials:复合截面加固法unloading:卸载Hacking:凿毛Bonded rebars:植筋4M16 Chemical anchors: 4M16化学螺栓Structrual adhesives:结构胶Fibre reinforced polymer (FRP):纤维复合材Polymer nirtar:聚合物砂浆polymer mortar：复合砂浆Corrosion inhibitor：阻锈剂Reshoring:临时支撑（原始的支撑拆除后，用于模板或整体结构的临时支撑）the interface of new and existing shall be hacking , and cleaning, then cast in concrete.:新旧砼交接处，应先凿毛、并清洗干净，再浇筑砼。
土木工程专业外文翻译--高层建筑
外文原文Tall BuildingsAlthough there have been many advancements in building construction technology in general, spectacular achievements have been made in the design and construction of ultrahigh-rise buildings.The early development of high-rise buildings began with structural steel framing. Reinforced concrete and stressed-skin tube systems have since been economically and competitively used in a number of structures for both residential and commercial purposes. The high-rise buildings ranging from 50 to 110 stories that are being built all over the United States are the result of innovations and development of new structural systems.Greater height entails increased column and beam sizes to make buildings more rigid so that under wind load they will not sway beyond an acceptable limit. Excessive lateral sway may cause serious recurring damage to partitions, ceilings, and other architectural details. In addition, excessive sway may cause discomfort to the occupants of the building because of their perception of such motion. Structural systems of reinforced concrete, as well as steel, take full advantage of the inherent potential stiffness of the total building and therefore do not require additional stiffening to limit the sway.In a steel structure, for example, the economy can be defined in terms of the total average quantity of steel per square foot of floor area of the building. Curve A in Fig. 1 represents the average unit weight of a conventional frame with increasing numbers of stories. Curve B represents the average steel weight if the frame is protected from all lateral loads. The gap between the upper boundary and the lower boundary represents the premium for height for the traditional column-and-beam frame; Structural engineers have developed structural systems with a view to eliminating this premium.Systems in steel. Tall buildings in steel developed as a result of several types of structural innovations. The innovations have been applied to the construction of both office and apartment buildings.Frames with rigid belt trusses. In order to tie the exterior columns of a frame structure to the interior vertical trusses, a system of rigid belt trusses at mid-height and at the top of the building may be used. A good example of this system is the First Wisconsin Bank Building (1974) in Milwaukee.Framed tube. The maximum efficiency of the total structure of a tall building, for both strength and stiffness, to resist wind load can be achieved only if all column elements can be connected to each other in such a way that the entire building acts as a hollow tube or rigid box in projecting out of the ground. This particular structural system was probably used for the first time in the 43-story reinforced concrete DeWitt Chestnut Apartment Building in Chicago. The most significant use of this system is in the twin structural steel towers of the 110-story World Trade Center building in New York.Column-diagonal truss tube. The exterior columns of a building can be spaced reasonably far apart and yet be made to work together as a tube by connecting them with. Diagonal members intersecting at the center line of the columns and beams. This simple yet extremely efficient system was used for the first time on the John Hancock Center in Chicago, using as much steel as is normally needed for a traditional story building.Fig. 1. Graphical relationship between design quantities of steel and building heights for a typical building frame. Curves A and B correspond to the boundary conditions indicated in the two building diagrams. 1 psf = 0. 048kPa.Bundled tube. With the continuing need for larger and taller buildings, the framed tube or the column-diagonal truss tube may be used in a bundled form to create larger tube envelopes while maintaining high efficiency. The i10-story Sears Roebuck Headquarters Building in Chicago has nine tubes, bundled at tile base of the building in three rows. Some of these individual tubes terminate at different heights of the building, demonstrating the unlimited architectural possibilities of this latest structural concept. The Sears tower, at a height of 1450 ft (442 m), is the world's tallest building.Stressed-skin tube system. The tube structural system was developed for improving the resistance to lateral forces (wind or earthquake) and the control of drift (lateral building movement) in high-rise building. The stressed-skin tube takes the tube system a step further. The development of the stressed-skin tube utilizes the facade of the building as a structural element which acts with the framed tube, thus providing an efficient way of resisting lateral loads in high-rise buildings, and resulting in cost-effective column-free interior space with a high ratio of net to gross floor area.Because of the contribution of the stressed-skin facade, the framed members of the tube require less mass, and are thus lighter and less expensive. All the typical columns and spandrel beams are standard rolled shapes, minimizing the use and cost of special built-up members. The depth requirement for the perimeter spandrel beams is also reduced, and the need for upset beams above floors, which would encroach on valuable space, is minimized.The structural system has been used on the 54-story One Mellon Bank Center in Pittsburgh.Systems in concrete. While tall buildings constructed of steel had an early start, development of tall buildings of reinforced concrete progressed at a fast enough rate to provide a competitive challenge to structural steel systems for both office and apartment buildings.Framed tube. As discussed above, the first framed tube concept for tall buildings was used for the 43-story DeWitt Chestnut Apartment Building. In this building, exterior columns were spaced at 5.5-ft (1.68-m) centers, and interior columns were used as needed to support the 8-in.-thick (20-cm) flat-plate concrete slabs.Tube in tube. Another system in reinforced concrete for office buildings combines the traditional shear wall construction with an exterior framed tube. The system consists of an outer framed tube of very closely spaced columns and an interior rigid shear wall tube enclosing the central service area. The system (Fig.2), known as the tube-in-tube system, made it possible to design the world's present tallest (714 ft or 218m) lightweight concrete Building in Houston)for structure of only 35 s oriel building the unit 52—story One Shell Plaza of a traditional shear wallSystems compiling both concrete and steel have also been developed，an example of which is the composite system developed by Skidmore，Owings & Merrill in which an exterior closely spaced framed tube in concrete envelops an interior steel framing，thereby combining the advantages of both reinforced concrete and structuralsteel systems．The 52—story One Shell Square Building in New Orleans is based on this system．NEW WORDS AND PHRASES1．spectacular 壮观的，惊人的，引人注意的2．sway 摇动，摇摆，歪，使倾斜3．residential 居住的，住宅的，作住家用的4．commercial 商业的，商业上的，商务的5．innovation 革新，创新，新方法，新事物6．boundary 分界线，边界7．eliminate 排除，消除，除去8．apartment 公寓住宅，单元住宅9．column 柱，支柱，圆柱，柱状物10．demonstrate 示范，证明，演示，11．project 凸出，投射，计划，工程12．stress 应力，压力13．truss 构架，桁架14．bundle 捆，束，包15．terminate 使终止，使结尾，结束16．facade (房屋的)／E面，立面，表面17．perimeter 周，周围，周界，周长18．encroach 侵犯，侵占，蚕食19．high·rise building 高层建筑20．reinforced concrete 钢筋混凝土21．spandrel beam 窗下墙的墙托梁22．shear wall 剪力墙中文译文高层建筑大体上建筑施工工艺学方面已经有许多进步, 在超高层的设计和施工上已经取得了惊人的成就。
外文翻译---高层建筑及结构设计
中文3220字附录：毕业设计外文翻译院（系）建筑工程学院专业土木工程班级姓名学号导师2011年4月15日英文：High-Rise Buildings and StructuralDesignAbstract：It is difficult to define a high-rise building . One may say that a low-rise building ranges from 1 to 2 stories . A medium-rise building probably ranges between 3 or 4 stories up to 10 or 20 stories or more . Although the basic principles of vertical and horizontal subsystem design remain the same for low- , medium- , or high-rise buildings , when a building gets high the vertical subsystems become a controlling problem for two reasons . Higher vertical loads will require larger columns , walls , and shafts . But , more significantly , the overturning moment and the shear deflections produced by lateral forces are much larger and must be carefully provided for .Key Words：High-Rise Buildings Structural Design Framework Shear Seismic SystemIntroductionThe vertical subsystems in a high-rise building transmit accumulated gravity load from story to story , thus requiring larger column or wall sections to support such loading . In addition these same vertical subsystems must transmit lateral loads , such as wind or seismic loads , to the foundations. However , in contrast to vertical load , lateral load effects on buildings are not linear and increase rapidly with increase in height . For example under wind load , the overturning moment at the base of buildings varies approximately as the square of a buildings may vary as the fourth power of buildings height , other things being equal.Earthquake produces an even more pronounced effect.When the structure for a low-or medium-rise building is designed for dead and live load , it is almost an inherent property that the columns , walls , and stair or elevator shafts can carry most of the horizontal forces . The problem is primarily shear resistance . Moderate addition bracing for rigid frames in“short”buildings can easily be provided by filling certain panels ( or even all panels ) without increasing the sizes of the columns and girders otherwise required for vertical loads.Unfortunately , this is not is for high-rise buildings because the problem is primarily resistance to moment and deflection rather than shear alone . Special structural arrangements will often have to be made and additional structural material is always required for the columns , girders , walls , and slabs in order to made a high-rise buildings sufficiently resistant to much higher lateral deformations .As previously mentioned , the quantity of structural material required per square foot of floor of a high-rise buildings is in excess of that required for low-rise buildings . The vertical components carrying the gravity load , such as walls , columns , and shafts , will need to be strengthened over the full height of the buildings . But quantity of material required for resisting lateral forces is even more significant .With reinforced concrete , the quantity of material also increases as the number of stories increases . But here it should be noted that the increase in the weight of material added for gravity load is much more sizable than steel , whereas for wind load the increase for lateral force resistance is not that much more since the weight of a concrete buildings helps to resist overturn . On the other hand , the problem of design for earthquake forces . Additional mass in the upper floors will give rise to a greater overall lateral force under the of seismic effects .In the case of either concrete or steel design , there are certain basic principles for providing additional resistance to lateral to lateral forces and deflections in high-rise buildings without too much sacrifire ineconomy .1、Increase the effective width of the moment-resisting subsystems . This is very useful because increasing the width will cut down the overturn force directly and will reduce deflection by the third power of the width increase , other things remaining cinstant . However , this does require that vertical components of the widened subsystem be suitably connected to actually gain this benefit.2、Design subsystems such that the components are made to interact in the most efficient manner . For example , use truss systems with chords and diagonals efficiently stressed , place reinforcing for walls at critical locations , and optimize stiffness ratios for rigid frames .3、Increase the material in the most effective resisting components . For example , materials added in the lower floors to the flanges of columns and connecting girders will directly decrease the overall deflection and increase the moment resistance without contributing mass in the upper floors where the earthquake problem is aggravated .4、Arrange to have the greater part of vertical loads be carried directly on the primary moment-resisting components . This will help stabilize the buildings against tensile overturning forces by precompressing the major overturn-resisting components .5、The local shear in each story can be best resisted by strategic placement if solid walls or the use of diagonal members in a vertical subsystem . Resisting these shears solely by vertical members in bending is usually less economical , since achieving sufficient bending resistance in the columns and connecting girders will require more material and construction energy than using walls or diagonal members .6、Sufficient horizontal diaphragm action should be provided floor . This will help to bring the various resisting elements to work together instead of separately .7、Create mega-frames by joining large vertical and horizontal components such as two or more elevator shafts at multistory intervalswith a heavy floor subsystems , or by use of very deep girder trusses .Remember that all high-rise buildings are essentially vertical cantilevers which are supported at the ground . When the above principles are judiciously applied , structurally desirable schemes can be obtained by walls , cores , rigid frames, tubular construction , and other vertical subsystems to achieve horizontal strength and rigidity . Some of these applications will now be described in subsequent sections in the following .Shear-Wall SystemsWhen shear walls are compatible with other functional requirements , they can be economically utilized to resist lateral forces in high-rise buildings . For example , apartment buildings naturally require many separation walls . When some of these are designed to be solid , they can act as shear walls to resist lateral forces and to carry the vertical load as well . For buildings up to some 20storise , the use of shear walls is common . If given sufficient length ,such walls can economically resist lateral forces up to 30 to 40 stories or more .However , shear walls can resist lateral load only the plane of the walls ( i.e.not in a diretion perpendicular to them ) . Therefore ,it is always necessary to provide shear walls in two perpendicular directions can be at least in sufficient orientation so that lateral force in any direction can be resisted . In addition , that wall layout should reflect consideration of any torsional effect .In design progress , two or more shear walls can be connected to from L-shaped or channel-shaped subsystems . Indeed , internal shear walls can be connected to from a rectangular shaft that will resist lateral forces very efficiently . If all external shear walls are continuously connected , then the whole buildings acts as a tube , and is excellent Shear-Wall Systems resisting lateral loads and torsion .Whereas concrete shear walls are generally of solid type withopenings when necessary , steel shear walls are usually made of trusses . These trusses can have single diagonals , “X”diagonals , or“K”arrangements . A trussed wall will have its members act essentially in direct tension or compression under the action of view , and they offer some opportunity and deflection-limitation point of view , and they offer some opportunity for penetration between members . Of course , the inclined members of trusses must be suitable placed so as not to interfere with requirements for windows and for circulation service penetrations though these walls .As stated above , the walls of elevator , staircase ,and utility shafts form natural tubes and are commonly employed to resist both vertical and lateral forces . Since these shafts are normally rectangular or circular in cross-section , they can offer an efficient means for resisting moments and shear in all directions due to tube structural action . But a problem in the design of these shafts is provided sufficient strength around door openings and other penetrations through these elements . For reinforced concrete construction , special steel reinforcements are placed around such opening .In steel construction , heavier and more rigid connections are required to resist racking at the openings .In many high-rise buildings , a combination of walls and shafts can offer excellent resistance to lateral forces when they are suitably located ant connected to one another . It is also desirable that the stiffness offered these subsystems be more-or-less symmertrical in all directions .Rigid-Frame SystemsIn the design of architectural buildings , rigid-frame systems for resisting vertical and lateral loads have long been accepted as an important and standard means for designing building . They are employed for low-and medium means for designing buildings . They are employed for low- and medium up to high-rise building perhaps 70 or 100 stories high . When compared to shear-wall systems , these rigid frames bothwithin and at the outside of a buildings . They also make use of the stiffness in beams and columns that are required for the buildings in any case , but the columns are made stronger when rigidly connected to resist the lateral as well as vertical forces though frame bending .Frequently , rigid frames will not be as stiff as shear-wall construction , and therefore may produce excessive deflections for the more slender high-rise buildings designs . But because of this flexibility , they are often considered as being more ductile and thus less susceptible to catastrophic earthquake failure when compared with ( some ) shear-wall designs . For example , if over stressing occurs at certain portions of a steel rigid frame ( i.e.,near the joint ) , ductility will allow the structure as a whole to deflect a little more , but it will by no means collapse even under a much larger force than expected on the structure . For this reason , rigid-frame construction is considered by some to be a “best”seismic-resisting type for high-rise steel buildings . On the other hand ,it is also unlikely that a well-designed share-wall system would collapse.In the case of concrete rigid frames ,there is a divergence of opinion . It true that if a concrete rigid frame is designed in the conventional manner , without special care to produce higher ductility , it will not be able to withstand a catastrophic earthquake that can produce forces several times lerger than the code design earthquake forces .Therefore , some believe that it may not have additional capacity possessed by steel rigid frames . But modern research and experience has indicated that concrete frames can be designed to be ductile , when sufficient stirrups and joinery reinforcement are designed in to the frame . Modern buildings codes have specifications for the so-called ductile concrete frames . However , at present , these codes often require excessive reinforcement at certain points in the frame so as to cause congestion and result in construction difficulties 。
高层建筑与钢结构外文翻译文献
高层建筑与钢结构外文翻译文献(文档含中英文对照即英文原文和中文翻译)Talling building and Steel constructionAlthough there have been many advancements in building construction technology in general. Spectacular archievements have been made in the design and construction ofultrahigh-rise buildings.The early development of high-rise buildings began with structural steel fraing.Reinforced concrete and stressed-skin tube systems have since been economically and competitively used in a number of structures for both residential and commercial purposes.The high-rise buildings ranging from 50 to 110 stories that are being built all over the United States are the result of innovations and development of new structual systems.Greater height entails increased column and beam sizes to make buildings more rigid so that under wind load they will not sway beyond an acceptable limit.Excessive lateral sway may cause serious recurring damage to partitions,ceilings.and other architectural details. Inaddition,excessive sway may cause discomfort to the occupants of the building because theirperception of such motion.Structural systems of reinforced concrete,as well as steel,take full advantage of inherent potential stiffness of the total building and therefore require additional stiffening to limit the sway.In a steel structure,for example,the economy can be defined in terms of the total average quantity of steel per square foot of floor area of the building.Curve A in Fig .1 represents the average unit weight of a conventional frame with increasing numbers of stories. Curve B represents the average steel weight if the frame is protected from all lateral loads. The gap between the upper boundary and the lower boundary represents the premium for height for the traditional column-and-beam frame.Structural engineers have developed structural systems with a view to eliminating this premium.Systems in steel. Tall buildings in steel developed as a result of several types of structural innovations. The innovations have been applied to the construction of both office and apartment buildings.Frame with rigid belt trusses. In order to tie the exterior columns of a frame structure to the interior vertical trusses,a system of rigid belt trusses at mid-height and at the top of the building may be used. A good example of this system is the First Wisconsin Bank Building(1974) in Milwaukee.Framed tube. The maximum efficiency of the total structure of a tall building, for both strength and stiffness,to resist wind load can be achieved only if all column element can be connected to each other in such a way that the entire building acts as a hollow tube or rigid box in projecting out of the ground. This particular structural system was probably used for the first time in the 43-story reinforced concrete DeWitt Chestnut Apartment Building in Chicago. The most significant use of this system is in the twin structural steel towers of the 110-story World Trade Center building in New YorkColumn-diagonal truss tube. The exterior columns of a building can be spaced reasonably far apart and yet be made to work together as a tube by connecting them with diagonal members interesting at the centre line of the columns and beams. This simple yet extremely efficient system was used for the first time on the John Hancock Centre in Chicago, using as much steel as is normally needed for a traditional 40-story building.Bundled tube. With the continuing need for larger and taller buildings, the framed tube or the column-diagonal truss tube may be used in a bundled form to create larger tube envelopes while maintaining high efficiency. The 110-story Sears Roebuck Headquarters Building in Chicago has nine tube, bundled at the base of the building in three rows. Some of these individual tubes terminate at different heights of the building, demonstrating the unlimited architectural possibilities of this latest structural concept. The Sears tower, at a height of 1450 ft(442m), is the world’s tallest building.Stressed-skin tube system. The tube structural system was developed for improving the resistance to lateral forces (wind and earthquake) and the control of drift (lateral building movement ) in high-rise building. The stressed-skin tube takes the tube system a step further. The development of the stressed-skin tube utilizes the façade of the building as a structural element which acts with the framed tube, thus providing an efficient way of resisting lateral loads inhigh-rise buildings, and resulting in cost-effective column-free interior space with a high ratio of net to gross floor area.Because of the contribution of the stressed-skin façade, the framed members of the tube require less mass, and are thus lighter and less expensive. All the typical columns and spandrel beams are standard rolled shapes,minimizing the use and cost of special built-up members. The depth requirement for the perimeter spandrel beams is also reduced, and the need for upset beams above floors, which would encroach on valuable space, is minimized. The structural system has been used on the 54-story One Mellon Bank Center in Pittburgh.Systems in concrete. While tall buildings constructed of steel had an early start, development of tall buildings of reinforced concrete progressed at a fast enough rate to provide a competitive chanllenge to structural steel systems for both office and apartment buildings.Framed tube. As discussed above, the first framed tube concept for tall buildings was used for the 43-story DeWitt Chestnut Apartment Building. In this building ,exterior columns were spaced at 5.5ft (1.68m) centers, and interior columns were used as needed to support the 8-in .-thick (20-m) flat-plate concrete slabs.Tube in tube. Another system in reinforced concrete for office buildings combines the traditional shear wall construction with an exterior framed tube. The system consists of an outer framed tube of very closely spaced columns and an interior rigid shear wall tube enclosing thecentral service area. The system (Fig .2), known as the tube-in-tube system , made it possible to design the world’s present tall est (714ft or 218m)lightweight concrete building ( the 52-story One Shell Plaza Building in Houston) for the unit price of a traditional shear wall structure of only 35 stories.Systems combining both concrete and steel have also been developed, an examle of which is the composite system developed by skidmore, Owings &Merril in which an exterior closely spaced framed tube in concrete envelops an interior steel framing, thereby combining the advantages of both reinforced concrete and structural steel systems. The 52-story One Shell Square Building in New Orleans is based on this system.Steel construction refers to a broad range of building construction in which steel plays the leading role. Most steel construction consists of large-scale buildings or engineering works, with the steel generally in the form of beams, girders, bars, plates, and other members shaped through the hot-rolled process. Despite the increased use of other materials, steel construction remained a major outlet for the steel industries of the U.S, U.K, U.S.S.R, Japan, West German, France, and other steel producers in the 1970s.Early history. The history of steel construction begins paradoxically several decades before the introduction of the Bessemer and the Siemens-Martin (openj-hearth) processes made it possible to produce steel in quantities sufficient for structure use. Many of problems of steel construction were studied earlier in connection with iron construction, which began with the Coalbrookdale Bridge, built in cast iron over the Severn River in England in 1777. This and subsequent iron bridge work, in addition to the construction of steam boilers and iron ship hulls , spurred the development of techniques for fabricating, designing, and jioning. The advantages of iron over masonry lay in the much smaller amounts of material required. The truss form, based on the resistance of the triangle to deformation, long used in timber, was translated effectively into iron, with cast iron being used for compression members-i.e, those bearing the weight of direct loading-and wrought iron being used for tension members-i.e, those bearing the pull of suspended loading.The technique for passing iron, heated to the plastic state, between rolls to form flat and rounded bars, was developed as early as 1800;by 1819 angle irons were rolled; and in 1849 the first I beams, 17.7 feet (5.4m) long , were fabricated as roof girders for a Paris railroad station.Two years later Joseph Paxton of England built the Crystal Palace for the London Exposition of 1851. He is said to have conceived the idea of cage construction-using relatively slender iron beams as a skeleton for the glass walls of a large, open structure. Resistance to wind forces in the Crystal palace was provided by diagonal iron rods. Two feature are particularly important in the history of metal construction; first, the use of latticed girder, which are small trusses, a form first developed in timber bridges and other structures and translated into metal by Paxton ; and second, the joining of wrought-iron tension members and cast-iron compression members by means of rivets inserted while hot.In 1853 the first metal floor beams were rolled for the Cooper Union Building in New York. In the light of the principal market demand for iron beams at the time, it is not surprising that the Cooper Union beams closely resembled railroad rails.The development of the Bessemer and Siemens-Martin processes in the 1850s and 1860s suddenly open the way to the use of steel for structural purpose. Stronger than iron in both tension and compression ,the newly available metal was seized on by imaginative engineers, notably by those involved in building the great number of heavy railroad bridges then in demand in Britain, Europe, and the U.S.A notable example was the Eads Bridge, also known as the St. Louis Bridge, in St. Louis (1867-1874), in which tubular steel ribs were used to form arches with a span of more than 500ft (152.5m). In Britain, the Firth of Forth cantilever bridge (1883-90) employed tubular struts, some 12 ft (3.66m) in diameter and 350 ft (107m) long. Such bridges and other structures were important in leading to the development and enforcement of standards and codification of permissible design stresses. The lack of adequate theoretical knowledge, and even of an adequate basis for theoretical studies, limited the value of stress analysis during the early years of the 20th century,as iccasionally failures,such as that of a cantilever bridge in Quebec in 1907,revealed.But failures were rare in the metal-skeleton office buildings;the simplicity of their design proved highly practical even in the absence of sophisticated analysis techniques. Throughout the first third of the century, ordinary carbon steel, without any special alloy strengthening or hardening, was universally used.The possibilities inherent in metal construction for high-rise building was demonstrated to the world by the Paris Exposition of 1889.for which Alexandre-Gustave Eiffel, a leading Frenchbridge engineer, erected an openwork metal tower 300m (984 ft) high. Not only was theheight-more than double that of the Great Pyramid-remarkable, but the speed of erection and low cost were even more so, a small crew completed the work in a few months.The first skyscrapers. Meantime, in the United States another important development was taking place. In 1884-85 Maj. William Le Baron Jenney, a Chicago engineer , had designed the Home Insurance Building, ten stories high, with a metal skeleton. Jenney’s beams were of Bessemer steel, though his columns were cast iron. Cast iron lintels supporting masonry over window openings were, in turn, supported on the cast iron columns. Soild masonry court and party walls provided lateral support against wind loading. Within a decade the same type of construction had been used in more than 30 office buildings in Chicago and New York. Steel played a larger and larger role in these , with riveted connections for beams and columns, sometimes strengthened for wind bracing by overlaying gusset plates at the junction of vertical and horizontal members. Light masonry curtain walls, supported at each floor level, replaced the old heavy masonry curtain walls, supported at each floor level , replaced the old heavy masonry.Though the new construction form was to remain centred almost entirely in America for several decade, its impact on the steel industry was worldwide. By the last years of the 19th century, the basic structural shapes-I beams up to 20 in. ( 0.508m) in depth and Z and T shapes of lesser proportions were readily available, to combine with plates of several widths and thicknesses to make efficient members of any required size and strength. In 1885 the heaviest structural shape produced through hot-rolling weighed less than 100 pounds (45 kilograms) per foot; decade by decade this figure rose until in the 1960s it exceeded 700 pounds (320 kilograms) per foot.Coincident with the introduction of structural steel came the introduction of the Otis electric elevator in 1889. The demonstration of a safe passenger elevator, together with that of a safe and economical steel construction method, sent building heights soaring. In New York the 286-ft (87.2-m) Flatiron Building of 1902 was surpassed in 1904 by the 375-ft (115-m) Times Building ( renamed the Allied Chemical Building) , the 468-ft (143-m) City Investing Company Building in Wall Street, the 612-ft (187-m) Singer Building (1908), the 700-ft (214-m) Metropolitan Tower (1909) and, in 1913, the 780-ft (232-m) Woolworth Building.The rapid increase in height and the height-to-width ratio brought problems. To limit street congestion, building setback design was prescribed. On the technical side, the problem of lateralsupport was studied. A diagonal bracing system, such as that used in the Eiffel Tower, was not architecturally desirable in offices relying on sunlight for illumination. The answer was found in greater reliance on the bending resistance of certain individual beams and columns strategically designed into the skeletn frame, together with a high degree of rigidity sought at the junction of the beams and columns. With today’s modern interior lighting systems, however, diagonal bracing against wind loads has returned; one notable example is the John Hancock Center in Chicago, where the external X-braces form a dramatic part of the structure’s façade.World War I brought an interruption to the boom in what had come to be called skyscrapers (the origin of the word is uncertain), but in the 1920s New York saw a resumption of the height race, culminating in the Emp ire State Building in the 1931. The Empire State’s 102 stories(1,250ft. [381m]) were to keep it established as the hightest building in the world for the next 40 years. Its speed of the erection demonstrated how thoroughly the new construction technique had been mastered. A depot across the bay at Bayonne, N.J., supplied the girders by lighter and truck on a schedule operated with millitary precision; nine derricks powerde by electric hoists lifted the girders to position; an industrial-railway setup moved steel and other material on each floor. Initial connections were made by bolting , closely followed by riveting, followed by masonry and finishing. The entire job was completed in one year and 45 days.The worldwide depression of the 1930s and World War II provided another interruption to steel construction development, but at the same time the introduction of welding to replace riveting provided an important advance.Joining of steel parts by metal are welding had been successfully achieved by the end of the 19th century and was used in emergency ship repairs during World War I, but its application to construction was limited until after World War II. Another advance in the same area had been the introduction of high-strength bolts to replace rivets in field connections.Since the close of World War II, research in Europe, the U.S., and Japan has greatly extended knowledge of the behavior of different types of structural steel under varying stresses, including those exceeding the yield point, making possible more refined and systematic analysis. This in turn has led to the adoption of more liberal design codes in most countries, more imaginative design made possible by so-called plastic design ?The introduction of the computer by short-cutting tedious paperwork, made further advances and savings possible.高层结构与钢结构近年来，尽管一般的建筑结构设计取得了很大的进步，但是取得显著成绩的还要属超高层建筑结构设计。
高层结构与钢结构 土木工程毕业设计外文翻译
高层结构与钢结构土木工程毕业设计外文翻译High-rise Structure and Steel StructureAbstract:High-rise structures, with their advantages of saving space, optimizing land use, and improving urban landscape, have become a focus of architectural design. Steel structures for high-rise buildings have gradually replaced reinforced concrete structures due to their superior performance. This paper introduces the development and advantages of high-rise buildings and steel structures, discusses the design principles and construction technologies of steel structures for high-rise buildings, and presents examples of steel structure high-rise buildings both domestically and abroad. Through analysis and comparison, the advantages of steel structures for high-rise buildings are summarized, and suggestions for the future development of steel structures in high-rise buildings are proposed.Keywords: high-rise structure; steel structure; design principles; construction technologyIntroductionIn China's urbanization process, the construction of high-rise buildings has become a major trend. High-rise buildings, with their advantages of saving space, optimizing land use, and improving urban landscape, have become a focus of architectural design. Steel structures for high-rise buildings have gradually replaced reinforced concrete structures due to their superior performance. In this paper, the development and advantages of high-rise buildings and steel structures for high-rise buildings are introduced. The design principles and construction technologies of steel structures for high-rise buildings are discussed, and examples of steel structure high-rise buildings both domestically and abroad are presented. Through analysis and comparison, the advantages of steel structures for high-rise buildings are summarized, and suggestions for the future development of steel structures in high-rise buildings are proposed.Development and advantages of high-rise buildingsHigh-rise buildings are defined as buildings with more than nine floors, or buildings with a height of more than 30 meters. With the development of society, the demand for high-rise buildings has increased significantly. High-rise buildings have many advantages:1. Save land and resources. Due to the high density of the population in cities, land resources are limited. High-rise buildings save land resources while meeting the needs of people's living and working.2. Improve the urban landscape. High-rise buildings have a strong visual impact and can improve the image and style of a city.3. Enhance the effectiveness of urban transportation. High-rise buildings located near urban transportation hubs can solve the problem of commuting for a large number of people.4. Provide a sense of security. People above the ground floor have a better sense of security than those on a lower floor. High-rise buildings can serve as disaster shelters in case of natural disasters such as earthquakes, typhoons, and floods.Development and advantages of steel structures for high-rise buildingsSteel structures have become the mainstream structure for high-rise buildings due to their superior performance:1. High strength and good seismic performance. The strength and elastic modulus of steel are high, and steel structures can withstand large deformations under earthquake loads.2. Light weight and good durability. Steel structures have a low self-weight and are not susceptible to corrosion or aging.3. Construction speed and environmental protection. Steel structures are prefabricated in a factory and assembled on-site, which greatly reduces construction time and damage to the environment.Design principles of steel structures for high-rise buildingsThe design of steel structures for high-rise buildings should follow the following principles:1. Optimize the structural system. The structural system should be selected according to the characteristics of the building, and the structural layout should be optimized to reduce the structural weight and improve the stability and integrity of the structure.2. Consider the load conditions. The maximum load conditions of the building should be analyzed, and the structural elements should be designed to withstand the maximum load.3. Ensure the safety of the structure. The design should ensure the safety of the structure during construction, use, and maintenance.4. Ensure the comfort of the building. The spatial layout and structural form should be designed to ensure the comfort of the building.Construction technology of steel structures for high-rise buildingsThe construction technology of steel structures for high-rise buildings includes:1. Prefabrication technology. Steel structures are prefabricated in a factory and assembled on-site, greatly reducing construction time and improving construction efficiency.2. Modular construction technology. The modular construction technology can improve the accuracy of fabrication and reduce the difficulty of installation.3. External stress technology. The external stress technology can improve the load-carrying capacity of steel structures and reduce the deformation of the structure.Examples of steel structure high-rise buildings both domestically and abroadThere are many examples of steel structure high-rise buildings both domestically and abroad. The following are three typical examples:1. Shanghai Tower. The Shanghai Tower is a 632-meter-high steel structure building located in Lujiazui, Shanghai. It is the tallest building in China and the second-tallest building in the world.2. The Shard. The Shard is a 310-meter-high steel structure building located in London, England. It is the tallest building in the UK.3. One Bryant Park. One Bryant Park is a 366-meter-high steel structure building located in New York, USA. It is the first LEED Platinum-certified building in the US.Advantages and suggestions for the future development of steel structures for high-rise buildingsSteel structures for high-rise buildings have many advantages, including high strength, good seismic performance, light weight, good durability, construction speed, and environmental protection. However, there are still some problems that need to be solved in the future development of steel structures for high-rise buildings:1. Improve design and calculation methods for steel structures.2. Improve the connection technology of steel structures.3. Develop new types of structural systems for steel structures.4. Improve the comprehensive performance of steel structures.ConclusionHigh-rise buildings are a major trend in China's urbanization process. Steel structures for high-rise buildings have gradually replaced reinforced concrete structures due to their superior performance. The design principles and construction technologies of steel structures for high-rise buildings have been discussed, and examples of steel structure high-rise buildings both domestically and abroad have been presented. Through analysis and comparison, the advantages of steel structures for high-rise buildings have been summarized, and suggestions for the future development of steel structures in high-rise buildings have been proposed.。
土木外文翻译---高层建筑与钢结构
毕业设计外文资料翻译原文题目：Talling building and Steel construction译文题目：高层建筑与钢结构院系名称：土木建筑学院专业班级：土木工程0806班学生姓名：学号：指导教师：教师职称：副教授附件： 1.外文资料翻译译文；2.外文原文。
附件1：外文资料翻译译文高层建筑与钢结构摘要：近年来，尽管一般的建筑结构设计取得了很大的进步，但是取得显著成绩的还要属超高层建筑结构设计。
最初的高层建筑设计是从钢结构的设计开始的。
钢筋混凝土和受力外包钢筒系统运用起来是比较经济的系统，被有效地运用于大批的民用建筑和商业建筑中。
50层到100层的建筑被定义为超高层建筑。
而这种建筑在美国得到广泛的应用是由于新的结构系统的发展和创新。
关键词：高层建筑，结构设计，钢结构，发展创新，结构体系这样的高度需要增大柱和梁的尺寸，这样以来可以使建筑物更加坚固以至于在允许的限度范围内承受风荷载而不产生弯曲和倾斜。
过分的倾斜会导致建筑的隔离构件、顶棚以及其他建筑细部产生循环破坏。
除此之外，过大的摇动也会使建筑的使用者们因感觉到这样的的晃动而产生不舒服的感觉。
无论是钢筋混凝土结构系统还是钢结构系统都充分利用了整个建筑的刚度潜力，因此不能指望利用多余的刚度来限制侧向位移。
在钢结构系统设计中，经济预算是根据每平方英寸地板面积上的钢材的数量确定的。
钢结构中的体系：钢结构的高层建筑的发展是几种结构体系创新的结果。
这些创新的结构已经被广泛地应用于办公大楼和公寓建筑中。
刚性带式桁架的框架结构：为了联系框架结构的外柱和内部带式桁架，可以在建筑物的中间和顶部设置刚性带式桁架。
1974年在米望基建造的威斯康森银行大楼就是一个很好的例子。
框架筒结构：如果所有的构件都用某种方式互相联系在一起，整个建筑就像是从地面发射出的一个空心筒体或是一个刚性盒子一样。
这个时候此高层建筑的整个结构抵抗风荷载的所有强度和刚度将达到最大的效率。
这种特殊的结构体系首次被芝加哥的43层钢筋混凝土的德威特红棕色的公寓大楼所采用。
外文翻译---高层建筑及结构设计
外文翻译---高层建筑及结构设计High-rise XXX to define。
Generally。
a low-rise building is considered to be een 1 to 2 stories。
while a medium-rise building ranges from 3 or 4 stories up to 10 or 20 stories or more。
While the basic principles of vertical and horizontal subsystem design remain the same for low-。
medium-。
or high-rise buildings。
the vertical subsystems XXX high-XXX requiring larger columns。
walls。
XXX。
XXX.The design of high-rise buildings must take into account the unique XXX by their height and the need to withstand lateral forces such as wind and earthquakes。
One important aspect of high-rise design is the framework shear system。
XXX。
braced frames。
or XXX the appropriate system depends on the specific building characteristics and the seismicity of the n in which it is located.Another key n in high-rise design is the seismic system。
外文翻译---高层结构与钢结构
英文译文T alling building and Steel constructionAlthough there have been many advancements in building construction technology in general. Spectacular archievements have been made in the design and construction of ultrahigh-rise buildings.The early development of high-rise buildings began with structural steel framing.Reinforced concrete and stressed-skin tube systems have since been economically and competitively used in a number of structures for both residential and commercial purposes.The high-rise buildings ranging from 50 to 110 stories that are being built all over the United States are the result of innovations and development of new structual systems.Gr eater height entails increased column and beam sizes to make buildings more rigid so that under wind load they will not sway beyond an acceptable limit.Excessive lateral sway may cause serious recurring damage to partitions,ceilings.and other architectural details. In addition,excessive sway may cause discomfort to the occupants of the building because their perception of such motion.Structural systems of reinforced concrete,as well as steel,take full advantage of inherent potential stiffness of the total building and therefore require additional stiffening to limit the sway.In a steel structure,forexample,the economy can be defined in terms of the total average quantity of steel per square foot of floor area of the building.Curve A in Fig .1 represents the average unit weight of a conventional frame with increasing numbers of stories. Curve B represents the average steel weight if the frame is protected from all lateral loads. The gap between the upper boundary and the lower boundary represents the premium for height for the traditional column-and-beamframe.Structuralengineers have developed structural systems with a view to eliminating this premium.Systems in steel. Tall buildings in steel developed as a result of several types of structural innovations. The innovations have been applied to the construction of both office and apartment buildings.Frame with rigid belt trusses. In order to tie the exterior columns of a frame structure to the interior vertical trusses,a system of rigid belt trusses at mid-height and at the top of the building may be used. A good example of this system is the FirstWisconsinBankBuilding(1974) in Milwaukee.Framed tube. The maximum efficiency of the total structure of a tall building, for both strength and stiffness,to resist wind load can be achieved only if all column element can be connected to each other in such a way that the entire building acts as a hollow tube or rigid box in projecting out of the ground. This particular structural system was probably used for the first time in the 43-story reinforced concrete DeWitt Chestnut Apartment Building in Chicago. The most significant use of this system is in the twin structural steel towers of the 110-story WorldTradeCenter building in New YorkColumn-diagonal truss tube. The exterior columns of a building can be spaced reasonably far apart and yet be made to work together as a tube by connecting them with diagonal members interesting at the centre line of the columns and beams. This simple yet extremely efficient system was used for the first time on the John Hancock Centre in Chicago, using as much steel as is normally needed for a traditional 40-story building.Bundled tube. With the continuing need for larger and taller buildings, the framed tube or the column-diagonal truss tube may be used in a bundled form to create larger tube envelopes while maintaining high efficiency. The 110-story SearsRoebuckHeadquartersBuilding in Chicago has nine tube, bundled at the base of the building in three rows. Some of these individual tubes terminate at different heights of the building, demonstrating the unlimited architectural possibilities of thislatest structural concept. The Sears tower, at a height of 1450 ft(442m), is the world’s tallest building.Stressed-skin tube system. The tube structural system was developed for improving the resistance to lateral forces (wind and earthquake) and the control of drift (lateral building movement ) in high-rise building. The stressed-skin tube takes the tube system a step further. The development of the stressed-skin tube utilizes the fa?ade of the building as a structural element which acts with the framed tube, thus providing an efficient way of resisting lateral loads in high-rise buildings, and resulting in cost-effective column-free interior space with a high ratio of net to gross floor area.Because of the contribution of the stressed-skin fa?ade, the framed members of the tube require less mass, and are thus lighter and less expensive. All the typical columns and spandrel beams are standard rolled shapes,minimizing the use and cost of special built-up members. The depth requirement for the perimeter spandrel beams is also reduced, and the need for upset beams above floors, which would encroach on valuable space, is minimized. The structural system has been used on the 54-story OneMellonBankCenter in Pittburgh.Systems in concrete.While tall buildings constructed of steel had an early start, development of tall buildings of reinforced concrete progressed at a fast enough rate to provide a competitive chanllenge to structural steel systems for both office and apartment buildings.Framed tube. As discussed above, the first framed tube concept for tall buildings was used for the 43-story DeWitt Chestnut Apartment Building. In this building ,exterior columns were spaced at 5.5ft (1.68m) centers, and interior columns were used as needed to support the 8-in . -thick (20-m) flat-plate concrete slabs.Tube in tube. Another system in reinforced concrete for office buildings combines the traditional shear wall construction with an exterior framed tube. The system consists of an outer framed tube of very closely spaced columns and an interior rigid shear wall tube enclosing the central service area. The system (Fig .2),known as the tube-in-tube system , made it possible to design the world’s present tallest (714ft or 218m)lightweight concrete building ( the 52-story One Shell Plaza Building in Houston) for the unit price of a traditional shear wall structure of only 35 stories.Systems co m bining both concrete and steel have also been developed, an examle of which is the composite system developed by skidmore, Owings &Merril in which an exterior closely spaced framed tube in concrete envelops an interior steel framing, thereby combining the advantages of both reinforced concrete and structural steel systems. The 52-story OneShellSquareBuilding in New Orleans is based on this system.Steel construction refers to a broad range of building construction in which steel plays the leading role. Most steel construction consists of large-scale buildings or engineering works, with the steel generally in the form of beams, girders, bars, plates, and other members shaped through the hot-rolled process. Despite the increased use of other materials, steel construction remained a major outlet for the steel industries of the U.S, U.K, U.S.S.R, Japan, West German, France, and other steel producers in the 1970s.Early history. The history of steel construction begins paradoxically several decades before the introduction of the Bessemer and the Siemens-Martin (openj-hearth) processes made it possible to produce steel in quantities sufficient for structure use. Many of problems of steel construction were studied earlier in connection with iron construction, which began with the CoalbrookdaleBridge, built in cast iron over the Severn River in England in 1777. This and subsequent iron bridge work, in addition to the construction of steam boilers and iron ship hulls , spurred the development of techniques for fabricating, designing, and jioning. The advantages of iron over masonry lay in the much smaller amounts of material required. The truss form, based on the resistance of the triangle to deformation, long used in timber, was translated effectively into iron, with cast iron being used for compression members-i.e, those bearing the weight of direct loading-and wrought iron being usedfor tension members-i.e, those bearing the pull of suspended loading.The technique for passing iron, heated to the plastic state, between rolls to form flat and rounded bars, was developed as early as 1800;by 1819 angle irons were rolled; and in 1849 the first I beams, 17.7 feet (5.4m) long , were fabricated as roof girders for a Paris railroad station.Two years later Joseph Paxt on of England built the CrystalPalace for the London Exposition of 1851. He is said to have conceived the idea of cage construction-using relatively slender iron beams as a skeleton for the glass walls of a large, open structure. Resistance to wind forces in the Crystal palace was provided by diagonal iron rods. Two feature are particularly important in the history of metal construction; first, the use of latticed girder, which are small trusses, a form first developed in timber bridges and other structures and translated into metal by Paxton ; and second, the joining of wrought-iron tension members and cast-iron compression members by means of rivets inserted while hot.In 1853 the first metal floor beams were rolled for the CooperUnionBuilding in New York. In the light of the principal market demand for iron beams at the time, it is not surprising that the Cooper Union beams closely resembled railroad rails.The development of the Bessemer and Siemens-Martin processes in the 1850s and 1860s suddenly open the way to the use of steel for structural purpose. Stronger than iron in both tension and compression ,the newly available metal was seized on by imaginative engineers, notably by those involved in building the great number of heavy railroad bridges then in demand in Britain, Europe, and the U.S.A notable example was the EadsBridge, also known as the St. LouisBridge, in St. Louis (1867-1874), in which tubular steel ribs were used to form arches with a span of more than 500ft (152.5m). In Britain, the Firth of Forth cantilever bridge (1883-90) employed tubular struts, some 12 ft (3.66m) in diameter and 350 ft (107m) long. Such bridges and other structures were important in leading to the development and enforcement of standards and codification of permissible design stresses. The lack of adequate theoretical knowledge, and even of an adequate basis for theoretical studies,limited the value of stress analysis during the early years of the 20th century,asiccasionallyfailures,such as that of a cantilever bridge in Quebec in 1907,revealed.But failures were rare in the metal-skeleton office buildings;the simplicity of their design proved highly practical even in the absence of sophisticated analysis techniques. Throughout the first third of the century, ordinary carbon steel, without any special alloy strengthening or hardening, was universally used.The possibilities inherent in metal construction for high-rise building was demonstrated to the world by the Paris Exposition of 1889.for which Alexandre-Gustave Eiffel, a leading French bridge engineer, erected an openwork metal tower 300m (984 ft) high. Not only was the height-more than double that of the Great Pyramid-remarkable, but the speed of erection and low cost were even more so, a small crew completed the work in a few months.The first skyscrapers. Meantime, in the United States another important development was taking place. In 1884-85 Maj. William Le Baron Jenney, a Chicagoengineer , had designed the HomeInsuranceBuilding, ten stories high, with a metal skeleton. Jenney’s beams were of Bessemer steel, though his columns were cast iron. Cast iron lintels supporting masonry over window openings were, in turn, supported on the cast iron columns. Soild masonry court and party walls provided lateral support against wind loading. Within a decade the same type of construction had been used in more than 30 office buildings in Chicago and New York. Steel played a larger and larger role in these , with riveted connections for beams and columns, sometimes strengthened for wind bracing by overlaying gusset plates at the junction of vertical and horizontal members. Light masonry curtain walls, supported at each floor level, replaced the old heavy masonry curtain walls, supported at each floor level , replaced the old heavy masonry.Though the new construction form was to remain centred almost entirely in America for several decade, its impact on the steel industry was worldwide. By the last years of the 19th century, the basic structural shapes-I beams up to 20 in. ( 0.508m) in depth and Z and T shapes of lesser proportions were readily available, tocombine with plates of several widths and thicknesses to make efficient members of any required size and strength. In 1885 the heaviest structural shape produced through hot-rolling weighed less than 100 pounds (45 kilograms) per foot; decade by decade this figure rose until in the 1960s it exceeded 700 pounds (320 kilograms) per foot.Coincident with the introduction of structural steel came the introduction of t he Otis electric elevator in 1889. The demonstration of a safe passenger elevator, together with that of a safe and economical steel construction method, sent building heights soaring. In New York the 286-ft (87.2-m) Flatiron Building of 1902 was surpassed in 1904 by the 375-ft (115-m) Times Building ( renamed the Allied Chemical Building) , the 468-ft (143-m) City Investing Company Building in Wall Street, the 612-ft (187-m) Singer Building (1908), the 700-ft (214-m) Metropolitan Tower (1909) and, in 1913, the 780-ft (232-m) Woolworth Building.The rapid increase in height and the height-to-width ratio brought problems. To limit street congestion, building setback design was prescribed. On the technical side, the problem of lateral support was studied. A diagonal bracing system, such as that used in the EiffelTower, was not architecturally desirable in offices relying on sunlight for illumination. The answer was found in greater reliance on the bending resistance of certain individual beams and columns strategically designed into the skeletn frame, together with a high degree of rigidity sought at the junction of the beams and columns. With today’s modern interior lighting systems, however, diagonal bracing against wind loads has returned; one notable example is the John Hancock Center in Chicago, where the external X-braces form a dramatic part of the structure’s fa?ade.World War I brought an interruption to the boom in what had come to be called skyscrapers (the origin of the word is uncertain), but in the 1920s New York saw a resumption of the height race, culminating in the Empire State Building in the 1931. The EmpireState’s 102 stories (1,250ft. [381m]) were to keep it established as the hightest building in the world for the next 40 years. Its speed of the erection demonstrated how thoroughly the new construction technique had been mastered. A depot across the bay at Bayonne, N.J., supplied the girders by lighter and truck on aschedule operated with millitary precision; nine derricks powerde by electric hoists lifted the girders to position; an industrial-railway setup moved steel and other material on each floor. Initial connections were made by bolting , closely followed by riveting, followed by masonry and finishing. The entire job was completed in one year and 45 days.The worldwide depression of the 1930s and World War II provided another interruption to steel construction development, but at the same time the introduction of welding to replace riveting provided an important advance.Joining of steel parts by metal are welding had been successfully achieved by the end of the 19th century and was used in emergency ship repairs during World War I, but its application to construction was limited until after World War II. Another advance in the same area had been the introduction of high-strength bolts to replace rivets in field connections.Since the close of World War II, research in Europe, the U.S., and Japan has greatly extended knowledge of the behavior of different types of structural steel under varying stresses, including those exceeding the yield point, making possible more refined and systematic analysis. This in turn has led to the adoption of more liberal design codes in most countries, more imaginative design made possible by so-called plastic design ?The introduction of the computer by short-cutting tedious paperwork, made further advances and savings possible.高层结构与钢结构近年来，尽管一般的建筑结构设计取得了很大的进步，但是取得显著成绩的还要属超高层建筑结构设计。